APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL REVIEW, 2008, 57 (3), 441–465

doi: 10.1111/j.1464-0597.2008.00328.x

Relationships between Facets of Job Satisfaction

EDWARDS
Original
JOB SATISFACTION
Blackwell
Oxford,
Applied
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0269-994X
XXX Articles
ET Association
International
UK AL. Ltd
Psychology
Publishing AND PERFORMANCE
for Applied Psychology, 2008

and Task and Contextual Performance

Bryan D. Edwards*
Auburn University, USA

Suzanne T. Bell*
DePaul University, USA

Winfred Arthur, Jr.* and Arlette D. Decuir*

Texas A&M University, USA

This study examined the relationship between job satisfaction and task and
contextual performance. Specifically, it assessed this relationship for overall as
well as facets of job satisfaction. Four hundred and forty-four employees
in a manufacturing plant completed measures of job satisfaction and their
supervisors completed measures of task and contextual job performance.
Results indicate that the relationships between overall job satisfaction and
task and contextual performance were the same. However, when the facets of
job satisfaction were considered, different relationships emerged. There was a
stronger relationship between satisfaction with supervision and contextual
performance compared to task performance. In contrast, there was a stronger
relationship between satisfaction with work and task performance compared
to contextual performance. Results indicated the importance of considering
different facets with the job satisfaction and job performance relationship, as
well as the importance of matching predictors and criteria in terms of their
levels of specificity.

* Address for correspondence: Bryan D. Edwards, Department of Psychology, Auburn

University, 226 Thach, Auburn, Alabama 36849, USA. Email: bedwards@auburn.edu; or
Suzanne T. Bell, Department of Psychology, DePaul University, 2219 North Kenmore Avenue,
Chicago, Illinois 60614-3504, USA. Email: sbell11@depaul.edu; or Winfred Arthur, Jr., Department
of Psychology, 4235 TAMU, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-4235, USA.
Email: wea@psyc.tamu.edu. Arlette D. Decuir may be contacted at the same address as
Winfred Arthur, Jr.
This article is based in part on Arlette Decuir’s doctoral dissertation, conducted under the
supervision of Winfred Arthur, Jr. at Texas A&M University. An earlier version of the article
was presented at the 17th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational
Psychology, Toronto, Canada.

© 2008 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2008 International Association of Applied

Psychology. Published by Blackwell Publishing, 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ,
UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA.
442 EDWARDS ET AL.

Cette étude examine la relation entre la satisfaction au travail, la tâche et la

performance en contexte. Plus spécifiquement, cette relation a été évaluée en
envisageant la relation au travail de façon globale ou selon différentes facettes.
La satisfaction au travail a été mesurée auprès de 444 salariés d’une usine de
fabrication, la tâche et la performance en contexte ont été évaluées par leurs
supérieurs. Les résultats indiquent que les relations entre la satisfaction au
travail envisagée de façon globale, la tâche et la performance en contexte sont
les mêmes. Cependant, quand on distingue les facettes de la satisfaction au
travail, des relations différentes émergent. Il y a une relation plus importante
entre la satisfaction envers la supervision et la performance en contexte
qu’entre la satisfaction envers la supervision et la performance. En revanche,
il y a une relation plus forte entre la satisfaction du travail et la performance
qu’entre la satisfaction du travail et la performance en contexte. Les résultats
indiquent l’importance de trouver des indicateurs et des critères qui rendent
compte de ces spécificités.

INTRODUCTION
Job satisfaction is an evaluative judgment about the degree of pleasure an
employee derives from his or her job that consists of both affective and
cognitive components (Hulin & Judge, 2003; Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996).
The relationship between job satisfaction and job performance has fascinated
researchers for decades and several theoretical explanations have been
posited to explain this relationship (Brayfield & Crockett, 1955; Locke,
1976; Schleicher, Watt, & Greguras, 2004; Vroom, 1964). For instance,
social cognitive theories predict that: (a) attitudes toward the job (e.g. job
satisfaction) should influence behaviors on the job (e.g. reflected in job
performance; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975; Eagly & Chaiken, 1993), (b) behaviors
on the job (or the rewards produced by performance) lead to the formation
of attitudes toward the job (e.g. expectancy-based theories; Naylor, Pritchard,
& Ilgen, 1980; Vroom, 1964), and (c) job satisfaction and job performance
are reciprocally related. Although the literature has not reached any definitive
conclusions regarding the causal direction of the satisfaction–performance
relationship, in a review of 221 primary studies that used time-lagged
designs, Harrison, Newman, and Roth (2006) revealed that the evidence
supporting the satisfaction→performance relationship was stronger than the
evidence supporting the performance→satisfaction relationship in terms of
temporal sequencing. In addition, Kraus (1995) meta-analytically examined
the attitude–behavior research and found that attitudes significantly predict
future behavior. Thus, current theory and empirical data seem to provide
stronger support for the notion that job satisfaction causes performance
than for the performance causes satisfaction causal direction.
It is important to study the job satisfaction and job performance relationship
for several reasons (e.g. see Brief, 1998; Cropanzano & Wright, 2001; Judge,
Hanisch, & Drankoski, 1995). For example, satisfaction is important for

