INDEX
‘Note: Page numbers followed by “f” indicate figures and “t” indicate tables.’
A pore size distribution, 275e279, 276f,
Aboveground retorting, 296e297
Adsorbed gas, 11, 14e15
Adsorption processes, gas sweetening
condensate stabilization, 175
high nitrogen content, 174e175
mercaptan removal, 176e177, 176f
NGL extraction and fractionation,
171e174, 173f
presence of mercury, 171
sour water stripper unit, 180e181
sulfur recovery process, 177e180, 179f
Alternating current (AC), 40e41
American Petroleum Institute (API)
gravity, 213
Anisotropy, 54
Artificial well stimulation, 131e134,
132fe133f
B methods, 31e36, 33t
Biogas, 7
Blow-out preventer (BOP), 89
Borehole instability, 96
C 56fe57f
Carbon disulphide (CS2), 178
Carbonyl sulfide (COS), 178
Casing head gas, 9
Characteristics, shale oil, 254e270, 255t
adsorption/desorption method,
276e279, 277fe278f,
278t, 279f
boiling range, 260, 261f
composition, 256e259, 258te259t, 260f
composition determination pyrolysis
method, 259e260
diffusivity parameter, 264e267,
266fe267f
electrical properties, 268e270
fracturability, 271e275, 273t
permeability, 271e275, 273t
petrology and geochemistry, 279e280
276t
pore structure, 275e279, 276f, 276t
porosity, 270e271
self-ignition temperature, 260e264,
262fe263f
surface area, 275e279, 276f, 276t
time-temperature index (TTI), 267e268,
267f
Characterization, shale gas
background, 29e30, 30fe31f, 32t
challenges, 70e72, 73f
composition, 43e44, 44t
density, 47
depth, 46, 46f
engineering and research companies, 76,
76te77t
geological description, 58e59, 58t
hydraulic fracturing technology, 74e76
overview, 27e29
permeability, 60e64, 61f, 63f, 64t
porosity, 28
petrology and geochemistry, 55e57,
shale lithology, 56e57
petrophysical characteristics, 36e43
coring rock, 37e39, 37fe38f
flow type and permeability, 43
formation pressure data fluid, 43
gamma ray logging rock, 39
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR),
43
porosity logging volume estimation,
39e40
resistivity logging fluid, 40e42
petrophysical data analysis, 27e28
place volume, gas estimation in, 57e58
pore size distribution, 68e70, 69fe70f
porosity, 60e64, 62fe63f, 64t
porosity/permeability measurements
practical methodologies, 64e68, 65f
405 j
406 Index

Characterization, shale gas (Continued ) drilling fluids, 92e94, 93fe94f

pressure, 44e46 equipment, 88e90
PVT behavior, 54e55, 55f fluid loss, 95e96, 95f
research, 73e76 horizontal drilling, 90e97, 91fe92f
shale reservoir, 74 procedures, 88e90
temperature, 46 risks, 95
thermal properties, 47e54, 49f, 51t stuck pipe, 96e97
anisotropy, 54 types, 88e89, 89fe90f
composition, 52e53 vertical drilling, 90e97, 91fe92f
heat capacity, 50e52
porosity, 53 E
pressure, 53e54 Electrical properties, shale oil, 268e270,
temperature, 53 269f
thermal conductivity, 50 dielectric constant, 269e270, 269f
viscosity, 47 Energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis,
well logging methods, 33e36 29e30
hybrid workflow, 35e36 Exploration techniques, 81e82, 82f
seismic data, 35 advantages, 82e85, 83f
seismic waveform, 36 challenges, 85
well log data, 33e35, 34f costs, 85e87
Chevron U.S.A. Inc., 225 disadvantages, 82e85, 83f
Coal bed methane, 8, 107 risks, 85
CO2 flooding, 290 stages, 83e85
Cold separator, 173e174 geophones, 85
Composition, 52e53 onshore drilling rig, 85, 86f
Conventional gas, 6 seismic vibrator, 84, 84f
surface mining, 87, 87f
D underground mining, 87, 88f
Deep natural gas, 7 Exploration wells
Density, 47 abandonment, 117
Density log, 40 casing and perforating wells, 112e113
Depth, 46, 46f, 213 completion equipment, 113e114
Dielectric constant, 213 construction, 111e112, 112f
Directional drilling, 90e97, 91fe92f, costs, 114
134e135 design, 111e112, 112f
Dissolved gas, 11 equations, 115
Distal areas, 59 normalized rate of penetration (NROP),
Distillation, 245e246 115
Drilling fluids, 92e94, 93fe94f rate of penetration (ROP), 116
Drilling mud, 42 reclamation, 117
Drilling technologies research and development, 117e119,
advantages, 91e92 118f
borehole instability, 96 technological evolution, 118
challenges, 95 transverse fractures, 118e119
costs, 97 shale formations borehole instability,
directional drilling, 90e97, 91fe92f 114e115
disadvantages, 91e92 shale reservoirs, 114
Index 407

