Environmental Science Notes For 2017-2018

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
UNIT – I ENVIRONMENT AND ECOSYSTEM
DEFINITION, SCOPE, IMPORTANCE AND NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS

Environmental science is a multi-disciplinary science that teaches us to protect and
sustain our natural resources of land, water, air and vegetation. Strides made in industry,
agriculture and technologies for improving human life quality has been made possible by
relying on resources available in land, water and vegetation. These human or anthropogenic
activities have often led to deterioration of the natural resources. Besides anthropogenic
activities, natural hazards of earth quakes, land-slides, hurricane and floods pose threat to
human life and the natural resource system. There is an increasing awareness in the
community and willingness to adopt measures to protect our environment from degrading
effects of all forms of pollution.
Environmental studies deals with every issue that affects an organism. It is essentially
a multidisciplinary approach that brings about an appreciation of our natural world and
human impacts on its integrity. It is an applied science as its seeks practical answers to
making human civilization sustainable on the earth’s finite resources Its components include
biology, geology, chemistry, physics, engineering, sociology, health, anthropology,
economics, statistics, computers and philosophy.
Definition
‘A person’s environment consists of the sum total of the stimulation which he
receives from his conception until his death’. It can be concluded from the above definition
that Environment comprises various types of forces such as physical, intellectual, economic,
political, cultural, social, moral and emotional. Environment is the sum total of all the
external forces, influences and conditions, which affect the life, nature, behaviour and the
growth, development and maturation of living organisms. ‘The term environment is used to
describe, in the aggregate, all the external forces, influences and conditions, which affect the
life, nature, behaviour and the growth, development and maturity of living organisms.’
Scope
As we look around at the area in which we live, we see that our surroundings were
originally a natural landscape such as a forest, a river, a mountain, a desert, or a combination
of these elements. Most of us live in landscapes that have been heavily modified by human
beings, in villages, towns or cities. But even those of us who live in cities get our food supply
from surrounding villages and these in turn are dependent on natural landscapes such as
forests, grasslands, rivers, seashores, for resources such as water for agriculture, fuel wood,
fodder, and fish. Thus our daily lives are linked with our surroundings and inevitably affects
them. We use water to drink and for other day-to-day activities. We breathe air, we use
resources from which food is made and we depend on the community of living plants and
animals which form a web of life, of which we are also a part. Everything around us forms
our environment and our lives depend on keeping its vital systems as intact as possible.
Our dependence on nature is so great that we cannot continue to live without

protecting the earth’s environmental resources. Thus most traditions refer to our environment
as ‘Mother Nature’ and most traditional societies have learned that respecting nature is vital
for their livelihoods. This has led to many cultural practices that helped traditional societies
protect and preserve their natural resources. Respect for nature and all living creatures is not
new to India.
All our traditions are based on these values. Emperor Ashoka’s edict proclaimed that
all forms of life are important for our well being in Fourth Century BC Over the past 200
years however, modern societies began to believe that easy answers to the question of
producing more resources could be provided by means of technological innovations. For
example, though growing more food by using fertilizers and pesticides, developing better
strains of domestic animals and crops, irrigating farmland through mega dams and
developing industry, led to rapid economic growth, the ill effects of this type of development,
led to environmental degradation.
The industrial development and intensive agriculture that provides the goods for our
increasingly consumer oriented society uses up large amounts of natural resources such as
water, minerals, petroleum products, wood, etc. Nonrenewable resources, such as minerals
and oil are those which will be exhausted in the future if we continue to extract these without
a thought for subsequent generations. Renewable resources, such as timber and water, are
those which can be used but can be regenerated by natural processes such as regrowth or
rainfall. But these too will be depleted if we continue to use them faster than nature can
replace them. For example, if the removal of timber and firewood from a forest is faster than
the regrowth and regeneration of trees, it cannot replenish the supply. And losses of forest
cover not only depletes the forest of its resources, such as timber and other non-wood
products, but affect our water resources because an intact natural forest acts like a sponge
which holds water and releases it slowly. Deforestation leads to floods in the monsoon and
dry rivers once the rains are over.
Such multiple effects on the environment resulting from routine human activities must
be appreciated by each one of us, if it is to provide us with the resources we need in the long-
term. Our natural resources can be compared with money in a bank. If we use it rapidly, the
capital will be reduced to zero. On the other hand, if we use only the interest, it can sustain us
over the longer term. This is called sustainable utilisation or development.
Importance
Environment is not a single subject. It is an integration of several subjects that include
both Science and Social Studies. To understand all the different aspects of our environment
we need to understand biology, chemistry, physics, geography, resource management,
economics and population issues. Thus the scope of environmental studies is extremely wide
and covers some aspects of nearly every major discipline.
We live in a world in which natural resources are limited. Water, air, soil, minerals,
oil, the products we get from forests, grasslands, oceans and from agriculture and livestock,
are all a part of our life support systems. Without them, life itself would be impossible. As we
keep increasing in numbers and the quantity of resources each of us uses also increases, the
earth’s resource base must inevitably shrink. The earth cannot be expected to sustain this
expanding level of utilization of resources. Added to this is misuse of resources. We waste or
pollute large amounts of nature’s clean water; we create more and more material like plastic
that we discard after a single use; and we waste colossal amounts of food, which is discarded
as garbage.
Manufacturing processes create solid waste byproducts that are discarded, as well as
chemicals that flow out as liquid waste and pollute water, and gases that pollute the air.
Increasing amounts of waste cannot be managed by natural processes. These accumulate in
our environment, leading to a variety of diseases and other adverse environmental impacts
now seriously affecting all our lives. Air pollution leads to respiratory diseases, water
pollution to gastro-intestinal diseases, and and many pollutants are known to cause cancer.
Public awareness on environmental issues at global and country levels should be created
through effective propagations by news media. At present, government authorities have
initiated collaborative and sustained efforts to educate public about the importance of
environmental stability and the various environmental issues that pose a serious threat to the
living systems.
Need For Public Awareness
It is essential to make the public aware of the formidable consequences of the
Environmental Degradation, if not retorted and reformative measures undertaken would
result in the extinction of life. We are facing various environmental challenges. It is essential
to get the country acquainted with these challenges so that their acts may be eco-friendly.
Since most of the environmental problems and issues could produce adverse and
harmful effects, public awareness plays a crucial role in the proper control and management
of environmental issues. Most of the following environmental issues are directly contributed
by the man made activities. When public becomes conscious and aware of the drastic
consequences of environmental problems in terms of serious health hazards, they may tend to
refrain from indulging in any activity that may cause environmental problems. Public
awareness has become one of an effective tool not only in the management of environmental
problems, but also in their minimization techniques.
As the earth’s natural resources are dwindling and our environment is being
increasingly degraded by human activities, it is evident that something needs to be done. We
often feel that managing all this is something that the Government should do. But if we go on
endangering our environment, there is no way in which the Government can perform all these
clean-up functions. It is the prevention of environment degradation in which we must all take
part that must become a part of all our lives. Just as for any disease, prevention is better than
cure. To prevent ill-effects on our environment by our actions, is economically more viable
than cleaning up the environment once it is damaged. Individually we can play a major role
in environment management. We can reduce wasting natural resources and we can act as
watchdogs that inform the Government about sources that lead to pollution and degradation
of our environment.
Solar
Climate Energy Waste
control Managem
ent
Environmental issues are
Population directly contributed by Nutrient

Control Recycling
the man made activities.
Pest and
Disease Pollution
Biodiversity Prevention
Control
Conservation
This can only be made possible through mass public awareness. Mass media such as
newspapers, radio, television, strongly influence public opinion. However, someone has to
bring this about. If each of us feels strongly about the environment, the press and media will
add to our efforts. Politicians in a democracy always respond positively to a strong publicly
supported movement. Thus if you join an NGO that supports conservation, politicians will
make green policies. We are living on spaceship earth with a limited supply of resources.
Each of us is responsible for spreading this message to as many people as possible.
ECOSYSTEMS
Definition
The living community of plants and animals in any area together with the non-living
components of the environment such as soil, air and water, constitute the ecosystem. Some
ecosystems are fairly robust and are less affected by a certain level of human disturbance.
Others are highly fragile and are quickly destroyed by human activities. Mountain
ecosystems are extremely fragile as degradation of forest cover leads to severe erosion of soil
and changes in river courses. Island ecosystems are easily affected by any form of human
activity which can lead to the rapid extinction of several of their unique species of plants and
animals. Evergreen forests and coral reefs are also examples of species rich fragile
ecosystems which must be protected against a variety of human activities that lead to their
degradation. River and wetland ecosystems can be seriously affected by pollution and
changes in surrounding landuse.
Structure and Functions of an Ecosystem

Structural aspects
Components that make up the structural aspects of an ecosystem include:
1) Inorganic aspects – C, N, CO2, H2O.
2) Organic compounds – Protein, Carbohydrates, Lipids – link abiotic to biotic
aspects.
3) Climatic regimes – Temperature, Moisture, Light & Topography.
4) Producers – Plants.
5) Macro consumers – Phagotrophs – Large animals.
6) Micro consumers – Saprotrophs, absorbers – fungi.
ECOSYSTEM
ABIOTIC FACTORS BIOTIC FACTORS
1. Light
2. Temperature
3. pH Producers Consumers Decomposers
4. Pressure
PRIMARY SECONDARY TERTIARY

