A.

Steps in Designing the ESP Syllabus

Graves (1996, in Xenodohidis, 2006) suggests a systematic syllabus design consisting of

six steps. Those steps are:

1. conducting needs assessment, followed with needs analysis (both of the process

sometimes just called needs analysis),

2. determining the goals and objectives of the course,

3. conceptualizing the content,

4. selecting and developing materials and activities,

5. organizing the content and activities,

6. evaluating.

Step 1: Conducting Needs Analysis

Needs analysis is the first and fundamental process in designing syllabus. Although there

is no definite definition of ESP, all ESP schoolar agree that in designing an ESP course, needs

analysis must be taken as the first priority.

“..early instruments for establishing needs is by investigating the target situation

for which learners were being prepared: needs analysis should be concerned with
the establishment of communicative needs and their realizations, resulting from an
analysis of the communication in the target situation – what will refer to as target
situation analysis” (Chambers, 1980, in Stapa, 2003).

In simplest terms, a needs analysis includes all the activities used to collect information

about your students' learning needs, wants, wishes, desires, etc… The process also sometimes

involves looking at the expectations and requirements of other interested parties such as the

teacher/teacher's aid/ tutor (you), administrators, financial supporters, and other people who may

be impacted by the program (such as students' family members or employers)

 Needs analysis provides the information learners’ and targets’ needs. The information is

beneficial in drawing the goal and objectives of the teaching learning process. If needs are clear,

the learning aims can be expressed more easily and the language course can become motivating.

The selection of tasks and materials can also be based on the results of the analysis. The result of

the analysis of the learners’ needs may give clear information of the tasks and material that may

appeal them. The needs analysis is also helpful in organising the content and activities since it

identifies the sequence of real life activities that could be adopted in the teaching learning

process. Knowing the stakeholders’ needs can also be valuable in determining the standard of

achievement in the assessment and evaluation process. In other words, all activities in designing

syllabus are dependent on the needs analysis process and result.

Steps 2: Determination of Goals and Objectives of the Course

A goal is something that wanted to be achieved and in the case of language learning,

goals are ‘general statements of the overall, long term purpose of the course’ (Graves, 1996, in

Xenodohidis, 2006). Goals are related to the acquisition of a job in the future or communication

of the target language community (Harmer, 1991, in Xenodohidis, 2006). They should not aim

only at the acquisition of certain knowledge and skills but also at the development of a positive

attitude towards language and culture. Goals should be realistic, otherwise the students would be

de-motivated (Xenodohidis, 2006). Objectives, on the other hand, are the specific ways in which

the goals will be achieved (Graves, 1996, in Xenodohidis, 2006). They may refer to ‘activities,

skills, language type or a combination of them all’ (Harmer, 1991, in Xenodohidis, 2006).

Objectives should be congruent to the goals and relevant to how the teacher conceptualize the

content of the course (Nunan, 1988, in Xenodohidis, 2006).

 The goals and the objectives can be drawn from the results of the needs analysis. Since

ESP was situated for the adult learners seeking for employment in the future, the goals and the

objectives should relate to those needs. The analysis of the problems faced by the learners can

also be considered in shaping the goals and objectives.

Steps 3: Content Conceptualization

The next process needed to be followed is conceptualizing the content; that is choosing

and analysing the necessary content related to the needs analysis and the goals and objectives.

Reilly (1988, in Xenodohidis, 2006) gives some practical guidelines to content choice and

design. According to Reilly, we need to:

1. define what the students should be able to do as exactly and realistically as possible, as

the result of the instruction;

2. rank the syllabi in order of importance according to the desired outcomes;

3. evaluate available resources and match them with the syllabi;

4. designate one or two syllabi as dominant;

5. review how combination and integration of syllabus types can be achieved and in what

proportion;

6. and translate decisions into actual teaching units.

In this stage, we need to identify language function and language expression related to

the jobs. Language functions are things the speakers do with their language in communication

(Savignon, 1983). Greeting, giving command, and giving information can be given as examples.

Language expressions are utterances that are expressed in an appropriate context for particular

function (Van Ek, 1977). Greeting a guest in the morning can use ‘good morning’ as the

expression. Savignon (1983) states that understanding and mastering language functions and
language expressions are useful for communication. Language functions and language

expressions are not only focusing on the grammar accuracy, but also ‘utterances of

communication’ in which this kind of teaching method is considered to be more meaningful

since it focus in based on the target. Cultural understanding needs also taken into consideration.

Step 4: Selection and Development of Materials and Activities

According to Graves (1996, in Xenodohidis, 2006), in order to select materials the

following issues should be taken into account:

 Effectiveness in achieving the course purposes

 Appropriateness of the materials, so that the students will feel comfortable. This means

that the material will be relevant to their interests and language level.