Ex situ retorting techniques, 332e337 Gas reservoir, 3e5, 4f

advantages, 337e338 Gas sweetening
chevron retort system, 337, 338f adsorption processes, 169e181,
conduction through wall, 334 170f
disadvantages, 337e338 process description, 167
externally generated hot gas, 334 traditional and new technologies,
hot recycled solids, 333e334, 334f 167e181, 168f
internal combustion, 333 GC-MS. See Gas chromatography-mass
mines gas combustion retort, US Bureau, spectrometry (GC-MS)
335e336, 337f Geophones, 85
plasma gasification, 335 Geopressurized zones, 8
reactive fluids, 335
union oil retorting process, 335, 336f H
External corrosion, 186 Heat capacity, 50e52
ExxonMobil, 222 Helium porosimetry, 65
Horizontal drilling, 90e97, 91fe92f, 292,
F 292f
Field emission-scanning electron H2S gas, 180
microscopy (FE-SEM), 29e30 Hydraulic fracturing technology, 74e76,
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy 293e294, 294f
(FTIR), 29 challenges, 109e110
Free gas, 11, 16e17 characteristics, 105e106, 106f
FTIR. See Fourier transform infrared completion, 127e129, 127f, 128t
spectroscopy (FTIR) defined, 97e98, 97fe98f
equipment, 98, 99f
G fluid rheology, 103e104
Gas adsorption, 65 fluids and additives, 101e102, 102f
Gas chromatography analysis, 246e248, fracturing proppant, 102e103, 103f
247f modeling and simulators,
Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry 104e105
(GC-MS), 248e249, 249fe250f processes, 107e109, 108f
Gas dehydration process, 160e166 risks, 109e110, 110f
compression, 163 rock properties, 106e107
cooling, 163 theory, 99e101, 100fe101f
cooling below initial dew-point, 163 treatment design and optimization,
deliquescent systems, 164 104
liquid desiccant, absorption of water, 163 Hydrocarbon liquid, 175
physical absorption process, 164e166,
165fe166f I
solid desiccant, absorption of water, 163 In situ method, 296e297
TEG dehydration system, 160e162, 161f In situ oil shale
traditional and new technologies, air emissions, 314
162e166 radionuclides, 313
Gas injection, 290 seismic effects, 314
Gas liquid separation, 137e139 water contamination, 313
design, 137e138, 138f In situ retorting, 296
material selection, 138e139 Internal corrosion, 186
408 Index