(Herbivores) (Primary Carnivores) (Secondary Carnivores)
ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM

Every ecosystem has several interrelated mechanisms that affect human life. These
are the water cycle, the carbon cycle, the oxygen cycle, the nitrogen cycle and the energy
cycle. While every ecosystem is controlled by these cycles, in each ecosystem its abiotic and
biotic features are distinct from each other.
All the functions of the ecosystem are in some way related to the growth and
regeneration of its plant and animal species. These linked processes can be depicted as the
various cycles. These processes depend on energy from sunlight. During photosynthesis
carbon dioxide is taken up by plants and oxygen is released. Animals depend on this oxygen
for their respiration. The water cycle depends on the rainfall, which is necessary for plants
and animals to live. The energy cycle recycles nutrients into the soil on which plant life
grows. Our own lives are closely linked to the proper functioning of these cycles of life. If
human activities go on altering them, humanity cannot survive on our earth.
The Energy Cycle

The energy cycle is based on the flow of energy through the ecosystem. Energy from
sunlight is converted by plants themselves into growing new plant material which includes
leaves, flowers, fruit, branches, trunks and roots of plants. Since plants can grow by
converting the sun’s energy directly into their tissues, they are known as producers in the
ecosystem. The plants are used by herbivorous animals as food, which gives them energy. A
large part of this energy is used up for day to day functions of these animals such as
breathing, digesting food, supporting growth of tissues, maintaining blood flow and body
temperature. Energy is also used for activities such as looking for food, finding shelter,
breeding and bringing up young ones. The carnivores in turn depend on herbivorous animals
on which they feed. Thus the different plant and animal species are linked to one another
through food chains. Each food chain has three or four links. However, as each plant or
animal can be linked to several other plants or animals through many different linkages, these
inter-linked chains can be depicted as a complex food web. This is thus called the ‘web of
life’ that shows that there are thousands of interrelationships in nature.
Nutrient cycling in a typical ecosystem

A nutrient cycle (or ecological recycling) is the movement and exchange
of organic and inorganic matter back into the production of living matter. The process is
regulated by food web pathways that decompose matter into mineral nutrients. Nutrient
cycles occur within ecosystems. Ecosystems are interconnected systems where matter and
energy flows and is exchanged as organisms feed, digest, and migrate about. Minerals and
nutrients accumulate in varied densities and uneven configurations across the planet.
Ecosystems recycle locally, converting mineral nutrients into the production of biomass, and
on a larger scale they participate in a global system of inputs and outputs where matter is
exchanged and transported through a larger system of biogeochemical cycles.
Particulate matter is recycled by biodiversity inhabiting the detritus in soils, water
columns, and along particle surfaces. Ecologists may refer to ecological recycling, organic
recycling, bio-cycling, cycling, biogeochemical recycling, natural recycling, or just recycling
in reference to the work of nature. Whereas the global biogeochemical cycles describe the
natural movement and exchange of every kind of particulate matter through the living and
non-living components of the Earth, nutrient cycling refers to the biodiversity within
community food web systems that loop organic nutrients or water supplies back
into production. The difference is a matter of scale and compartmentalization with nutrient
cycles feeding into global biogeochemical cycles. Solar energy flows through ecosystems
along unidirectional and non-cyclic pathways, whereas the movement of mineral nutrients is
cyclic. Mineral cycles include carbon cycle, sulfur cycle, nitrogen cycle, water
cycle, phosphorus cycle, oxygen cycle, among others that continually recycle along with
other mineral nutrients into productive ecological nutrition. Global biogeochemical cycles are
the sum product of localized ecological recycling regulated by the action of food webs
moving particulate matter from one living generation onto the next. Earths ecosystems have
recycled mineral nutrients sustainably for billions of years.
The energy in the ecosystem can be depicted in the form of a food pyramid or energy
pyramid. The food pyramid has a large base of plants called ‘producers’.
The pyramid has a narrower middle section that depicts the number and biomass of
herbivorous animals, which are called ‘first order consumers’. The apex depicts the small
biomass of carnivorous animals called ‘second order consumers’. Man is one of the animals
at the apex of the pyramid. Thus to support mankind, there must be a large base of
herbivorous animals and an even greater quantity of plant material. When plants and animals
die, this material is returned to the soil after being broken down into simpler substances by
decomposers such as insects, worms, bacteria and fungi so that plants can absorb the nutrients
through their roots.
T
he energy flow in the ecosystem is unidirectional. Sun is the main source of energy. The
amount of energy received differs in amount as it depends upon the slope, cloud, latitude and
pollutants present in the atmosphere. The energy received in the Varanasi of India is three
times more than the energy received in the Britain. Some part of the energy is used by the
producers. The rest is dissipated. The efficiency to conserve energy is around 1 percent in the
grasslands and savannah. It is also similar in the mixed forests. It is higher in the modern
crops and sugarcane field. It ranges from the 5 to 10 percent. The autotrophs are also known
as the producers. They make the food by the process of photosynthesis from the inorganic
materials. They not only make their food but also for the other organisms. They absorb the
energy from sun and convert into the chemical energy. They release oxygen. The organic
compounds release energy during respiration. The organic compounds which are formed play
an important role in the building of bodies and help in the release of energy which helps to
overcome the entropy. The energy is dissipated as a heat. There are herbivorous which feed
on the plants. They are not able to eat the whole of plant. There is a non usage of food
energy which passes into the decomposers. The phytoplankton in the aquatic food chain is
mainly eaten by the herbivore. The herbivores act on the ingested food which gets
aggregated. It releases the energy later on and helps in the respiration. The energy lost in this
case is not much and the remaining is used to overcome the entropy. The fraction of
assimilated food is used for the body building. The primary carnivore feed on the
herbivore which is fed by the secondary carnivore. In the food chain when the food is broken
energy is released. The small part of energy is utilized and so the rest of energy is dissipated.
The energy transfer from the one trophic level to the other level decreases in the amount
during transfer.
BIODIVERSITY
Introduction
The great variety of life on earth has provided for man’s needs over thousands of
years. This diversity of living creatures forms a support system which has been used by each
civilization for its growth and development. Those that used this “bounty of nature” carefully
and sustainably survived. Those that overused or misused it disintegrated. Science has
attempted to classify and categorize the variability in nature for over a century. This has led
to an understanding of its organization into communities of plants and animals. This
information has helped in utilizing the earth’s biological wealth for the benefit of humanity
and has been integral to the process of ‘development’. This includes better health care better
crops and the use of these life forms as raw material for industrial growth which has led to a
higher standard of living for the developed world. However this has also produced the
modern consumerist society, which has had a negative effect on the diversity of biological
resources upon which it is based. The diversity of life on earth is so great that if we use it
sustainably we can go on developing new products from biodiversity for many generations.
This can only happen if we manage biodiversity as a precious resource and prevent the
extinction of species.
Definition:
‘Biological diversity’ or biodiversity is that part of nature which includes the
differences in genes among the individuals of a species, the variety and richness of all the
plant and animal species at different scales in space, locally, in a region, in the country and
the world, and various types of ecosystems, both terrestrial and aquatic within a defined area.
Meaning of biodiversity:
Biological diversity deals with the degree of nature’s variety in the biosphere. This
variety can be observed at three levels; the genetic variability within a species, the variety of
species within a community, and the organisation of species in an area into distinctive plant
and animal communities constitutes ecosystem diversity.
BIOGEOGRAPHIC CLASSIFICATION OF INDIA
Our country can be conveniently divided into ten major regions, based on the
geography, climate and pattern of vegetation seen and the communities of mammals, birds,
reptiles, amphibia, insects and other invertebrates that live in them. Each of these regions
contains a variety of ecosystems such as forests, grasslands, lakes, rivers, wetlands,
mountains and hills, which have specific plant and animal species.
India’s Bio-geographic Zones
1. The cold mountainous snow covered Trans Himalayan region of Ladakh.