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 JOB SATISFACTION AND PERFORMANCE 443
worker health and well-being, and organisations have control over job design
features that influence both satisfaction (e.g. pay, procedural justice) and
performance (e.g. resources, training). As such, organisations have the latitude
to affect both satisfaction and performance, and due to the potential
strength of the relationship (Judge, Thoresen, Bono, & Patton, 2001; Petty,
McGee, & Cavender, 1984), interventions could result in both a healthier
workforce and increased effectiveness.
Despite the intuitive and theoretical appeal of the hypothesised relationship
between job satisfaction and job performance, the empirical support for this
relationship has been mixed. Meta-analyses of the relationship between
job satisfaction and job performance have reported a wide range of results
(i.e. ρ = .14 to .31; Iaffaldano & Muchinsky, 1985; Judge et al., 2001; Petty
et al., 1984) with the most recent meta-analysis (i.e. Judge et al., 2001)
reporting a relatively strong relationship (ρ = .30) between overall job
satisfaction and overall job performance. The divergent results of these
meta-analyses of ostensibly the same content domain have been attributed to
several factors such as differences in judgment calls and decision rules
related to study inclusion criteria, coding of studies, inaccurate corrections
for unreliability, and combining multiple, distinct facets of satisfaction to
define overall satisfaction (Judge et al., 2001).
Another plausible explanation for the variability in reported relationships
between job satisfaction and job performance is the effect of different
conceptualisations and operationalisations of both job satisfaction and job
performance. For example, it has been suggested that the relationship between
job satisfaction and job performance varies depending on whether performance
is defined in terms of task or contextual performance (Organ, 1988).
However, direct comparisons of the relationships between job satisfaction
and task performance and job satisfaction and contextual performance have
been limited (Judge et al., 2001). Although a relatively large number of
empirical studies have assessed the job satisfaction and task performance
relationship, only a few studies have investigated the job satisfaction and
contextual performance relationship. Furthermore, we found only one
study (i.e. Ang, Van Dyne, & Begley, 2003) that considered both aspects of
performance simultaneously. This is notable because the best direct compar-
ison of the relationships between job satisfaction and task and contextual
performance requires a research design that measures all three variables in
the same sample. A direct comparison is important because although meta-
analyses of the relationship between job satisfaction and organisational cit-
izenship behaviors (a construct similar to contextual performance) report
effect sizes similar to the job satisfaction and job performance relationship
reported by Judge et al. (2001), several concerns plague comparisons of
different meta-analyses (e.g. type of corrections, inclusion criteria). Because
of these issues, we considered an empirical examination of the job satisfaction

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444 EDWARDS ET AL.

and task versus contextual performance relationship to be a meaningful

contribution to the extant literature.
Ajzen and Fishbein (1977) and others (e.g. Ajzen, 2005; Bateman &
Organ, 1983; Fisher, 1980) have suggested that the strongest attitude and
behavior relationships are obtained when the constructs are matched by
level of specificity. The strongest attitude–behavior connections are likely to
result from matching specific facet-level satisfaction to specific facets of
performance, thereby enhancing compatibility. Thus, it is important to
study the satisfaction–performance relationship at the facet level because it
is plausible that due to the multidimensional nature of job satisfaction and
job performance, there are differential relationships between facets of job
satisfaction and dimensions of performance. Focusing on the differential
relationships between facet satisfaction and performance is important because
facets could be related to performance in opposing ways, thus masking the
predictive validity in a broad-based measure of overall satisfaction. Therefore,
to match the predictor and criterion on the level of specificity and offer a
more comprehensive test of this relationship, we also examined specific facets
of job satisfaction and performance.
In summary, to better understand the nature of the job satisfaction and
job performance relationship, our objectives were to (a) conduct a direct,
empirical comparison of the magnitude of the relationships between overall
job satisfaction and task and contextual performance, and (b) examine the
satisfaction and performance relationship at the facet level of job satisfac-
tion and performance.

The Relationships between Overall Job Satisfaction and

Task and Contextual Performance
Borman and Motowidlo (1993, 1997) described a two-factor theory of job
performance in which most jobs consist of task and contextual performance.1
Task performance refers to behaviors that are role prescribed, distinguish
one job from another, and contribute to the technical core of the organisation
(Borman & Motowidlo, 1993; Campbell, McCloy, Oppler, & Sager, 1993).
Contextual performance, on the other hand, is described as behaviors that

1
Organisational citizenship behavior (Organ, 1988) is a construct similar in nature to
contextual performance. Although the literatures on both constructs developed independently,
it is now widely accepted that the underlying behaviors, antecedents, and consequences are
virtually indistinguishable (Organ, 1997). Therefore, we draw on both literatures to develop
our hypotheses, but use the label contextual performance to be consistent with the research
by Motowidlo and his colleagues (e.g. Borman & Motowidlo, 1993; Motowidlo & Van
Scotter, 1994).

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 JOB SATISFACTION AND PERFORMANCE 445
support the broader organisational, psychological, and social environment
in which the technical core operates (Borman & Motowidlo, 1993; Motowidlo
& Van Scotter, 1994; Van Scotter & Motowidlo, 1996).
Much of the research on the job satisfaction and job performance
relationship has failed to take the task and contextual performance distinction
into account. However, several researchers have provided a rationale for
why the job satisfaction and contextual performance relationship should
be stronger than the job satisfaction and task performance relationship
(e.g. Bateman & Organ, 1983; Organ & Moorman, 1993; Organ & Ryan,
1995). Specifically, social exchange theory (e.g. Adams, 1965; Blau, 1964)
posits that people strive to balance what they give and receive from social
exchanges. Contextual behaviors are thought to be a means by which an
employee can give back to the organisation, so, if an employee is satisfied
with his or her job, the employee may be more likely to reciprocate by
helping others through their contextual performance. Employees may be less
likely to perform extra duties, endorse, support, or defend the organisation’s
objectives, or engage in other contextual behaviors if they have low levels
of satisfaction with the job. In contrast, the task facets of a job are typically
prescribed. So, whether an employee is satisfied with the job or not, the
memos and letters have to be typed and the classes have to be taught. Thus,
overall job satisfaction should have a stronger relationship with contextual
performance than with task performance.
We are aware of only one study (i.e. Ang et al., 2003) that has conducted
a direct empirical comparison of the job satisfaction and task and contextual
performance relationship. Ang et al. (2003) compared ratings of job satisfaction,
organisational citizenship behaviors, task performance, and justice perceptions
between samples of local and foreign Chinese workers in an organisation in
Singapore. Based on social exchange theory, they hypothesised that foreign
workers would report lower levels of job satisfaction and justice perceptions
because foreign workers are treated differently. Due to the importance of
this relationship to employee well-being and organisational functioning, a
direct empirical examination seems warranted. Consequently, we advanced
the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 1a: There will be a positive relationship between overall job satisfac-
tion and task performance.