K NGL recovery processes, 171e174

Kerogen Normalized rate of penetration (NROP),
composition, 194, 201e204, 202f, 208f 115
history, 235e238 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR),
humic, 236 43, 244
planktonic, 236
residue, 236e238 O
sapropelic, 236 Onshore drilling rig, 85, 86f
structure, 235e238 OPEC, 280e281, 281f
types, 235e238, 237f, 240f, 242fe243f Optimization, 135e136
Organic maturity, 15
L
Lacustrine shale, 12 P
Lean gas, 9, 173e174 Parameters, shale gas
Level of maturity (LOM), 33e35 adsorbed gas, 14e15
Linear flow, 142e143, 142f depth, 14
fluid in place, 16
M free gas quantification, 16e17
Marine shale, 12 mineralogy, 16
Mathematical formulas, 142e144 organic maturity, 15
linear flow, 142e143, 142f permeability, 15
radial flow, 143e144, 143f porosity, 15
MDEA, 169 productibility, 17
Mercury injection capillary pressure reservoir thickness, 15
(MICP), 242 thermal maturity, 16
Mercury porosimetry, 65 total organic content (TOC), 15
Merox process, 176e177, 176f type, 14
Methane hydrates, 9 viscosity, 16
MICP. See Mercury injection capillary Pay zone, 124
pressure (MICP) Permeability, 15, 60e64, 61f, 63f, 64t,
Mineralogy, 16 213e214, 271e275, 273t
Molecular sieve dehydrators, 165e166 measurements, practical methodologies,
Multilateral wells, 91 64e68, 65f
Multiple fracturing, 292, 293f Petrophysical data analysis, 27e28
Petrophysical shale gas
N characteristics, 36e43
Natural gas coring rock, 37e39, 37fe38f
biogas, 7 flow type and permeability, 43
coal bed methane, 8 formation pressure data fluid, 43
deep natural gas, 7 gamma ray logging rock, 39
gas reservoir, 3e5, 4f nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR),
geopressurized zones, 8 43
methane hydrates, 9 porosity logging volume estimation,
shale gas, 7e8 39e40
tight gas, 8 resistivity logging fluid,
types of, 5e9, 6f 40e42
Neutron log, 40 Polymer flooding, 290
Index
Porosity, 15, 28, 53, 130, 213,
270e271
logging volume estimation
density log, 40
neutron log, 40
sonic log, 40
measurements, practical methodologies,
64e68, 65f
Potential Gas Committee (PGC), 5
Pressure, 44e46, 53e54
Primary recovery, 289
Process, shale gas
background, 154e156, 155f
corrosion, 185e188, 187f
costs, 188e190, 189f, 190t
description, 156e158
design, 181e183, 182f
equipment modeling/optimization,
183e185, 184t
flow scheme, 158, 159f
gas dehydration process, 160e166
compression, 163
cooling, 163
cooling below initial dew-point, 163
deliquescent systems, 164
liquid desiccant, absorption of water,
163
physical absorption process, 164e166,
165fe166f
solid desiccant, absorption of water,
163
TEG dehydration system, 160e162,
161f
traditional and new technologies,
162e166
gas sweetening
adsorption processes, 169e181, 170f
process description, 167
traditional and new technologies,
167e181, 168f
hydrate formation and inhibition,
158e160
overview, 153e154, 154f
steps, 156, 157f
transport, 185
utilities/storage and off-site facilities,
181e183
409
Process, shale oil, 330e332
advantages, 341e342, 346e347
carbonate decomposition, 324e325
CO2 extraction, 344e345, 345f
continuous supercritical extraction, 346
description, 322
disadvantages, 341e342, 346e347
economic consideration, 352t, 351
ex situ retorting techniques, 332e337
advantages, 337e338
chevron retort system, 337, 338f
conduction through wall, 334