2. The Himalayan ranges and valleys of Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand,
Assam and other North Eastern States.
3. The Terai, the lowland where the Himalayan rivers flow into the plains.
4. The Gangetic and Bhramaputra plains.
5. The Thar Desert of Rajasthan.
6. The semi arid grassland region of the Deccan plateau Gujarat, Maharashtra,
Andra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
7. The Northeast States of India,
8. The Western Ghats in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala.
9. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
10. The long western and eastern coastal belt with sandy beaches, forests and
mangroves.
Levels of biodiversity
There are three levels of biodiversity. They are Genetic biodiversity which refers to
the genetic constitution of a species. Next one is species diversity, which is the variety of
species located within a particular region. The third one is the eco system diversity which
refers to the existence of some different habitats with their specific groups of animals and
plants.
Ecosystem diversity at community level exhibits three types. They are:
a) Alpha diversity: It refers to the diversity of organisms that share the common habitat
and community. This type of diversity is well represented by the combination of
species richness and evenness within a habitat.
b) Beta diversity: It refers to the diversity of species in between communities. Due to
environmental differences such as altitude and moisture, the species composition of
communities greatly differs. Beta diversity is mostly contributed by the greater or larger
differences of species between communities.
c) Gamma diversity: It refers to the diversity of the habitats over the total geographical
area.
Ecosystem diversity possesses the unique features of illustrating the number of niches,
trophic levels, and various types of ecological processes which maintain energy flow and
recycling of nutrients. Diversity of species is the proper measure by which ecosystem
diversity can be well assessed and evaluated.
India as a Mega Diversity Nation
Geological events in the landmass of India have provided conditions for high levels of
biological diversity. A split in the single giant continent around 70 million years ago, led to
the formation of northern and southern continents, with India a part of Gondwanaland - the
southern landmass, together with Africa, Australia and the Antarctic. Later tectonic
movements shifted India northward across the equator to join the Northern Eurasian
continent. As the intervening shallow Tethis Sea closed down, plants and animals that had
evolved both in Europe and in the Far East migrated into India before the Himalayas had
formed. A final influx came from Africa with Ethiopian species, which, were adapted to the
Savannas and semi-arid regions. Thus India’s special geographical position between three
distinctive centres of biological evolution and radiation of species is responsible for our rich
and varied biodiversity.
Among the biologically rich nations, India stands among the top 10 or 15 countries
for its great variety of plants and animals, many of which are not found elsewhere. India has
350 different mammals (rated eight highest in the world), 1,200 species of birds (eighth in the
world), 453 species of reptiles (fifth in the world) and 45,000 plant species, of which most are
angiosperms, (fifteenth in the world). These include especially high species diversity of ferns
(1022 species) and orchids (1082 species). India has 50,000 known species of insects,
including 13,000 butterflies and moths. It is estimated that the number of unknown species
could be several times higher. It is estimated that 18% of Indian plants are endemic to the
country and found nowhere else in the world. Among the plant species the flowering plants
have a much higher degree of endemism, a third of these are not found elsewhere in the
world. Among amphibians found in India, 62% are unique to this country. Among lizards, of
the 153 species recorded, 50% are endemic. High endemism has also been recorded for
various groups of insects, marine worms, centipedes, mayflies and fresh water sponges.
Apart from the high biodiversity of Indian wild plants and animals there is also a great
diversity of cultivated crops and breeds of domestic livestock. This is a result of several
thousand years during which civilizations have grown and flourished in the Indian
subcontinent. The traditional cultivars included 30,000 to 50,000 varieties of rice and a
number of cereals, vegetables and fruit. The highest diversity of cultivars is concentrated in
the high rainfall areas of the Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Northern Himalayas and the
North-Eastern hills. Gene-banks have collected over 34,000 cereals and 22,000 pulses grown
in India. India has 27 indigenous breeds of cattle, 40 breeds of sheep, 22 breeds of goats and
8 breeds of buffaloes.
UNIT – II ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
AIR POLLUTION
Pollution
Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause
adverse change. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise,
heat or light.
Pollutants
Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or