Hypothesis 1b: There will be a positive relationship between overall job satisfac-
tion and contextual performance.

Hypothesis 1c : The relationship between overall job satisfaction and contex-

tual performance will be stronger than the relationship between overall job satis-
faction and task performance.

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446 EDWARDS ET AL.

The multidimensionality of job satisfaction has been demonstrated both

conceptually and empirically (e.g. Smith, Kendall, & Hulin, 1969; Kinicki,
McKee-Ryan, Schriesheim, & Carson, 2002). Therefore, within this framework,
it is plausible that the satisfaction and performance (task and contextual)
relationship may vary as a function of the facets of satisfaction. Smith et al.
(1969) proposed that there are different aspects of a job that contribute
differentially to a worker’s overall evaluation of the job. They suggested five
facets that workers are able to discriminate between, and that may differentially
be related to the extent to which a worker is satisfied with the job. These
facets are satisfaction with work, pay, opportunities for promotion, supervision,
and co-workers. A more precise understanding of the satisfaction and
performance relationship can be gained by considering not only the task
and contextual performance distinction but also by considering how different
facets of job satisfaction will be related to these outcomes.
Azjen (2005) suggested that the prediction of behaviors from attitudes
should be strongest when the attitudes and behaviors are compatible, or
matched on levels of specificity. Two indicators are thought to be matched
by level of specificity when they are compatible with one another in terms
of their target, action, context, and time elements (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1977).
The compatibility of the target element of the attitude measure and the
target at which the behavior is directed has been shown to be related to the
magnitude of attitude and behavior relationships (Weigel, Vernon, & Tognacci,
1974). Applying social exchange theory and considering the target of the
attitude and behavior may be particularly relevant to the relationship between
job satisfaction and job performance. The specific basis for the exchange
may determine the magnitude of the relationships between each of the facets
of satisfaction and task and contextual performance. We posit that the
satisfaction and performance relationship will be stronger when the
constructs are matched by level of specificity (Ajzen, 2005) and when the target
of the attitude and behavior are consistent.
There is theoretical reason to believe that each facet of satisfaction may
very well be related to both task and contextual performance. However,
consistent with the extant literature on task and contextual performance
(e.g. Hattrup, O’Connell, & Wingate, 1998; LePine & Van Dyne, 2001;
Motowidlo & Van Scotter, 1994), we posit that the facets of job satisfaction
will have differential relationships with task and contextual performance.
That is, we hypothesised that each facet would be related to task or contextual
performance (but not both). Hypothesised relationships at the facet level are
presented in Figure 1.
The focus of both satisfaction with work and task performance is on
job-related tasks. Indeed, the constructs of satisfaction with work and task
performance overlap both conceptually and in terms of measurement (i.e.
they can be measured using the same behaviors). That is, employees who

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 JOB SATISFACTION AND PERFORMANCE 447

FIGURE 1. Hypothesised relationships between facets of job satisfaction and

the job performance dimensions.

enjoy their work should increase their effort and have improved task
performance (Hackman & Oldham, 1980). In contrast, elements of contextual
performance are not task-based, so the conceptual link between satisfaction
with work and contextual performance is weaker than the link between
satisfaction with work and task performance. Consequently, the relationship
between satisfaction with work and task performance should be stronger than
the relationship between satisfaction with work and contextual performance.
Thus, we hypothesised the following:

Hypothesis 2a: There will be a positive relationship between satisfaction with

work and task performance.

Hypothesis 2b: The relationship between satisfaction with work and task perfor-
mance will be stronger than the relationship between satisfaction with work and
contextual performance.

Organ (1990) argued that the cognitive component of job satisfaction is

defined by employees’ evaluations of fairness, which are derived in part
from comparisons. Specifically, he stated that “one is satisfied to the extent
that outcomes or conditions approximate some conception of ‘what they
might have been’—which in turn may be defined by social comparison

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448 EDWARDS ET AL.

processes, prior experience, or implicit promise” (Organ, 1990, p. 56). Thus,

it is the social comparison processes that represent social exchanges and
influence the relationship between job satisfaction and contextual performance.
Although social exchange theory is the dominant theoretical paradigm in
contextual performance research (see Zellars & Tepper, 2003), we posit that
social exchange theory could also explain the relationship between some
facets of satisfaction and task performance. Specifically, if the target of the
exchange is perceived to be with the organisation, then employees may focus
on their working conditions, pay, and opportunities for promotion. If employees
are satisfied with the fairness of pay and opportunities for promotion, they
may work harder on job-related tasks (i.e. their roles as defined by the
organisation or task performance) as a means of reciprocation.
Similar to satisfaction with work, one’s pay and opportunities for promotion
are often directly tied to task performance because job tasks are role prescribed.
Equity theory (Adams, 1965) suggests that individuals compare their level
of pay or opportunities for promotion to other co-workers to reach a decision
regarding equity or fairness. Perceptions of inequity cause tension, which
motivates the person to reduce the inequity. One approach to reduce the
inequity is for a worker to adjust their level of effort. For instance, equity
theory would predict that employees will decrease effort to reduce inequity
caused by underpayment (Adams, 1965; Lord & Hohenfeld, 1979; Werner
& Mero, 1999). Therefore, there is strong theoretical (e.g. Adams, 1965) and
empirical support (Lord & Hohenfeld, 1979; Werner & Mero, 1999) that
suggests a positive relationship between satisfaction with pay and with
opportunities for promotion and task performance. Although there is
evidence to suggest that pay equity is related to self-reported OCBs (Organ
& Konovsky, 1989), research suggests that employees are more likely to
engage in OCBs when they are intrinsically motivated than when they are
extrinsically motivated (e.g. Chiu & Chen, 2005; Hackman & Oldham, 1980;
Organ, 1990). Pay and opportunities for promotion are extrinsic rewards.
Thus, it is expected that the relationships between satisfaction with pay and
opportunities for promotion and task performance will be stronger than the
relationships between satisfaction with pay and opportunities for promotion
and contextual performance. Specifically, we hypothesised the following:

Hypothesis 3a: There will be a positive relationship between satisfaction with pay
and task performance.