disadvantages, 337e338
externally generated hot gas, 334
hot recycled solids, 333e334, 334f
internal combustion, 333
mines gas combustion retort, US
Bureau, 335e336, 337f
plasma gasification, 335
reactive fluids, 335
union oil retorting process, 335,
336f
externally generated hot gas, 339, 340f
Exxonmobil electrofrac, 340
hot topic research studies, 353e354
isothermal analysis, 332, 333f
kerogen decomposition, 324, 325f
nonisothermal analysis, 331e332, 332f
optimal retorting conditions, 326e327,
327fe328f
pyrolysis, mathematical modeling, 347,
347fe349f
pyrolysis, parametric study of, 349e350,
350f, 350t
pyrolysis/retorting, 325e326
apparatus, 325e326, 326f
experiments, 325e326, 326f
kinetics, 328e330
methodology, 325e326, 326f
refining and upgrading processes,
342e343
advantages, 343e344
disadvantages, 343e344
hydrocracking process, 343
moving bed hydroprocessing reactor,
342e343
thermal cracking process, 342
410
Process, shale oil (Continued )
retorting
chemistry, 322, 323te324t
defined, 322, 323f
in situ retorting techniques, 338
supercritical extraction, 344
supercritical methanol, 345e346
theoretical/practical and economic
challenges, 352e353
volumetric heating, 340e341
Dow Chemical Company, 341
equity oil company process, 341
Talley Energy System, 341
wall conduction, 339, 339f
water extraction, 345e346
Productions, shale gas
abandonment, 129
casing and perforating, 125e127
corrosion issues, 139e140, 139f
defined, 123e124
drilling, 125, 125f
methodology, 135, 136f
economic considerations
breakeven gas price, 149e150, 149t
pricing, 148e149, 148f
future prospects, 146e148, 147f
gas liquid separation, 137e139
design, 137e138, 138f
material selection, 138e139
hydraulic fracturing and completion,
127e129, 127f, 128t
limitations, 136e137
mathematical formulas, 142e144
linear flow, 142e143, 142f
radial flow, 143e144, 143f
methods, 131e135, 132f
artificial well stimulation, 131e134,
132fe133f
directional drilling, 134e135
optimization, 135e136
overview, 123e124
reclamation, 129
research and development, 145e146
current status, 145e146, 145fe146f
road and well pad construction, 125
rock properties, 129e130
production effect, 130, 131f
Index
shale gas production, 144, 144f
storage, 141
transportation, 140e141
Productions, shale oil
advantages, 307e308
costs, 310, 311t
economic aspect, 308e309, 310t
environmental/public support issues,
311e314
in situ oil shale, 313e314
surface mining, 311e312
equations, 301e303
future prospects, 315e316
history, 287e288, 288f
implication, 301
limitations, 300e301, 307e308
oil price, 300
public opposition, 300e301
modeling and optimization, 303e306,
305f
oil reservoirs
CO2 flooding, 290
gas injection, 290
polymer flooding, 290
primary recovery, 289
secondary recovery, 289e290
steam flooding, 290
tertiary recovery, 290
water injection, 289
opposing views, 314e315
overview, 285e286, 285fe286f
research and technology development,
316e317
rock properties, shale oil, 297e298
screen criteria, 306e307
technical aspect, 308
techniques, 291e297, 291f
aboveground retorting,
296e297
horizontal drilling, 292, 292f
hydraulic fracturing, 293e294, 294f
multiple fracturing, 292, 293f
in situ method, 296e297
in situ retorting, 296
surface mining, 295, 295f
surface retorting, 294e296
underground mining, 295e296
Index 411