naturally occurring contaminants. Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint
source pollution. A pollutant is a waste material that pollutes air, water or soil. Three factors
determine the severity of a pollutant: its chemical nature, the concentration and the
persistence.
Definition
Air pollution is contamination of the indoor or outdoor environment by any chemical,
physical or biological agent that modifies the natural characteristics of the atmosphere.
Household combustion devices, motor vehicles, industrial facilities and forest fires are
common sources of air pollution. Pollutants of major public health concern include
particulate matter, carbon monoxide, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide. Outdoor and
indoor air pollution cause respiratory and other diseases, which can be fatal.
Causes
Air pollution comes from both natural and human-made (anthropogenic) sources.
However, globally human-made pollutants from combustion, construction, mining,
agriculture and warfare are increasingly significant in the air pollution equation.
Motor vehicle emissions are one of the leading causes of air pollution. China, United
States, Russia, India, Mexico, and Japan are the world leaders in air pollution emissions.
Principal stationary pollution sources include chemical plants, coal-fired power plants, oil
refineries, petrochemical plants, nuclear waste disposal activity, incinerators, large livestock
farms (dairy cows, pigs, poultry, etc.), PVC factories, metals production factories, plastics
factories, and other heavy industry. Agricultural air pollution comes from contemporary
practices which include clear felling and burning of natural vegetation as well as spraying of
pesticides and herbicides.
Greenhouse gases - Carbon dioxide and methane are two of the most important of
these gases, called greenhouse gases because they trap heat in the earth’s atmosphere. This is
already causing severe problems around the world and the situation will only get worse. The
rising temperatures will likely lead to more severe weather events, cause shifts in natural
communities, and probably lead to greater species extinction rates, among numerous other
effects.
Pesticides - A broad group of chemicals that enable us to live more comfortable lives
by and large, but whose main purpose underlies the central problem with pesticide pollution.
They are all poisons. A lot of these chemicals will wash into our rivers and streams and cause
direct toxicity to fishes, and may work their way up the food chain to affect birds, bears,
whales, and other predatory wildlife, including humans. Some of these pesticides will persist
for long periods of time in the environment. DDT was a pesticide used for a long time in the
US (and is still being used in parts of the world for mosquito control), but has been banned in
the US since 1972. Yet we still find DDT in our environment, sometimes at very high levels.
Heavy metals - Most heavy metals, such as mercury, are a natural part of the earth’s
crust, and would be slowly released into the environment over time anyway, just from
weathering of soils and rocks. However, our consumption of fossil fuels has greatly increased
the introduction of heavy metals into our environment. It is estimated that half of the mercury
introduced into the environment today is due to human sources. The problem is mercury, as
well as other heavy metals, cannot be detoxified. Once it is in the environment, it is here for
good. Toxic effects of heavy metals vary. Mercury is a potent toxin in people targeting
nervous tissue, but targets other tissues in other animals. The effects of heavy metals can also
be quite severe, since plants and animals have no natural ability to deal with heavy metals
specifically and heavy metals do not have any functions in our bodies.
Endocrine disruptors - Endocrine disruptors (EDs) include a variety of compounds
that share the ability to mimic natural hormones. These come from a variety of sources,
including pesticides and plastics. They can cause quite a lot of harm. There are many
different kinds of hormones. Some hormones are produced all the time, while others are only
produced when they are needed. But EDs come in and pretend to be a hormone, making your
body react in an inappropriate way. We have found some natural populations of fishes that
are all or mostly female, or all male, for example. This is likely hormone mediated.
Obviously, this is not a good situation, since a population that is all one sex cannot reproduce.
Major Primary Pollutants Generates by Human Activity
 Nitrogen oxides (NO2) - especially nitrogen dioxide are emerges from high
temperature combustion. Nitrogen dioxide is the chemical compound with the
formula NO2. It is one of the several nitrogen oxides.
 Carbon monoxide (CO)- It is a product by incomplete combustion of fuel such as
natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust is a major source of carbon monoxide.
 Volatile organic compounds - VOCs are an important outdoor air pollutant. In this
field they are often divided into the separate categories of methane (CH4) and non-
methane (NMVOCs).
 Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM), atmospheric
particulate matter, or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a
gas. In contrast, aerosol refers to particles and the gas together. Human activities, such
as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various industrial processes
also generate significant amounts of aerosols.
 Persistent free radicals connected to airborne fine particles could cause
cardiopulmonary disease.
 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - harmful to the ozone layer emitted from products
currently banned from use.
 Odors — such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes
 Radioactive pollutants - produced by nuclear explosions, nuclear events, war
explosives, and natural processes such as the radioactive decay of radon.
Secondary pollutants include:
 Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs. Ozone (O3) is a key
constituent of the troposphere. It is also an important constituent of certain regions of
the stratosphere commonly known as the Ozone layer.
 Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) - similarly formed from NOx and VOCs
Measures to Control Air Pollution.
 Activated carbon is one of the most popular forms of air pollution control. This type
of control involves the use of a pollution filter, carbon, to reduce the amount of
pollutants that are allowed to escape into the air. When in use, these filters absorb
pollutants helping to cleanse the air of any possible toxins.
 Bio-filtration is another effective type of air pollution control. It uses microorganisms,
often bacteria and fungi, to dissolve pollutants. Industries that employ bio-filtration
systems include food and waste plants, pharmaceutical companies, and wastewater
management facilities. While this method of air pollution control works rather well, a
large space is required in order to operate a bio-filtration system. Many industries do
not have this amount of available space, so this method is often disregarded.
 Change in Fuel: This technique involves the use of less polluting fuel to reduce air
pollution. Use of low sulfur fuel instead of high sulfur fuel by electric utilities is an
example of this method. Remember that low sulfur fuel is much more expensive than
high sulfur fuel.
 The other choice for an electric utility can be the use of natural gas as a fuel. Fuel
switching based on meteorological conditions or air pollution forecasts have been
used to prevent air pollution problem in many areas.
 Use of oil with low ash content or natural gas for a dryer at an asphalt plant to reduce
particulate matter is another example of this method. Introduction of compressed
natural gas, propane, ethanol and oxygenated fuels for automobiles have helped in the
reduction of air pollutants
 Nuclear power plants are relatively pollution free when compared to the coal fired
power plants. However, they have been subjects of controversy in their overall
environmental impact.
 Improve Dispersion: This approach is based on the concept that dilution of air
contaminants before they reach ground will lower the concentrations to which the
population is exposed. The use of this approach for industry is discouraged by the US
EPA.
 The emissions from the plant are passed through a control device before releasing to
atmosphere. The pollutants are removed, destroyed or transformed in the control
device before discharging into ambient air.
The scrubbing or flue gas desulphurization (FGD) processes can be classified as (i)
Throwaway or regenerative processes or (ii) wet or dry processes
WATER POLLUTION
Definition
Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies. (E.g. lakes, rivers, oceans,
aquifers and groundwater). Water Pollution occurs when pollutants are Water pollution
occurs when pollutants are discharged directly or indirectly into water bodies without
adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds. Water pollution affects plants and
organisms living in these bodies of water. In almost all cases the effect is damaging not only
to individual species and populations, but also to the natural biological communities.
Causes of water pollution
The specific contaminants leading to pollution in water include a wide spectrum
of chemicals, pathogens, and physical or sensory changes such as elevated temperature and
discoloration. While many of the chemicals and substances that are regulated may be
naturally occurring (calcium, sodium, iron, manganese, etc.) the concentration is often the
key in determining what is a natural component of water, and what is a contaminant. High
concentrations of naturally occurring substances can have negative impacts on aquatic flora
and fauna.
Oxygen-depleting substances may be natural materials, such as plant matter (e.g.
leaves and grass) as well as man-made chemicals. Other natural and anthropogenic
substances may cause turbidity (cloudiness) which blocks light and disrupts plant growth, and
clogs the gills of some fish species.
Many of the chemical substances are toxic. Pathogens can produce waterborne diseases in
either human or animal hosts. Alteration of water’s physical chemistry includes acidity
(change in pH), electrical conductivity, temperature, and eutrophication. Eutrophication is an
increase in the concentration of chemical nutrients in an ecosystem to an extent that increases
in the primary productivity of the ecosystem. Depending on the degree of eutrophication,
subsequent negative environmental effects such as anoxia (oxygen depletion) and severe
reductions in water quality may occur, affecting fish and other animal populations.
Organic water pollutants:
 Detergents
 Disinfection by-products found in chemically disinfected drinking water, such
as chloroform Food processing waste, which can include oxygen-demanding
substances, fats and grease
 Insecticides and herbicides, a huge range of organohalides and other chemical
compounds
 Petroleum hydrocarbons, including fuels (gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuels, and fuel
oil) and lubricants (motor oil), and fuel combustion byproducts, from storm water
runoff.
 Tree and bush debris from logging operations
 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as industrial solvents, from improper
storage.
 Chlorinated solvents, which are dense non-aqueous phase liquids (DNAPLs), may
fall to the bottom of reservoirs, since they don’t mix well with water and are denser.
 Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs)
 Trichloroethylene
 Perchlorate
 Various chemical compounds found in personal hygiene and cosmetic products.
Inorganic water pollutants:
 Acidity caused by industrial discharges (especially sulfur dioxide from power
plants)
 Ammonia from food processing waste
 Chemical waste as industrial by-products
 Fertilizers containing nutrients—nitrates and phosphates—which are found in
storm water runoff from agriculture, as well as commercial and residential use.
 Heavy metals from motor vehicles (via urban storm water runoff) and acid mine
drainage
 Silt (sediment) in runoff from construction sites, logging, slash and burn practices
or land clearing sites.
Macroscopic pollution—large visible items polluting the water—may be termed
“floatables” in an urban storm water context, or marine debris when found on the open seas,
and can include such items as:
 Trash or garbage (e.g. paper, plastic, or food waste) discarded by people on the
ground, along with accidental or intentional dumping of rubbish, that are washed
by rainfall into storm drains and eventually discharged into surface waters
 Nurdles, small ubiquitous waterborne plastic pellets
 Shipwrecks, large derelict ships.
Domestic Sewage
Domestic sewage is 99.9 percent pure water, while the other 0.1 percent are
pollutants. Although found in low concentrations, these pollutants pose risk on a large
scale. In urban areas, domestic sewage is typically treated by centralized sewage treatment
plants. In the U.S., most of these plants are operated by local government agencies,
frequently referred to as publicly owned treatment works (POTW). Municipal treatment
plants are designed to control conventional pollutants: BOD and suspended solids. Well-
designed and operated systems (i.e., secondary treatment or better) can remove 90 percent or
more of these pollutants. Some plants have additional sub-systems to treat nutrients and
pathogens. Most municipal plants are not designed to treat toxic pollutants found in industrial
wastewater.
Cities with sanitary sewer overflows or combined sewer overflows employ one or
more engineering approaches to reduce discharges of untreated sewage, including:
 utilizing a green infrastructure approach to improve storm water management
capacity throughout the system, and reduce the hydraulic overloading of the
treatment plant
 repair and replacement of leaking and malfunctioning equipment
 Increasing overall hydraulic capacity of the sewage collection system (often a very
expensive option).
A household or business not served by a municipal treatment plant may have an
individual septic tank, which treats the wastewater on site and discharges into the soil.
Alternatively, domestic wastewater may be sent to a nearby privately owned treatment
system (e.g. in a rural community).
Industrial effluents
Some industrial facilities generate ordinary domestic sewage that can be treated by
municipal facilities. Industries that generate wastewater with high concentrations of
conventional pollutants (e.g. oil and grease), toxic pollutants (e.g. heavy metals, volatile
organic compounds) or other nonconventional pollutants such as ammonia, need specialized
treatment systems. Some of these facilities can install a pre-treatment system to remove the
toxic components, and then send the partially treated wastewater to the municipal system.
Industries generating large volumes of wastewater typically operate their own complete on-
site treatment systems. Some industries have been successful at redesigning their
manufacturing processes to reduce or eliminate pollutants, through a process called pollution
prevention.
Heated water generated by power plants or manufacturing plants may be controlled with:
 cooling ponds, man-made bodies of water designed for cooling
by evaporation, convection, and radiation
 Cooling towers, which transfer waste heat to the atmosphere through evaporation
and / or heat transfer.
 Cogeneration, a process where waste heat is recycled for domestic and/or industrial
heating purposes.
Agricultural discharge
Nonpoint source controls: Sediment (loose soil) washed off fields is the largest
source of agricultural pollution in the United States. Farmers may utilize erosion controls to
reduce runoff flows and retain soil on their fields. Common techniques include contour
plowing, crop mulching, crop rotation, planting perennial crops and installing riparian
buffers.
Nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) are typically applied to farmland as
commercial fertilizer; animal manure; or spraying of municipal or industrial wastewater
(effluent) or sludge. Nutrients may also enter runoff from crop
residues, irrigation water, wildlife, and atmospheric deposition. Farmers can develop and
implement nutrient management plans to reduce excess application of nutrients.
To minimize pesticide impacts, farmers may use Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
techniques (which can include biological pest control) to maintain control over pests, reduce
reliance on chemical pesticides, and protect water quality.
Point source wastewater treatment
Farms with large livestock and poultry operations, such as factory farms, are
called concentrated animal feeding operations or feedlots in the US and are being subject to
increasing government regulation. Animal slurries are usually treated by containment
in anaerobic lagoons before disposal by spray or trickle application to grassland. Constructed
wetlands are sometimes used to facilitate treatment of animal wastes. Some animal slurries
are treated by mixing with straw and composted at high temperature to produce
bacteriologically sterile and friable manure for soil improvement.
Effects of Water Pollution
 Groundwater contamination from pesticides causes reproductive damage within
wildlife in ecosystems.
 Sewage, fertilizer, and agricultural run-off contain organic materials that when
discharged into waters, increase the growth of algae, which causes the depletion of
oxygen. The low oxygen levels are not able to support most indigenous organisms
in the area and therefore upset the natural ecological balance in rivers and lakes.
 Swimming in and drinking contaminated water can cause skin rashes, cancer,
reproductive problems, typhoid fever and stomach sickness in humans.
 Industrial chemicals and agricultural pesticides that end up in aquatic environments
can accumulate in fish that are later eaten by humans. Fish are easily poisoned
with metals that are also later consumed by humans. Mercury is particularly
poisonous to small children and women. Mercury has been found to interfere with
the development of the nervous system in fetuses and young children.
 Ecosystems are destroyed by the rising temperature in the water, as coral reefs are
affected by the bleaching effect due to warmer temperatures. Additionally, the
warm water forces indigenous water species to seek cooler water in other areas,
causing an ecological damaging shift of the affected area.
 Human-produced litter of items such as plastic bags and 6-pack rings can get
aquatic animals caught and killed from suffocation.
 Water pollution causes flooding due to the accumulation of solid waste and soil
erosion in streams and rivers.
 Oil spills in the water causes animal to die when they ingest it or encounter it. Oil
does not dissolve in water so it causes suffocation in fish and birds.
Biochemical oxygen demand or B.O.D is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by