Hypothesis 3b: The relationship between satisfaction with pay and task perfor-
mance will be stronger than the relationship between satisfaction with pay and
contextual performance.

Hypothesis 4a: There will be a positive relationship between satisfaction with

opportunities for promotion and task performance.

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 JOB SATISFACTION AND PERFORMANCE 449
Hypothesis 4b: The relationship between satisfaction with opportunities for
promotion and task performance will be stronger than the relationship between
satisfaction with opportunities for promotion and contextual performance.

If the social exchange is perceived in terms of interpersonal relationships

on the job instead of with the organisation or job itself, then employees may
focus on their relationships with supervisors and co-workers. Contextual
behaviors are thought to be a means by which an employee can reciprocate
in a social relationship at work to sustain a mutually beneficial relationship
with the organisation (e.g. Organ, 1988; Wat & Shaffer, 2005). So, if employees
feel that they are being treated fairly by supervisors and co-workers, they
may be more likely to reciprocate by helping others through their contextual
performance. Conversely, if employees perceive an inequity in their relationships
with supervisors and co-workers, they may choose to withhold contextual
performance behaviors. In support of this argument, although the estimates
were based on only two studies, meta-analytic results by Kinicki et al.
(2002) indicated a larger relationship between satisfaction with supervision
and organisational citizenship behaviors (ρ = .45) compared to the other job
satisfaction dimensions and organisational citizenship behaviors (ρ = .16,
−.23). As another example, Moorman (1991) demonstrated that employees
who perceived that they were treated fairly by their supervisors were
more likely to engage in citizenship behaviors. Leader–member exchange
theory (e.g. Graen & Scandura, 1987) also predicts that the quality of the
supervisor–employee relationship dictates the exchange of resources. Thus,
to the extent that employees are satisfied with their relationships with
supervisors and co-workers, they may reciprocate by engaging in prosocial
behaviors such as helping co-workers and going above and beyond what is
required of the job.
Although the same arguments for perceived fairness and reciprocity may
hold for task performance, it is more likely that satisfaction with super-
vision and co-workers will influence contextual performance. The dimensions
of contextual performance such as sportsmanship, civic virtue, courtesy,
altruism, are defined by one’s interactions with others (e.g. supervisors and
co-workers). As such, there is a stronger conceptual link between the facets
of satisfaction with supervision and co-workers and contextual performance
than with task performance. In addition, employees dissatisfied with super-
visors and co-workers are more likely to withhold contextual performance
behaviors than task-related behaviors which are role-prescribed because
there are sanctions for withholding task performance. Consequently, based
on predictions from social exchange theory, we hypothesised the following:

Hypothesis 5a: There will be a positive relationship between satisfaction with

supervision and contextual performance.

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450 EDWARDS ET AL.

Hypothesis 5b: The relationship between satisfaction with supervision and contextual
performance will be stronger than the relationship between satisfaction with super-
vision and task performance.
Hypothesis 6a: There will be a positive relationship between satisfaction with
co-workers and contextual performance.
Hypothesis 6b: The relationship between satisfaction with co-workers and contextual
performance will be stronger than the relationship between satisfaction with
co-workers and task performance.

METHOD

Participants
The initial sample consisted of 526 employees holding a variety of jobs in a
large manufacturing plant in southeastern Texas in the United States.
Eighty-two of the employees were dropped from the analyses because their
data were incomplete. This resulted in a final study sample size of 444. The
plant population was 603. Thus, the final participation rate for the entire
plant was 74 per cent. There were 290 males, 147 females and seven participants
did not report their sex. The mean age of the participants was 36.2 (SD =
11.4) and the average tenure with the organisation was 6.4 years (SD = 7.9).
Plant employees who did not participate in the study were either participants
in the pilot study, were absent from work, or were otherwise engaged in
work activities that prohibited them from attending the data collection
sessions. Consequently, there is little reason to suspect any meaningful
differences between those who participated and those who did not.
Although we do not have individual-level job title information, examples of
job titles present in the manufacturing plant include framer, forklift operator,
saw operator, builder, foreman, and glass cutter.

Measures
Overall Job Satisfaction. In the present study, we operationalised over-
all job satisfaction using a single-item measure. Single-item measures have
been argued to be acceptable measures of overall job satisfaction (Scarpello
& Campbell, 1983; Wanous & Reichers, 1996; Wanous, Reichers, & Hudy,
1997). Specifically, Scarpello and Campbell (1983) concluded that single-item
measures were preferable to multiple-item scales that summed facets of
satisfaction to obtain an overall satisfaction score. Consequently, our
operationalisation of overall job satisfaction consisted of a single item
(“Overall, how much do you like your job?”). Employees responded
using a 5-point scale (1 = dislike it very much; 5 = like it very much). This

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 JOB SATISFACTION AND PERFORMANCE 451
single-item measure was also used by Ganzach (1998), Gerhart (1987), and
Staw and Ross (1985).

Facet Job Satisfaction. The Job Descriptive Index (JDI; Smith et al.,
1969) was used to measure five facets of satisfaction: (a) work, (b) pay, (c)
opportunities for promotion, (d) supervision, and (e) co-workers. The JDI
contains a list of 72 adjectives and phrases that apply to one of the five
facets of job satisfaction. For example, the pay subscale included items such
as “income adequate for normal expenses” and “income provides luxuries”.
Employees responded to each item on the JDI by marking “Y” (yes), “N”
(no), or “?” (can’t decide).