 Feasibility, so that the material will be in accordance with the students’ capabilities and

the course will not prove too difficult for them.

Choosing materials may mean development of new material, collection of various

materials or adaptation of existing ones. The source of materials can be:

 From published materials (textbooks, journals, magazines)

 From real speech (lecturers, hotel communication, seminars)

 Specially written

 Simplified and adapted from public materials or instances of real speech.

There are some suggestions given by Xenodohidis that beneficial for this stage.

According to him, any task aimed at activities should enable the students to deal with situation

related to their future employment. The lack of materials can be prevailed over by giving certain

task related to the future task. Using semi authentic materials is suggested. Moreover,

communication situations need to be involved since they give a different dimension to language
learning. Simulation games and problem solving techniques seemed appropriate and of interest

the students. The four language skills need to be related to the real situation activities. Tasks aim

at activities, which would enable students to deal with situation related to their future

employment.

Step 5: Organization of Content and Activities

Course organization is important since it provides the teacher and the students with a

clear idea of what will be taught (Xenodohidis, 2006). In addition, Xenodohidis mentioned two

principles underlying the concept of sequencing material; building and recycling. Building can

follow the process of the simple to the more complex, from concrete to more open ended, while

recycling means that the students deal with taught materials in a new way.

Another way to consider course organization is as a cycle or as a matrix. In a cyclical

approach, the teacher introduces a cycle of activities following a consistent sequence. In a matrix

approach, the teacher works with some activities and as time passes, decides with which ones to

continue (Graves, 1996, in Xenodohidis, 2006).

The content and activities may also be sequenced based on the standard operational

procedure (SOP) of the related job. The tasks performed in each duty need to be identified.

Those identified tasks are then sequenced based on the operational procedure. The sequenced

tasks are again analysed to reveal the language functions and language expression needed for

those tasks. Certain information related to the culture understanding and standard performance

required for those tasks can also be assessed and analysed. This approach is known as Task-

Based Approach (TBA).

 Task based approach to language teaching is a recent view which is based on the findings

of linguist and psychologist. This approach is against traditional approaches such as PPP

(presentation, practice, production) model of teaching (Foster, 1999, in Songhori, 2006). Task

based syllabus which is the cornerstone of TBA is defined by Richards, et.al. (1991, in Songhori,

2006) as:

“a syllabus which is organised around TASKs, rather than in terms of grammar or

vocabulary. For example, syllabus may suggest a variety of different kinds of task
which the learner are expected to carry out in the language, such as using the
telephone to obtain information; drawing maps based on oral instruction; giving
orders and instruction to others, etc.”
TBA takes into account the need for authentic material (Willis, 1996, in Songhori, 2006).

The activities in TBA are designed to help the students achieve a particular language goal

Richards, et.al. (1991, in Songhori). Similarly, Rabinni (2002, in Songhori, 2006) mentions the

needs of relevant activities to the real world language needs of the students. It suggests that the

activities in which the language is used to complete meaningful tasks enhance learning. Foster

(1999, in Songhori, 2006) shares a comment idea that TBA should provide an environment

which best promotes the natural language learning process.

The approach is assumed effective since it may help the teacher to teach in a systematic

sequenced. The learners may also feel it useful since it is related to the real tasks necessitated in

the real future job. This assumption is supported by Bowen (in Songhori, 2006), stating that the

main advantages of TBA are that language is used for genuine purpose. Gvardjanvic (2001, in

Songhori, 2006) reveals that ESP teachers sometimes find it difficult to motivate their

professionally oriented students for language learning. Textbooks are considered boring. He

suggests the using of real-life tasks. A real-life tasks raises motivation (Gvardjanvic, 2001, in

Songhori, 2006).
Steps 6: Assessment and Evaluation

Assessment is related to determination of students’ proficiency whereas evaluation to the

process of collecting and interpreting information about an educational program (Nunan, 1990,

in Xenodohidis, 2006). In other words, assessment shows what the learner knows and can do in

English, whereas evaluation reflects students’ reason for failing or succeeding and ways of

improving their learning. An assessment can also provide feedback on the effectiveness of the

course and in general, it would be an on-going part of the entire process.

Evaluation of the course should be integrated in the teaching process. The teacher should

be able to know whether goals and objectives were met, whether teaching methods were

effective, or whether new things and procedures should be involved in the course design process.

Since the current study is focusing in analysing the needs of the students, the department,

as well as the stakeholder, the discussion will be narrowed to the theoretical and related study

reviews of needs analysis.