aerobic biological organisms in a body of water to break down organic material present in a
given water sample at certain temperature over a specific time period. The term also refers to
a chemical procedure for determining this amount. This is not a precise quantitative test,
although it is widely used as an indication of the organic quality of water. The BOD value is
most commonly expressed in milligrams of oxygen consumed per litre of sample during 5
days of incubation at 20 °C and is often used as a robust surrogate of the degree of
organic pollution of water.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
In environmental chemistry, the chemical oxygen demand (COD) test is commonly
used to indirectly measure the amount of organic compounds in water. Most applications of
COD determine the amount of organic pollutants found in surface
water (e.g. lakes and rivers) or wastewater, making COD a useful measure of water quality. It
is expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L) also referred to as ppm (parts per million), which
indicates the mass of oxygen consumed per liter of solution.
Effects of water pollution.
You will notice in the previous pages that water pollution is very harmful to humans,
animals and water life. The effects can be catastrophic, depending on the kind of chemicals,
concentrations of the pollutants and where there are polluted. Below, we shall see a summary
of the effects of water pollution. The effects of water pollution are varied and depend on what
chemicals are dumped and in what locations.
Many water bodies near urban areas (cities and towns) are highly polluted. This is the result
of both garbage dumped by individuals and dangerous chemicals legally or illegally dumped
by manufacturing industries, health centers, schools and market places.
Death of aquatic (water) animals
The main problem caused by water pollution is that it kills life that depends on these
water bodies. Dead fish, crabs, birds and sea gulls, dolphins, and many other animals often
wind up on beaches, killed by pollutants in their habitat (living environment).
Disruption of food-chains
Pollution disrupts the natural food chain as well. Pollutants such as lead and cadmium
are eaten by tiny animals. Later, these animals are consumed by fish and shellfish, and the
food chain continues to be disrupted at all higher levels.
Control Methods
The water contamination can be controlled through some precautions. Some are described
as below.
1. The management of proper crop production methods like crop rotation, cover crop,
appropriate selection of crop and seeds, proper drainage systems and equipments etc
can be the good methods for controlling the water contamination.
2. The use of proper conservation buffer is also a good source for trap the chemicals like
pesticides, sediments, bacteria, fertilizers etc to prevent the surface water
contamination.
3. The conservation practices like the best management practices is a useful tool to
measures and control the loss of soil and water quality due to nutrients, waste, toxics
etc.
4. The water contamination can be controlled by the selection of appropriate chemicals,
pesticides and other organic and inorganic substances, their disposal sites of wastes of
industries, and the mixing procedures.
Preventive measures.
Abundant, clean water is necessary for good health. Water pollution is a community
problem. It is necessary not to let the industrial waste to find its way to natural waters (rivers,
canals and seas) without proper treatment.
There should not be any accumulation of garbage and excreta near a river or any source of
water. This is to avoid any chance of the garbage flowing into the river during the rains. Dead
bodies of humans and animals should not be thrown into the rivers. Bathing and washing near
the river should be avoided.
The water of rivers and lakes should be purified from time to time. Such a project
should be undertaken by the industries and the government. The Ganga Purification Project is
one of the projects undertaken by the Indian Government for the purification of the river
Ganga. Also an attempt should be made to use those chemical fertilizers and pesticides that
will decay on their own or get decomposed compounds. Substances that decay naturally are
called biodegradable. A biodegradable compound can be broken down by bacterial action.
Soap is a biodegradable compound.
Pollution of existing water sources cause acute water shortage. We must protect our
natural sources of water. We must find more efficient ways of producing fresh water from
sea-water.
SOIL POLLUTION
Soil is the thin layer of organic and inorganic materials that covers the Earth’s rocky
surface. The organic portion, which is derived from the decayed remains of plants and
animals, is concentrated in the dark uppermost topsoil. The inorganic portion made up of rock
fragments, was formed over thousands of years by physical and chemical weathering of
bedrock. Productive soils are necessary for agriculture to supply the world with sufficient
food.
Definition
Soil pollution is defined as the build-up in soils of persistent toxic compounds,
chemicals, salts, radioactive materials, or disease causing agents, which have adverse effects
on plant growth and animal health.
There are many different ways that soil can become polluted, such as:
 Seepage from a landfill
 Discharge of industrial waste into the soil
 Percolation of contaminated water into the soil
 Rupture of underground storage tanks
 Excess application of pesticides, herbicides or fertilizer
 Solid waste seepage
The most common chemicals involved in causing soil pollution are:
 Petroleum hydrocarbons
 Heavy metals
 Pesticides
 Solvents
Causes of Soil Pollution

Soil pollution is caused by the presence of man-made chemicals or other alteration in
the natural soil environment. This type of contamination typically arises from the rupture of
underground storage links, application of pesticides, percolation of contaminated surface
water to subsurface strata, oil and fuel dumping, leaching of wastes from landfills or direct
discharge of industrial wastes to the soil. The most common chemicals involved are
petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead and other heavy metals. This occurrence
of this phenomenon is correlated with the degree of industrialization and intensities of
chemical usage.
A soil pollutant is any factor which deteriorates the quality, texture and mineral
content of the soil or which disturbs the biological balance of the organisms in the soil.
Pollution in soil has adverse effect on plant growth.
Pollution in soil is associated with

 Indiscriminate use of fertilizers
 Indiscriminate use of pesticides, insecticides and herbicides
 Dumping of large quantities of solid waste
 Deforestation and soil erosion
Effects of Soil Pollution - Agricultural