Task Performance. Task performance was measured using a 5-item

measure adapted from the performance appraisal instrument used by Tubré,
Arthur, and Bennett (2006). This performance appraisal form was modeled
after that used by the United States Department of Labor for the validity
studies of the General Aptitude Test Battery. Supervisors rated employees’
quantity, quality, and accuracy of work, as well as their level of job knowledge
and the breadth of job-related duties they performed effectively. Each item
was responded to on a 5-point scale (1 = inferior task performance; 5 =
superior task performance). The mean of the five items formed the task
performance score.

Contextual Performance. Contextual performance was measured using

a 16-item instrument developed by Motowidlo and Van Scotter (1994) for
their studies designed to distinguish task from contextual performance. For
example, items asked a supervisor to rate how likely an employee is to
“cooperate with others in the team” or “volunteer for additional work”.
Supervisors rated each participant on a 5-point scale (1 = not at all likely;
5 = extremely likely). The mean of the 16 items formed the contextual
performance score.

Design and Procedure

The management of the manufacturing plant was contacted to solicit the
participation of the organisation for the study. Employees were recruited by
management and scheduled to meet with the fourth author in assigned
groups. The research measures were administered at an on-site location to
groups of five to 30 employees. Information concerning the purpose of the
study, the research procedures, and issues pertaining to voluntary participation
and confidentiality were provided both in writing and orally. Next, the
supervisors of participating employees were contacted and given a set of
research measures to complete for each participating employee that they

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452 EDWARDS ET AL.

supervised. Supervisors were asked to rate each of their subordinates’ task

and contextual performance. Supervisors returned the completed measures
to an on-site location. Employee and supervisor participation in this study
was voluntary.

Data Analyses
Confirmatory Factor Analyses of Measurement Models. To assess the fit
of our measurement models and construct validity of the variables, we
conducted two confirmatory factor analyses (CFA), one for self-reported
job satisfaction and one for the supervisor ratings of job performance. To
form the measurement models for the JDI and contextual performance,
we sorted the items for each variable into three composites, such that the
composites had approximately similar means, standard deviations, and
reliabilities (see Landis, Beal, & Tesluk, 2000). This technique of composite
formation yielded three empirically equivalent indicators for each of the
JDI facets and contextual performance. With only five items, we kept
the manifest indicators for task performance at the item level and used
the single item of overall job satisfaction as the indicator for this variable.
Preliminary analyses indicated that the variables were normally distributed;
thus we proceeded with the maximum likelihood method of parameter
estimation. Covariance matrices were used as input. Model fit was assessed
with the chi-square statistic and several practical fit indices, such as the root
mean square error of approximation (RMSEA; Steiger, 1990), Tucker-
Lewis index (TLI; Tucker & Lewis, 1973), and comparative fit index (CFI;
Bentler, 1990).

RESULTS

Confirmatory Factor Analyses of Measurement Models

Job Satisfaction. The results of the CFA using the JDI composites and
overall job satisfaction yielded a good fit to the observed covariance matrix,
χ(290) = 178.47, p < .05; RMSEA = .05 (90% CI = .04 to .06); TLI = .99; CFI
= .99. In addition, all unstandardised factor loadings were significant
(standardised factor loading mean = .81, SD = .07, min = .68, max = .97).
The results also supported the convergent and discriminant validity of the
constructs. For example, the intercorrelations among the latent variable JDI
facets were stronger (M = .55, SD = .10, min = .38, max = .69) than the
correlations between the JDI facets and overall job satisfaction (M = .39,
SD = .11, min = .23, max = .55). We compared this six-factor model to a
one-factor model in which all of the JDI composite indicators and overall
job satisfaction loaded on a single factor. However, the one-factor model

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 JOB SATISFACTION AND PERFORMANCE 453
was a poor fit to the observed covariance matrix, χ(2104)
= 1345.59, p < .05;
RMSEA = .17 (90% CI = .16 to .18); TLI = .82; CFI = .85. Based on the
change in chi-square (∆ χ(214) = 1167.12, p < .05), the six-factor model was
superior to the one-factor model.

Job Performance. The measurement model for job performance

accurately reproduced the observed covariance matrix, χ(219) = 73.29, p < .05;
RMSEA = .08 (90% CI = .06 to .10); TLI = .98; CFI = .99. All unstandardised
factor loadings were significant (standardised factor loading mean = .81, SD
= .10, min = .65, max = .96). The intercorrelation between the latent variables
of task and contextual performance was strong (r = .75, p < .05), which is
an indication that there was some overlap between the two performance
domains. We compared this two-factor model to a one-factor model in
which the indicators of task and contextual performance loaded on a single
factor. However, the one-factor model did not fit the observed covariance
matrix as well as the two-factor model, χ(220) = 406.13, p < .05; RMSEA =
.25 (90% CI = .23 to .27); TLI = .90; CFI = .91. Based on the change in chi-
square (∆ χ(21) = 332.84, p < .05), the two-factor model was superior to the
one-factor model. Therefore, although related, the task and contextual
performance dimensions measured in the present study were distinct
constructs. This conclusion and correlation between task and contextual
performance is consistent with the conclusion and meta-analytic rho estimates
reported by Hoffman, Blair, Meriac, and Woehr (2007).