wellhead and gathering, 298e300, mercury injection capillary pressure

298fe299f (MICP), 242
Properties, shale oil NMR, 244
characteristics, 254e270, 255t Raman spectroscopic analysis,
adsorption/desorption method, 244e245, 245fe246f
276e279, 277fe278f, 278t, 279f scanning electron microscope (SEM),
boiling range, 260, 261f 242
composition, 256e259, 258te259t, ultrasonic, 244
260f X-Ray CT, 238e240
composition determination pyrolysis OPEC, 280e281, 281f
method, 259e260 overview, 231e232, 232f
diffusivity parameter, 264e267, utilization, 232e233
266fe267f Proximal areas, 59
electrical properties, 268e270 PVT behavior, 54e55, 55f
fracturability, 271e275, 273t
permeability, 271e275, 273t R
petrology and geochemistry, 279e280 Radial flow, 143e144, 143f
pore size distribution, 275e279, 276f, Raman spectroscopic analysis, 244e245,
276t 245fe246f
pore structure, 275e279, 276f, 276t Rate of penetration (ROP), 116
porosity, 270e271 Reclamation, 129
self-ignition temperature, 260e264, Recoverable gas, 5
262fe263f Recoverable oil, 5
surface area, 275e279, 276f, 276t Reservoir rock, 4, 196
time-temperature index (TTI), Reservoirs, shale oil, 214e218,
267e268, 267f 215f, 216t
extraction processes Africa, 216e217
ultrasonic method, 249e253 Asia, 215e216
formations, 233e234 Europe, 217
central Queensland region, 233e234, Middle East, 217
233f North America, 218
Green River Formation, 234, 235f Oceania, 217
kerogen production history, 218e220,
history, 235e238 219t
humic, 236 South America, 217e218
planktonic, 236 Residue gas, 9
residue, 236e238 ROCK-EVAL, 30
sapropelic, 236 Rock properties, 129e130
structure, 235e238
types, 235e238, 237f, 240f, 242fe243f S
methods, 238e249, 244t Scanning electron microscope (SEM),
distillation, 245e246 29e30, 242
gas chromatography analysis, Schlumberger Inc., 225
246e248, 247f Seal, 4
gas chromatography-mass Secondary recovery, 289e290
spectrometry (GC-MS), 248e249, Seismic vibrator, 84, 84f
249fe250f Self-ignition temperature, 213
412 Index

Shale gas, 107 origin, 11e12

applications, 25 overview, 1e3
challenges, 24 parameters
conventional exploration, 374e377, 376f adsorbed gas, 14e15
current projects, 397e400 depth, 14
Al Lajjun, 399e400 fluid in place, 16
Argentina, 400 free gas quantification, 16e17
Canada, 400 mineralogy, 16
China, 400 organic maturity, 15
Ecoshale Utah, 397 permeability, 15
Fuling Project, 397 porosity, 15
Poland, 400 productibility, 17
South Africa, 400 reservoir thickness, 15
defined, 10e11, 11f thermal maturity, 16
discovery and exploitation, 2e3 total organic content (TOC), 15
environmental issues/aspects, 367e371, type, 14
368fe369f viscosity, 16
federal and provincial regulations, past/current status, 392e395, 392fe394f
363e367 political implications, 360e363, 362f
future prospects, 395e396, 396f production trend, 23, 23f
geology, 387, 387f research, 390e392
natural gas price, 390 reserves, 17e22, 18t
production rates, 388e389, 388fe389f Canada, 21e22, 22f, 22te23t
geomechanics challenges, 371e373, 373f USA, 19e21, 20fe21f
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, 3 world/global, 19, 19f
history, 12e13 shale, 9e10, 10f
importance, 24e25 technical and economic constraints,
management rules, 377e380 380e387, 381f
collaboration, 380 brine-resistant additives, 386e387
compliance, 377e378 distillation and crystallization,
data management, 377e378 384e385, 384fe385f
logistics models, 379e380 on-site reuse, 385e386, 386f
operating models, 379e380 produced water, 381e382, 382t
wastewater disposal, 378 reverse osmosis (RO), 383e384
water and emission intensity reduction, underground injection, 382e383, 383f
378e379 water management, 381e387, 382t
natural gas types, 11e12
biogas, 7 Shale lithology
coal bed methane, 8 composition and color, 57
deep natural gas, 7 texture, 56
defined, 7e8 Shale oil
gas reservoir, 3e5, 4f companies, 221e225, 222te224t
geopressurized zones, 8 Chevron U.S.A. Inc., 225
methane hydrates, 9 ExxonMobil, 222
tight gas, 8 Schlumberger Inc., 225
types of, 5e9, 6f Shell Oil Company, 225
occurrence, 12e13, 14f composition, 198e200, 198te201t
Index 413