 Reduced soil fertility
 Reduced nitrogen fixation
 Increased erodibility
 Larger loss of soil and nutrients
 Deposition of silt in tanks and reservoirs
 Reduced crop yield
 Imbalance in soil fauna and flora
Industrial
 Dangerous chemicals entering underground water
 Ecological imbalance
 Release of pollutant gases
 Release of radioactive rays causing health problems
 Increased salinity
 Reduced vegetation
Urban
 Clogging of drains
 Inundation of areas
 Public health problems
 Pollution of drinking water sources
 Foul smell and release of gases
 Waste management problems
 Ground water pollution
 Destruction of ecosystems and food chains
Effects of pesticides on humans - Soil degradation and acidification
Soil degradation can happen in many ways. One of the ways that soils can be
degraded is through soil acidification. Acidic soils can be found in a natural setting, such as;
the soils in Australia were naturally acidic before agriculture took over.
Soil acidification is a process of making the soil acidic . This means that the soil’s pH
level is lowered below 7.0. Although, the soil can naturally be slightly acidic, due to many
human activities its pH level can be lowered even further thus causing soil acidification.
Understanding what the human-causes have on the soil to make it acidic, the effects that
acidic soil has, and the management of acidic soils are all important in the protection of the
soil from becoming too acidic.
The burning of fossil fuels and vegetation are both causes of air pollution and then
causing soil acidification. When fossil fuels and vegetation are being burned, they release
carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrates (NO3), and sulfates (SO4) into the atmospheres. Although, the
atmosphere already consists carbon dioxide humans have increased the amount that is in the
air. When the carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere mingles with the rainwater, (H2O)
then it will form into carbonic acid (H2CO3) . However, when nitrates (NO3-) and sulfates
(SO4) enter the atmosphere they become a huge problem because when either one combines
with the rainwater (H2O) they become either nitric acid (HNO3) or sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
These two acids are much stronger than the carbonic acid. Thus, when these acids meet the
ground and they are percolated into the soil they cause the soil to lower its pH level, thus
making the soil acidic. Another huge cause of soil acidification is the agriculture processes.
Sometimes these processes of agriculture are to intentionally acidify the soil by using
nitrogen in the form of “ammonium fertilizers or biological nitrogen fixation”.
Soil acidification is like a wound. Understanding how this wound that is caused by
human activities can have a huge impact on the Earth is very important. Also, understanding
that there are ways to manage it and maybe even prevent it can be very important. After all
once there is a deep enough of a wound, a scar tends to form. This concept is also the same
for the Earth and its soil. Once it is damaged, it will take a lot of work to fix it and in some
cases, it will never be able to be fixed.
Control of soil pollution
There are many factors which control the soil pollution. It includes the limited use of
fertilizers and pesticides. The biological control method must be known and implemented.
The grazing must be controlled and forest management should be done properly. The
afforestation and reforestation must be done. In areas of wind erosion wind breaks and
shields must be used. The soil binding grass must be planted and the large trees must be
placed along the banks. The industrial wastes must be dumped in the low lying areas. There is
a definite technique of cropping which does not allow the weeds to settle on the fields. The
mining ways must be improved along with their transportation. The area must not be left
barren and dry.
 Use of pesticides should be minimized.
 Use of fertilisers should be judicious.
 Cropping techniques should be improved to prevent growth of weeds.
 Special pits should be selected for dumping wastes. 5. Controlled grazing and
forest management.
 Wind breaks and wind shield in areas exposed to wind erosin
 Planning of soil binding grasses along banks and slopes prone to rapid erosin.
 Afforestation and reforestation.
MARINE POLLUTION
Definition
Marine pollution can be defined as the introduction of substances to the marine
environment directly or indirectly by man resulting in adverse effects such as hazards to
human health, obstruction of marine activities and lowering the quality of sea water. While
the causes of marine pollution may be similar to that of general water pollution there are
some very specific causes that pollute marine waters.
Marine pollution occurs when harmful, or potentially harmful, effects result from the
entry into the ocean of chemicals, particles, industrial, agricultural and residential waste,
noise, or the spread of invasive organisms. Most sources of marine pollution are land based.
The pollution often comes from nonpoint sources such as agricultural runoff and windblown
debris and dust.
Many potentially toxic chemicals adhere to tiny particles which are then taken up
by plankton and benthos animals, most of which are either deposit or filter feeders. In this
way, the toxins are concentrated upward within ocean food chains. Many particles combine
chemically in a manner highly depletive of oxygen, causing estuaries to become anoxic.
When pesticides are incorporated into the marine ecosystem, they quickly become
absorbed into marine food webs. Once in the food webs, these pesticides can cause
mutations, as well as diseases, which can be harmful to humans as well as the entire food
web.
Toxic metals can also be introduced into marine food webs. These can cause a change
to tissue matter, biochemistry, behaviour, reproduction and suppress growth in marine life.
Also, many animal feeds have a high fish meal or fish hydrolysate content. In this way,
marine toxins can be transferred to land animals, and appear later in meat and dairy products.
Causes of Marine Pollution
There are many different ways to categorize, and examine the inputs of pollution into
our marine ecosystems. One common path of entry by contaminants to the sea are rivers. The
evaporation of water from oceans exceeds precipitation. The balance is restored by rain over
the continents entering rivers and then being returned to the sea. The Hudson in New York
State and the Raritan in New Jersey, which empty at the northern and southern ends of Staten
Island, are a source of mercury contamination of zooplankton (copepods) in the open ocean.
The highest concentration in the filter-feeding copepods is not at the mouths of these rivers
but 70 miles south, nearer Atlantic City, because water flows close to the coast. It takes a few
days before toxins are taken up by the plankton
Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution. Point source
pollution occurs when there is a single, identifiable, and localized source of the pollution. An
example is directly discharging sewage and industrial waste into the ocean. Pollution such as
this occurs particularly in developing nations. Nonpoint source pollution occurs when the
pollution comes from ill-defined and diffuse sources. These can be difficult to regulate.
Agricultural runoff and windblown debris are prime examples.
Control measures for oil pollution: Cleaning oil from surface waters and
contaminated beaches is a time-consuming and labor-intensive process. The natural process
of emulsification of oil in the water can be accelerated through the use of chemical
dispersants, which can be sprayed on the oil. A variety of slick-tickers in which a continuous
belt of absorbent material dips through the oil slick and is passed through rollers to extract the
oil have been designed. Rocks, harbor walls can be cleaned with high-pressure steam or
dispersants after which the surface must be hosed down.
Effects of marine pollution: Apart from causing eutrophication a large amount of
organic wastes can also result in the development of ‘red tides’. These are phytoplankton
blooms of such intensity that the whole area is discolored. Many important, commercially
important marine species are also killed due to clogging of gills or other structures.
When liquid oil is spilled on the sea, it spreads over the surface of the water to form a
thin film called an oil slick. The rate of spreading and the thickness of the film depend on the
sea temperature, winds, currents, and the nature of the oil. Oil slicks damage marine life to a
large extent. Salt marshes and mangrove swamps are likely to trap oil and the plants, which
form the basis for these ecosystems, thus suffer. For salt-marsh plants, oil slicks can affect the
flowering, fruiting and germination.
If liquid oil contaminates a bird’s plumage, its water-repellent properties are lost.
Water then penetrates the plumage and displaces the air trapped between the feathers and the
skin. This air layer is necessary as it provides buoyancy and thermal insulation. With this, the
plumage becomes waterlogged and the birds may sink and drown. Even if this does not
happen, the loss of thermal insulation results in exhaustion of food reserves in an attempt to
maintain body temperature, often followed by death. Birds often clean their plumage by
preening and in the process consume the oil, which, depending on its toxicity, can lead to
intestinal, renal or liver failure. Drill cuttings dumped on the seabed create anoxic conditions
and result in the production of toxic sulphides in the bottom sediment thus eliminating the
benthic fauna.
Fish and shellfish production facilities can also be affected by oil slicks. However, the
most important commercial damage can come from ‘tainting’, which imparts an unpleasant
flavor to fish and seafood and is detectable even at extremely low levels of contamination.
This reduces the market value of seafood.
NOISE POLLUTION
Nose pollution – definition

The noise pollution is defined as the unwanted sound which is released into the
environment. It disturbs the human being and cause an adverse effect on the mental and
psychological well being. It is measured in the units of decibels and is denoted by the dB.
The noise which is more than 115 dB is tolerant. The industrial limit of sound in the
industries must be 75 dB according to the world health organization. A type writer can
produce a sound at 60 dB. There are different sources of the noise pollution and include the
agriculture machines, industries which produce a sound and the use of entertaining
equipment, crackers, the blasting of dynamite, bull dozing, stone crushing, defense
equipments and textile mills
Causes of Nose pollution

Noise pollution has many harmful effects on the physiological and psychological
health of human beings. The effects of noise pollution on the health include hypertension,
annoyance, high stress levels, aggression, hearing loss, tinnitus, sleep disturbance and many
such health problems. Apart from traffic and industrial machinery, poor urban planning is
also one of the causes of noise pollution. The sources/causes of noise pollution increased in
number with the invention of machines. Here are the different causes of noise pollution.
Traffic
It is the biggest source of noise pollution in today’s times, especially in urban areas.
In the past few years, the rate of automobile manufacturing has increased manifold. Traffic
problems created by these vehicles is an important source of noise pollution. Sound produced
by the exhaust systems of trucks, autos, buses, motorcycles, etc. cause a lot of noise. The
noise created by a bus or truck is 10-15 times that of a car. Use of diesel which results into
high airborne vibration emission is one of the reasons why trucks and buses cause greater
amount of noise. Also, the noise created by road traffic gets amplified in narrow streets.
Railway Stations
Locomotive engines of trains are an important source of noise pollution. Besides, the
shunting and switching operations in rail yards too causes noise pollution to a great extent.
The whistles and horns used by railway employees add to the effect and thereby, increase
noise pollution.
Aircraft
The national parks and wastelands were earlier considered to be pollution free zones
and people traveled to such places for relaxation. Nowadays, the sound created by low-flying
military aircraft cause noise pollution in these areas too. Aerodynamic noise, the noise
emanating from aircraft systems and mechanical noise are the different kinds of noise
produced by an aircraft.
Industrial Noise
The machines used in industries are a major cause of noise pollution. The different
machines responsible for creating noise include compressors, motors and other machinery. It
is therefore recommended to grow trees in the premises of industries, which act as absorbents
of noise. Trees grown in the premises of ‘Tata Motors’, an automobile company based in
Pune (India) is the perfect example of how to reduce noise pollution in industrial belts.
Construction Equipment
The different type of machines and equipment used in the construction of roads and
buildings is also an important cause of noise pollution. The machinery used for the purpose of
construction includes pneumatic hammers, bulldozers, air compressors, dump trucks, loaders,
sidewalk breakers, etc. is also responsible for noise pollution to a great extent.
Household Equipment
The household equipment are amongst the minor contributors to noise pollution. Such
machines include the mixers, vacuum cleaners and other noise creating equipment. The
effects of noise created by these machines cannot be neglected; this is because one has to
work in close contact with the equipment. Moreover, the magnitude of sound one has to bear
is quite high.
Other Causes
The boilers, plumbing equipment, air conditioners, generators and fans contribute to
noise pollution to a small extent. Noise created by people in public places too is a major
contributor. The loudspeakers used in public places are amongst the sources of noise of a
high degree/amplitude. In countries like India, the use of loudspeakers during festivals creates
a lot of noise. Bursting firecrackers during festivals is also one of the major causes of noise
pollution.
Noise Pollution Solutions