Tests of Hypothesised Relationship between Job

Satisfaction and Performance
Descriptive statistics, internal consistency estimates, and zero-order correlations
among the study variables are presented in Table 1. Because tenure was
related to both task (r = .31, p < .001, 95% CI = .22 to .40) and contextual
performance (r = .23, p < .001, 95% CI = .13 to .32), we used tenure as a
covariate in all subsequent analyses. Specifically, the dependent variables
were regressed on tenure for each analysis, but we did not estimate the
latent correlation between tenure and satisfaction. Data were missing for 61
participants on tenure. Therefore, all computations were based on Markov
chain Monte Carlo multiple imputation to recover the missing data for
tenure and retain the sample size of 444 (Schafer, 1997).
In the present study, 33 supervisors rated the task and contextual
performance of 444 employees. Thus, we computed two analyses of variance
(ANOVAs) with supervisor as the independent variable and task and
contextual performance as the dependent variables and the intraclass
correlation coefficients (ICC[1]) to assess the degree of non-independence
in task and contextual performance ratings. The results of these analyses

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454 EDWARDS ET AL.

TABLE 1
Means, Standard Deviations, and Bivariate Correlations among Study Variables

Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1. Tenure —
2. Overall Satisfaction 01 —
3. JDI Work 00 48 (78)
4. JDI Pay −04 29 47 (80)
5. JDI Promotion −10 35 52 53 (78)
6. JDI Supervision −09 38 58 43 57 (86)
7. JDI Co-workers −06 21 44 32 38 40 (89)
8. Task Performance 31 15 12 03 −03 09 −07 (84)
9. Contextual Performance 23 15 12 10 07 20 05 67 (94)
M 6.43 3.83 1.95 1.05 1.22 1.81 1.83 3.36 3.53
SD 7.89 0.97 0.70 0.80 0.78 0.70 0.77 0.64 0.63

Note: N = 444. Due to missing data, the sample size for the tenure relationships was 383. Decimals preceding
the correlations have been omitted. If r = |10| to |12| then p < .05; if r = |13| to |15| then p < .01; if r > |16|,
then p < .001. All tests are two-tailed. Reliabilities (coefficient alpha) are in the diagonal. JDI = Job
Descriptive Index.

revealed a significant supervisor effect for both task performance, F(32, 395)
= 5.21, p < .01 (ICC[1] = 0.25) and contextual performance, F(32, 395) = 7.66,
p < .01 (ICC[1] = 0.36). The results of the ANOVAs indicate that rater
effects explained a statistically significant amount of the variance in
performance ratings. The ICC(1) values indicate that 25 per cent of the
variance in task performance and 36 per cent of the variance in contextual
performance are accounted for by rater effects (Bliese, 2000). Therefore, as
a test of all six hypotheses, we conducted multi-level, structural equation
modeling (SEM) using Mplus 4.0 (Muthén & Muthén, 1998–2006) to
remove the rater effect. We used multi-level SEM to account for the non-
independence of the scores on task and contextual performance, but our
primary focus was on the individual-level effects. Thus, we present only the
Level I effects in this manuscript and do not report the Level II effects. We
used the measurement models previously described and added the structural
paths to test the hypothesised relationships.
The first model we estimated was task and contextual performance
regressed on overall job satisfaction and tenure to test Hypothesis 1. Overall
fit of the model was very good, χ(232) = 101.26, p < .01, RMSEA = .07 (90%
CI = .06 to .08), TLI = .97, CFI = .98. In support of Hypotheses 1a and 1b,
there was a statistically significant positive relationship between overall
satisfaction and task performance (γ = .15, t = 2.71, p < .05) and between
overall satisfaction and contextual performance (γ = .15, t = 2.85, p < .05).

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 JOB SATISFACTION AND PERFORMANCE 455
TABLE 2
Standardised Structural Parameter Estimates of the Relationships between the
Five Facets of Job Satisfaction and Task and Contextual Performance

Variables Work Pay Promotion Supervision Co-worker

Task Performance .19* .06 −.27* .22 −.16*

Contextual Performance −.06 .06 −.13 .36* −.05

Note: * p < .05.

Given that the structural coefficients were the same, Hypothesis 1c was not
supported.
The second model we estimated was task and contextual performance
regressed on the five facets of satisfaction and tenure to test Hypotheses
2–6. Overall fit of the model was very good, χ(2230) = 407.23, p < .001,
RMSEA = .04 (90% CI = .04 to .05), TLI = .97, CFI = .97. The standardised
structural coefficients are presented in Table 2. To test each hypothesis, we
present the standardised structural coefficients and associated significance
tests. Given the directional hypotheses, we used a one-tailed test to increase
power. In support of Hypotheses 2a and 5a, there was a statistically
significant positive relationship between satisfaction with work and task
performance (γ = .19, t = 1.91, p < .05) and between satisfaction with
supervision and contextual performance (γ = .36, t = 2.83, p < .05). Hypothesis
3a was not supported in that the relationship between satisfaction with pay
and task performance was not statistically significant. Hypothesis 4a stated
that there would be a positive relationship between satisfaction with promotion
and task performance. Although there was a significant relationship between
satisfaction with promotion and task performance (γ = −.27, t = −2.84, p < .05),
it was a negative relationship which was in the opposite direction from that which
was predicted. Hypothesis 6a was also not supported in that the relationship
between satisfaction with co-workers and contextual performance was not
statistically significant. Significant relationships are summarised in Figure 2.
Hypotheses 2b, 3b, and 4b stated that satisfaction with work, pay, and
promotion, respectively, would be more strongly related to task than contextual
performance. Hypotheses 5b and 6b stated that satisfaction with supervision
and co-workers, respectively, would be more strongly related to contextual
than task performance. To test these hypotheses, in five separate models, we
constrained the specific parameters to be equal (e.g. satisfaction with work
and task and contextual performance) and compared the fit of the constrained
model to that of the unconstrained model. The model with the relationships
between satisfaction with work and task and contextual performance
constrained to be equal, fit worse than the unconstrained model (∆ χ(21) =

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456 EDWARDS ET AL.

FIGURE 2. Significant relationships between facets of job satisfaction and the

job performance dimensions.

Note: Structural parameters of the relationships are presented below the line.
The dashed line represents a relationship that was not hypothesised but was
significantly different from zero. * p < .05.