conventional exploration, 374e377, 376f past/current status, 392e395,

current projects, 397e400 392fe394f
Al Lajjun, 399e400 political implications, 360e363, 362f
Argentina, 400 recoverable estimates, 220e221, 220f
Canada, 400 research, 390e392
China, 400 reservoirs, 214e218, 215f, 216t
Ecoshale Utah, 397 Africa, 216e217
Fuling Project, 397 Asia, 215e216
Poland, 400 Europe, 217
South Africa, 400 Middle East, 217
defined, 196e197, 198f North America, 218
energy implication, 225e228, Oceania, 217
227fe228f production history, 218e220, 219t
environmental issues/aspects, 367e371, South America, 217e218
368fe369f technical and economic constraints,
factors and parameters, 213e214 380e387, 381f
American Petroleum Institute (API) brine-resistant additives, 386e387
gravity, 213 distillation and crystallization,
depth, 213 384e385, 384fe385f
dielectric constant, 213 on-site reuse, 385e386, 386f
permeability, 213e214 produced water, 381e382, 382t
porosity, 213 reverse osmosis (RO), 383e384
self-ignition temperature, 213 underground injection, 382e383, 383f
federal and provincial regulations, water management, 381e387, 382t
363e367 types, 195e196
future prospects, 395e396, 396f heavy/sticky oils, 196
geology, 387, 387f light/volatile oils, 195
natural gas price, 390 nonfluid oils, 196
production rates, 388e389, 388fe389f nonsticky oils, 195
geomechanics challenges, 371e373, 373f types and source, 204e206
history, 206e212, 209fe210f Solid desiccant, 163
Central Queensland region, 211, 211f Sonic log, 40
Green River Formation, 212, 212f Source rock, 4
importance, 221 Sour gas, 9
kerogen Steam flooding, 290
composition, 201e204, 202f, 208f Stratigraphic traps, 5
management rules, 377e380 Structural.traps, 5
collaboration, 380 Stuck pipe, 96e97
compliance, 377e378 Sulfur recovery, 177e180
data management, 377e378 Surface mining, 87, 87f, 295, 295f
logistics models, 379e380 area usage, 311e312
operating models, 379e380 gas emissions, 312
wastewater disposal, 378 waste materials, 312
water and emission intensity reduction, water usage, 312
378e379 Surface retorting, 294e296
occurrence, 206e212 Surfactants, 133
overview, 193e195 Sweet gas, 9
414 Index

T V
Tail gas treating (TGT), 178e179 Vertical drilling, 90e97, 91fe92f
TEG dehydration system, 160e162, 161f Viscosity, 16, 47
Temperature, 46, 53
Terrestrial shale, 12 W
Tertiary recovery, 290 Wall conduction, 339, 339f
Thermal conductivity, 50 Water extraction, 345e346
Thermal maturity, 16 Water injection, 289
Thermal properties, shale gas, 47e54, 49f, Well logging methods, 33e36
51t hybrid workflow, 35e36
anisotropy, 54 seismic data, 35
composition, 52e53 seismic waveform, 36
heat capacity, 50e52 well log data, 33e35, 34f
porosity, 53 Wells, exploration
pressure, 53e54 abandonment, 117
temperature, 53 casing and perforating wells, 112e113
thermal conductivity, 50 completion equipment, 113e114
Thermo-analytical methodologies, 48 construction, 111e112, 112f
Tight gas, 8, 107 costs, 114
Tight oil, 107 design, 111e112, 112f
Time-temperature index (TTI), 267e268, equations, 115
267f Normalized rate of penetration (NROP),
Total organic carbon content (TOC), 15, 115
28 rate of penetration (ROP), 116
Trap, 4 reclamation, 117
research and development, 117e119,
U 118f
Ultrasonic method technological evolution, 118
column chromatographic separation, transverse fractures, 118e119
252e253, 253f shale formations borehole instability,
GC/MS qualitative analysis, 253, 254f 114e115
sample preparation, 249e251 shale reservoirs, 114
sulfur removal, 251, 252f Wet gas, 9
supercritical extraction, 253e254, 255f,
255t X
Unconventional gas, 6 X-Ray CT, 238e240
Unconventional reservoirs, 6, 130 X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), 29
Underground mining, 87, 88f, 295e296 XRD. See X-ray powder diffraction
United States Geological Survey (XRD)
(USGS), 9