The different measures that one can undertake for reducing noise pollution are given
below. Major sources of noise pollution include the automobiles and different types of
machines. Regular servicing of automobiles should help in reducing the intensity of sound
produced by them. Lubricating the machines used in day-to-day life proves to be helpful in
ensuring their smooth (noiseless) functioning. Use of loudspeakers must be prohibited in
public places. Soundproofing materials need to be used in the house to reduce noise pollution.
Noise pollution has far-reaching effects on our mental and physical well-being. It is
therefore, necessary to take up the problem of noise pollution seriously. One should
undertake appropriate steps to minimize the harmful effects of noise pollution.
Effects of Noise pollution
 Noise is considered a serious threat to the environmental health. Some of the adverse
effects of noise pollution are given below:
 It interferes with speech. In the presence of noise we may not able to follow, what the
other person is saying.
 Noise leads to emotional and behavioral stress. A person may feel disturbed in the
presence of loud noise such as produced by heating of drums.
 Noise may permanently damage hearing. A sudden loud noise can cause severe
damage to the eardrum.
 Noise increases the chances of occurrence of diseases such as headache, blood
pressure, heart failure, etc.
 Noise leads to increased heart beat, constriction of blood vessels and dilation of pupil.
 Noise is a problem especially for patients who need rest.
 Noise may cause damage to liver, brain and heart.
Noise Control at Source
There are at least primary areas in which control of noise generated by a source may
be initiated: proper design, proper equipment operation and equipment maintenance.
In a very general way source of the things that may result from good noise design and
operation are:
 Using shock absorbing techniques for absorbing impact energy (for example, the
use of nonmetallic gears to reduce the noise generated by the metal-to-metal
impact associated with metallic gears the use of flexible mounts to support wood
planer knives to reduce the noise generated by the impact of the knives on the
board).
 Proper lubrication and better maintenance of machines.
 Installing noisy machines in soundproof chambers.
 Reducing the noise produced from a machine by vibration damping i.e., making a
layer of damping material, rubber, neoprene, cork or plastic) beneath the machine.
 Using silencers to control noise from automobiles ducts; exhausts etc. and convey
systems with ends opening into the atmosphere.
Noise Control at Receiver’s End
Sound Insulation at Construction Stages
(a) Sound travels through the cracks that get left between the door and the wall. For reducing
noise, this space (jump frame gap) should be packed with sound absorbing material.
(b) Sound insulation can be done by constructing windows with double or triple panes of
glass and filling the gaps with sound absorbing materials.
(c) Acoustical tiles, hair felt, perforated plywood etc. can be fixed on walls, ceilings, floors
etc., to reduce noise.
Nuclear Pollution
Definition
One of the most important and dangerous type of pollution is nuclear pollution.
Nuclear pollution is produced by nuclear explosion which are carried out for performing
nuclear tests and which is used from making nuclear weapons. Due to this explosion about 15
to 20% of the radioactive particles enter into the stratosphere. Once they entered into the air
they continue to fall on the earth after about every 6 month up to several years. Almost 5% of
the radioactive material entered into the troposphere, which is the lowermost layer of the
atmosphere.
Sources of Nuclear Hazards

Natural Sources – This is in space which emits cosmic rays.
Man made Sources – (Anthropogenic sources) these are nuclear power plants, X-rays,
nuclear accidents, nuclear bombs, diagnostic kits.
Effects of Nuclear Hazards
 Exposure of the brain and central nervous system ot high doses of radiation causes
delirium, convulsions and death within hours or days.
 The use of eye is vulnerable to radiation. As its cell die, they become opaque forming
cataracts that impair sight.
 Acute radiation sickness is marked by vomiting; bleeding of gums and in severe cases
mouth ulcers.
 Nausea and vomiting often begin a few hours after the gastrointestinal tract is
exposed. Infection of the intestinal wall can kill weeks afterwards.
 Unborn children are vulnerable to brain damage or mental retardation, especially if
irradiation occurs during formation of the central nervous system in early pregnancy.
Control measures
 Nuclear devices should never be exploded in air.
 In nuclear reactors, closed cycle coolant system with gaseous coolant may be used to
prevent extraneous activation products.
 Containments may also be employed to decrease the radio active emissions.
 Extreme care should be exercised in the disposal of industrial wastes contaminated
with radio nuclides.
 Use of high chimneys and ventilations at the working place where radioactive
contamination is high. It seems to be an effective way for dispersing pollutants.
E-Wastes
Definition
Electronic waste or e-waste describes discarded electrical or electronic
devices. Used electronics which are destined for reuse, resale, salvage, recycling, or
disposal are also considered e-waste. Informal processing of e-waste in developing
countries can lead to adverse human health effects and environmental pollution.
Causes of E-wastes
The main cause or rather reason for the increasing e waste is the increased
number of products (because of development, technology, human mentality and
population) because of which disposal problems are caused as excess of anything is
not good.
Effects of E-Wastes
Air Pollution for e-waste recycling

The open-air burning might release hydrocarbons in the air, while biochemical
disrobing of gold-plated chips from computers originates brominates dioxins emissions and
hefty metals. According to the recent research on environmental impacts of the prevalent e-
waste landfill all over the world. In China, Guoyu, U.S. found airborne dioxins to be around
100 times more predominant than measured previously.
Water Pollution for e-waste recycling

The Cathode ray tube that is enclosed generally in older TVs, computer screens, video
cameras and are frequently fragmented apart, the yoke detached and the shell dumped.
Particles present in shell including barium and lead might leach into the soil as well as into
the groundwater of nearby localities. This threatens not only to people who drink that water
but also the various wildlife species that relies on this water in order to survive.
Soil Pollution for e-waste recycling

Another latest research on the landfills indicates that wind patterns across the nearby
regions of landfills disperse toxic particles. Food Supply is at risk because of the toxins
inflowing the “soil-crop-food pathway,” which is one of the most major ways that consuming
of heavy metals by the human body.
Effects of E-Waste constituent on health
Source of e-wastes Constituent Health effects

Solder in printed circuit
 Damage to central and peripheral nervous
boards, glass panels and
Lead (PB) systems, blood systems and kidney damage.
gaskets in computer
 Affects brain development of children.
monitors
 Toxic irreversible effects on human health.
Chip resistors and  Accumulates in kidney and liver.
Cadmium (CD)
semiconductors  Causes neural damage.
 Teratogenic.
 Chronic damage to the brain.
Relays and switches,
Mercury (Hg)  Respiratory and skin disorders due to
printed circuit boards
bioaccumulation in fishes.
Corrosion protection of
untreated and galvanized Hexavalent
 Asthmatic bronchitis.
steel plates, decorator or chromium (Cr)
 DNA damage.
hardner for steel VI
housings
Burning produces dioxin. It causes
Cabling and computer Plastics  Reproductive and developmental problems;
housing including PVC  Immune system damage;
 Interfere with regulatory hormones
Plastic housing of Brominated
electronic equipments flame retardants  Disrupts endocrine system functions
and circuit boards. (BFR)
Short term exposure causes:
Front panel of CRTs Barium (Ba)  Muscle weakness;
 Damage to heart, liver and spleen.
 Carcinogenic (lung cancer)
 Inhalation of fumes and dust. Causes chronic
Motherboard Beryllium (Be)
beryllium disease or beryllicosis.
 Skin diseases such as warts.
Control measures
Re-evaluate - Do you really need that extra gadget? Try finding one device with
multiple functions.
Extends the life of your electronics - Buy a case, keep your device clean, and avoid
overcharging the battery.
Buy environmentally friendly electronics - Look for products labeled Energy Star
or certified by the Electronic Product Environmental Assessment Tool (EPEAT).
Donate used electronics to social programs - and help victims of domestic violence,
children safety initiatives, environmental causes, and more. Ask your student REP for a
postage paid mailer for your cell phone or ink cartridge. For each item received, the World
Wildlife Fund will receive one dollar.
Reuse large electronics
Recycle electronics and batteries in e-waste recycling bins located around

campus – Large electronics can go in the larger bins found in your building.
UNIT – III NATURAL RESOURCES
Definition
Natural resources, the natural wealth of a country, consisting of land,forests, mineral d

eposits, water, etc.
It can be classified into two types
i) Renewable sources
Which can be regenerated within a given span of time or known as renewable

sources
Example: Biotic – Forest, Plants, Animals, Grass Land, Aquatic Life, Water,
Solar Energy, Wind Energy, Biomass Energy, Tidal Energy, Hydropower Energy,
Geothermal Energy and Nuclear Energy.
ii) Non-renewable sources
Do not have the capability of recycling and regenerated are known as non-
renewable resources
Example: Aboiotic – available in nature only in limited amounts – Oil,Petrol,Gas.
Forest Resources
Use and overexploitation: Scientists estimate that India should ideally have 33 percent of its
land under forests. Today we have only about 12 percent. Thus we need not only to protect
existing forests but also to increase our forest cover.
People who live in or near forests know the value of forest resources first hand
because their lives and livelihoods depend directly on these resources. However, the rest of us
also derive great benefits from the forests which we are rarely aware of. The water we use
depends on the existence of forests on the watersheds around river valleys. Our homes,
furniture and paper are made from wood from the forest. We use many medicines that are
based on forest produce. And we depend on the oxygen that plants give out and the removal
of carbon dioxide we breathe out from the air.
Forests once extended over large tracts of our country. People have used forests in our
country for thousands of years. As agriculture spread the forests were left in patches which
were controlled mostly by tribal people. They hunted animals and gathered plants and lived
entirely on forest resources. Deforestation became a major concern in British times when a
large amount of timber was extracted for building their ships. This led the British to develop
scientific forestry in India. They however alienated local people by creating Reserved and
Protected Forests which curtailed access to the resources. This led to a loss of stake in the
conservation of the forests which led to a gradual degradation and fragmentation of forests
across the length and breadth of the country.
Another period of over utilization and forest degradation occurred in the early period
following independence as people felt that now that the British had gone they had a right to
using our forests in any way we pleased. The following years saw India’s residual forest
wealth dwindle sharply. Timber extraction continued to remain the Forest Department’s main
concern up to the 1970s.The fact that forest degradation and deforestation was creating a
serious loss of the important functions of the forest began to override its utilization as a
source of revenue from timber.
Deforestation.
Definition
The temporary or permanent clearance of large expanses of forest for agriculture or

other use is popularly known as deforestation.
Causes: 1. Forest fires

2. Land clearing for agriculture
3. Construction of roads in forests
4. Tree harvest
Effects: 1. People who live there lose their livelihood