9.84, p < .01). Thus, in support of Hypothesis 2b, there was a significant
difference in the relationship between satisfaction with work and task (γ =
.19) and contextual performance (γ = −.06). Hypothesis 3b was not sup-
ported because the relationships between satisfaction with pay and task and
contextual performance were the same (γ = .06). Hypothesis 4b was not
supported in that the relationships between satisfaction with promotion and
task and contextual performance were not significantly different (∆ χ(21) =
1.69, ns). In support of Hypothesis 5b (∆ χ(21) = 4.33, p < .05), the relationship
between satisfaction with supervision and contextual performance (γ = .36)
was stronger than the relationship between satisfaction with supervision and
task performance (γ = .22). Finally, Hypothesis 6b was not supported in that
the relationships between satisfaction with co-workers and task and contex-
tual performance were not significantly different (∆ χ(21) = 3.34, ns). In sum-
mary, for the hypotheses contrasting the strength of the relationships
between the specific facets of satisfaction and either task or contextual per-
formance, Hypotheses 2b and 5b were supported.

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 JOB SATISFACTION AND PERFORMANCE 457
DISCUSSION

The purpose of our study was to examine the relationship between job
satisfaction and task and contextual performance. We contribute to the
extant literature by (a) conducting a direct, empirical comparison of the
magnitude of the relationship between overall job satisfaction and task and
contextual performance, and (b) examining the satisfaction and performance
relationship at the facet level of job satisfaction and performance.
In support of Hypotheses 1a and 1b, there was a significant, positive
relationship between overall job satisfaction and task and contextual
performance. However, contrary to our expectations, the results of the
present study did not support the hypothesis that there would be a stronger
relationship between overall job satisfaction and contextual performance
than with task performance (Hypothesis 1c). Our results were consistent
with Ang et al. (2003) who reported no difference in the relationship
between overall job satisfaction and task and contextual performance. Thus,
using overall job satisfaction, the data do not support the thesis that
satisfaction is more strongly related to contextual than task performance.
The relationships between overall job satisfaction and task performance
and overall satisfaction and contextual performance obtained in the present
study were lower than those reported in meta-analyses of these two
performance domains (e.g. ρ = .30 for task performance; Judge et al., 2001,
and ρ = .28, for contextual performance; Organ & Ryan, 1995). However,
our estimates are uncorrected for statistical artifacts and are similar to the
uncorrected mean correlations presented in Judge et al. (2001; mean r = .18).
One potential explanation for the similar relationships with task and
contextual performance is that the correlation between the two performance
dimensions was relatively strong (r = .67). In fact, the bivariate relationship
between overall satisfaction and overall performance (sum of task and
contextual performance) was similar in magnitude to that between overall
satisfaction and the two performance dimensions (r = .16).
In contrast to overall satisfaction, an examination of the satisfaction and
performance relationship, operationalising satisfaction at the facet level
showed differential relationships with task and contextual performance in
the predicted direction for two of the five facets. Specifically, satisfaction
with work was more strongly related to task than contextual performance
and satisfaction with supervision was more strongly related to contextual
than task performance. These findings were consistent with the tenets of
social exchange theory (Blau, 1964) which posit that people strive to balance
what they give and receive from social exchanges, and the notion that
attitude and behavior relationships will be strongest when the levels of
analyses are compatible, particularly in regard to their targets. Specifically,
when the exchange relationship is defined in terms of the work characteristics,

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458 EDWARDS ET AL.

employees who enjoy their work are more likely to reciprocate by exerting
more effort which leads to increased task performance. Furthermore, when
the exchange relationship is defined in terms of social relationships, then
employees who are satisfied with the relationship with their supervisor may
reciprocate by engaging in helpful behaviors that contribute to contextual
performance.
Interestingly, the hypotheses were not supported for the facets of satisfaction
with pay, promotion, and co-workers. Specifically, we hypothesised that
there would be a positive relationship between satisfaction with pay and
task performance and between satisfaction with promotion opportunities
and task performance and that these relationships would be stronger than
for contextual performance. However, there was a nonsignificant relationship
between satisfaction with pay and task performance. In addition, the
relationship between satisfaction with opportunities for promotion and task
performance was significant, but negative, which was in the opposite direction
from what we hypothesised. There is a plausible explanation for the lack of
a relationship between satisfaction with pay and task performance. Pay is
an expected extrinsic reward. Research has indicated that expected extrinsic
rewards undermine intrinsic motivation (e.g. Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999;
Tang & Hall, 1995). Satisfaction with pay may reflect variability in pay,
which would not necessarily lead to increases in task performance. Consistent
with this, satisfaction with work was positively related to task performance,
suggesting that work that is rated as more interesting and challenging
(i.e. is intrinsically more motivating) is related to increases in task performance.
In addition, compensation in the present manufacturing organisation is
based on pay scales and less on task performance. Within a given pay scale,
there is little variance in pay, but more variance in task performance. Thus,
one’s level of pay satisfaction may not be linked to task performance. The
negative relationship between satisfaction with promotion and task
performance is more difficult to explain. Many of the promotions in the
manufacturing plant that was the setting of the present study were based on
seniority. It may be that employees in this organisation rated high on task
performance were dissatisfied with their opportunities for promotion
because they were not being rewarded for their efforts. Thus, higher task
performance was associated with less satisfaction with opportunities
for promotion. As such, the present study highlights potential boundary
conditions to social exchange theory as a basis for the relationships among
facets of job satisfaction and dimensions of performance. Therefore, one
avenue for future research would be an examination of these relationships
in organisations that promote more on the basis of merit and less on seniority.
Contrary to Hypothesis 6a, there was a nonsignificant relationship between
satisfaction with co-workers and contextual performance. One explanation
for this finding is that supervisors provided ratings of contextual performance

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 JOB SATISFACTION AND PERFORMANCE 459
which may have been based only on employee relationships with supervisors
and not co-workers. That is, supervisors may not have had the opportunity
to observe interactions among co-workers such that those items that tapped
these interactions (e.g. “cooperated with others in the team”) were unrelated
to employees’ perceptions of satisfaction with co-workers. Furthermore,
contextual performance behaviors may be more critical to the organisation
when they are directed towards supervisors than to co-workers. This may
be most evident with the relationship between satisfaction with supervision
and contextual performance, because the supervisor is likely to be seen as
an agent of the organisation and contextual behaviors would more directly
benefit supervisors. For instance, Bateman and Organ (1983) found satisfaction
with supervision to be related to organisational citizenship behaviors; hence
contextual performance may be seen as benefiting the supervisor more than
any other person in the organisation. Finally, there was a significant negative
relationship between satisfaction with co-workers and task performance
that was not hypothesised. An explanation for this relationship may be that
employees who are satisfied with their co-workers may spend more time
engaging in non-task activities with fellow co-workers (e.g. off-task chatting,
long lunches), resulting in lower task performance.
A major contribution of the present study is that we examined the satisfac-
tion and performance relationship at the facet level of satisfaction and
performance. This is important for several reasons. First, both job satisfaction
and performance are multifaceted (e.g. Borman & Motowidlo, 1993;
Kinicki et al., 2002), so examinations of the relationship between overall job
satisfaction and overall job performance may obfuscate the true nature of
this relationship. Thus, our results indicated that the relationship between
job satisfaction and performance may best be assessed at the facet level and
the failure to do so may explain the wide range of effect sizes reported in
the literature on the relationship between overall satisfaction and overall
performance (i.e. ρ = .14 to .31; Iaffaldano & Muchinsky, 1985; Judge et al.,
2001; Petty et al., 1984).
Second, there are compelling theoretical arguments for differential
relationships between satisfaction and performance at the facet level. As
our data suggested, certain facets of satisfaction may be more related to
performance than others which may in turn depend on the specific dimension
of performance measured. Third, an examination of the satisfaction and
performance relationship at the facet level provides a richer and more
complete picture of this relationship.
Fourth, multivariate analyses provide a more parsimonious and accurate
test of the hypothesised relationships because all of the independent and
dependent variables are tested simultaneously in one analysis. Thus, direct
and indirect relationships among the predictors and criteria are accounted
for and modeled accurately. This is evident when comparing the results of

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460 EDWARDS ET AL.

the univariate analyses in Table 1 and the multivariate analyses in Table 2.

The differences in the bivariate and multivariate relationships can be
explained by the relatively strong correlations among the facets of satisfaction
(i.e. range r = .32 to r = .58). For instance, the bivariate relationship between
satisfaction with promotion and task performance was r = −.03, ns, whereas
the same relationship was significant in the multivariate analysis (γ = −.26).
A likely explanation is that one or more of the other facets of satisfaction
serves to suppress the relationship between satisfaction with promotion and
task performance in the correlational analysis, but this suppressor effect is
eliminated in SEM because the relationships are modeled simultaneously.
The multivariate analysis might eliminate the shared variance of the weaker
satisfaction facet, thus revealing the unique and significant relationship
between satisfaction with promotion and task performance. Thus, univariate
analyses of the relationships between job satisfaction and task and contextual
performance may provide misleading results.
Finally, we improved upon designs of previous research and collected
satisfaction data from employees and performance data from supervisors,
thus eliminating the impact of common method variance which has plagued
previous studies of the job satisfaction–job performance relationship in
which data were collected from the same source (Podsakoff, MacKenzie,
Paine, & Buchrach, 2000).

Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research

Participants in the present study held a variety of jobs in the manufacturing
plant (e.g. forklift operator, assembly line worker, builder, glass cutter). It
is plausible that the magnitude of the job satisfaction and contextual
performance relationship may have differed across job titles. That is, some
jobs (e.g. assembly line worker) may have been more structured and
provided fewer opportunities to exhibit contextual behaviors than other
jobs (e.g. builder). However, we did not collect data on participant job title
or the degree of structure for each job. Thus, future studies could examine
the job satisfaction–contextual performance relationship across different job
types or across different levels of job structure. Another potential avenue
for future research would be to test these relationships in an organisational
setting which rewards employees with pay raises and promotions based
more on merit rather than seniority. A limitation of the present study is that
we found support for only six of our 13 hypotheses and one of the
significant relationships was in a direction opposite from that which we
predicted. Nevertheless, we highlighted several notable contributions of the
present study. In addition, we have added to the emerging literature that
highlights the importance of focusing on facet-level variables in organisational
research (e.g. Griffin, Neal, & Parker, 2007; Moon, 2001). Indeed, although

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 JOB SATISFACTION AND PERFORMANCE 461
the relationships between overall satisfaction and task and contextual
performance were significant and weak, some of the satisfaction facets were
not significantly related to performance, some were related only to one
performance dimension, and some of the relationships were larger than that
for overall satisfaction.

Conclusions
The present study provided a direct, empirical test of the hypothesis that job
satisfaction is more strongly related to contextual than task performance
(Borman & Motowidlo, 1993; Motowidlo & Van Scotter, 1994; Organ &
Ryan, 1995). In addition, this study directly tested the satisfaction–performance
relationship at the facet level of job satisfaction and performance. Our
results indicated that although overall job satisfaction was positively related
to task and contextual performance, the relationship did not differ by per-
formance dimension. In contrast, when operationalising satisfaction at the
facet level, three of the five facets were significantly related to task perform-
ance, but only one of the facets was significantly related to contextual
performance. In addition, satisfaction with work was more strongly related
to task than contextual performance and satisfaction with supervision was
more strongly related to contextual than task performance. Thus, our data
suggest that the differential predictions between satisfaction and task and
contextual performance are only manifest when one considers satisfaction
at the facet level. This highlights the importance of matching predictors and
criteria in terms of compatibility, both conceptually and empirically.

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