2. Decreased soil fertility
3. Soil erosion
4. Formation of silt behind dams affects hydro electric power production
5. Downstream fisheries affected by increased sedimentation of water ways
caused by soil erosions
6. Increase in the chances of Desertification
7. Quantity of surface water increases and floods the rivers and streams
8. Alternative floods and droughts are caused.
9. Extinction of many species
10. Increased regional and global climate changes
11. Rainfall is most likely to decline and droughts may become more common.
Protections:
1. Forest fire should be protected

2. Spraying insecticides to protect from disease (DDT)
3. Fencing
4. Regulation of grazing
5. Planting sufficient trees for regeneration
6. Social forestry program – forest are raised in government waste land,
community land, farm lands around urban and industrial areas, along road
sides, railway lines, and both sides of canals.
Water resources
Water resources are sources of water that are potentially useful. Uses of water include
agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities. The majority of
human uses require freshwater.
The water cycle, through evaporation and precipitation, maintains hydrological
systems which form rivers and lakes and support in a variety of aquatic ecosystems. Wetlands
are intermediate forms between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and contain species of
plants and animals that are highly moisture dependent. All aquatic ecosystems are used by a
large number of people for their daily needs such as drinking water, washing, cooking,
watering animals, and irrigating fields. The world depends on a limited quantity of fresh
water. Water covers 70% of the earth’s surface but only 3% of this is fresh water. Of this, 2%
is in polar ice caps and only 1% is usable water in rivers, lakes and subsoil aquifers. Only a
fraction of this can be actually used. At a global level 70% of water is used for agriculture
about 25% for industry and only 5% for domestic use. However this varies in different
countries and industrialized countries use a greater percentage for industry. India uses 90%
for agriculture, 7% for industry and 3% for domestic use.
One of the greatest challenges facing the world in this century is the need to rethink
the overall management of water resources. The world population has passed the 6 billion
mark. Based on the proportion of young people in developing countries, this will continue to
increase significantly during the next few decades. This places enormous demands on the
world’s limited freshwater supply. The total annual freshwater withdrawals today are
estimated at 3800 cubic kilometers, twice as much as just 50 years ago (World Commission
on Dams, 2000). Studies indicate that a person needs a minimum of 20 to 40 liters of water
per day for drinking and sanitation. More than one billion people worldwide have no access
to clean water, and to many more, supplies are unreliable. Local conflicts are already
spreading to states. Eg. Karnataka and Tamil Nadu over the waters of the Krishna.
India is expected to face critical levels of water stress by 2025. At the global level 31
countries are already short of water and by 2025 there will be 48 countries facing serious
water shortages. The UN has estimated that by the year 2050, 4 billion people will be
seriously affected by water shortages. This will lead to multiple conflicts between countries
over the sharing of water. Around 20 major cities in India face chronic or interrupted water
shortages. There are 100 countries that share the waters of 13 large rivers and lakes. The
upstream countries could starve the downstream nations leading to political unstable areas
across the world. Examples are Ethiopia, which is upstream on the Nile and Egypt, which is
downstream and highly dependent on the Nile. International accords that will look at a fair
distribution of water in such areas will become critical to world peace.
India and Bangladesh already have a negotiated agreement on the water use of the
Ganges. Overutilization and pollution of surface and groundwater: With the growth of human
population there is an increasing need for larger amounts of water to fulfill a variety of basic
needs. Today in many areas this requirement cannot be met. Overutilization of water occurs
at various levels. Most people use more water than they really need. Most of us waste water
during a bath by using a shower or during washing of clothes. Many agriculturists use more
water than necessary to grow crops. There are many ways in which farmers can use less
water without reducing yields such as the use of drip irrigation systems.
Agriculture also pollutes surface water and underground water stores by the excessive
use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Methods such as the use of biomass as fertilizer and
non toxic pesticides such as neem products and using integrated pest management systems
reduces the agricultural pollution of surface and ground water.
Industry tends to maximize short-term economic gains by not bothering about its
liquid waste and releasing it into streams, rivers and the sea. In the longer term, as people
become more conscious of using ‘green products’ made by eco-sensitive industries, the
polluter’s products may not be used. The polluting industry that does not care for the
environment and pays off bribes to get away from the cost needed to use effluent treatment
plants may eventually be caught, punished and even closed down. Public awareness may
increasingly put pressures on industry to produce only eco-friendly products which are
already gaining in popularity.
As people begin to learn about the serious health hazards caused by pesticides in their
food, public awareness can begin putting pressures on farmers to reduce the use of chemicals
that are injurious to health.
Global climate change: Changes in climate at a global level caused by increasing air pollution
have now begun to affect our climate. In some regions global warming and the El Nino winds
have created unprecedented storms. In other areas, they lead to long droughts. Everywhere
the ‘greenhouse effect’ due to atmospheric pollution is leading to increasingly erratic and
unpredictable climatic effects. This has seriously affected regional hydrological conditions.
Use of Surface and Ground Water
Consumptive use: In such uses, water is completely utilized and cannot be reused.
Ex: Domestic, industrial and irrigation
Non-consumptive use: In such uses, water is not completely utilized and is reused
Ex: Hydropower plant
Other uses:
1. Water is used for domestic purposes like drinking, bathing, cooking, washing.
etc.
2. Water is used in commercial establishments like hotels, theaters, educational
institutions, offices, etc.
3. Almost 60-70% of fresh water is used for irrigation
4. 20-30% of water is used for industrial operations by refineries, iron & steel
industries, paper & pulp industries, etc.
5. Water plays a key role in sculpting the earth’s surface, moderating climate and
diluting pollutants.
Over-Utilization of Surface & Ground Water
The rapid increase in population and industrial growth led to severe demand on water
resources. After using all available surface water resources to the maximum, human beings
began using groundwater to meet their needs.
1. The increased extraction of groundwater far in excess of the natural recharge

led to decreased groundwater level. The erratic and inadequate rainfall caused
reduction in storage of water in reservoirs. This also led to decrease of
groundwater.
2. Building construction activities seal permeable soil zone and reduce the area
for percolation of rainwater thereby increasing surface runoff.
3. If groundwater withdrawal rate is higher than recharge rate, sediments in
aquifers get compacted resulting in sinking of overlaying land surface. This is
called land subsidence which leads to structural damage in buildings, fracture
in pipes and reverses the flow of canals leading to tidal flooding.
4. Over-utilization of groundwater in arid and semi-arid regions for agriculture
disturbs equilibrium of reservoir in the region causing problems like lowering
of water table and decreased pressure in aquifers coupled with changes in
speed and direction of water flow.
5. Over utilization of groundwater in coastal areas leads to rapid intrusion of salt
water from the sea thereby rendering it unusable for drinking and agriculture.
6. Over-utilization of groundwater lads to decrease in water level thereby
causing earthquake, landslides and famine.
7. Over-utilization of groundwater leads to drying-up of dug wells as well as
bore wells.
8. Due to excess use of groundwater near agricultural fields, agricultural water
that contains nitrogen as a fertilizer percolates rapidly and pollutes the
groundwater thereby rendering the water unfit for potable use by infants.
(Nitrate concentration exceeding 45 mg/L).
Floods
Floods have been a serious environmental hazard for centuries. However, the havoc
raised by rivers overflowing their banks has become progressively more damaging, as people
have deforested catchments and intensified use of river flood plains that once acted as safety
valves. Wetlands in flood plains are nature’s flood control systems into which overfilled
rivers could spill and act like a temporary sponge holding the water, and preventing fast
flowing water from damaging surrounding land. Deforestation in the Himalayas causes floods
that year after year kill people, damage crops and destroy homes in the Ganges and its
tributaries and the Bramhaputra. Rivers change their course during floods and tons of
valuable soil is lost to the sea. As the forests are degraded, rainwater no longer percolates
slowly into the subsoil but runs off down the mountainside bearing large amounts of topsoil.
This blocks rivers temporarily but gives way as the pressure mounts allowing enormous
quantities of water to wash suddenly down into the plains below. There, rivers swell, burst
their banks and flood waters spread to engulf peoples’ farms and homes.
Drought
In most arid regions of the world the rains are unpredictable. This leads to periods
when there is a serious scarcity of water to drink, use in farms, or provide for urban and
industrial use. Drought prone areas are thus faced with irregular periods of famine.
Agriculturists have no income in these bad years, and as they have no steady income, they
have a constant fear of droughts. India has ‘Drought Prone Areas Development Programs’,
which are used in such areas to buffer the effects of droughts. Under these schemes, people
are given wages in bad years to build roads, minor irrigation works and plantation programs.
Drought has been a major problem in our country especially in arid regions. It is an
unpredictable climatic condition and occurs due to the failure of one or more monsoons. It
varies in frequency in different parts of our country.
While it is not feasible to prevent the failure of the monsoon, good environmental
management can reduce its ill effects. The scarcity of water during drought years affects
homes, agriculture and industry. It also leads to food shortages and malnutrition which
especially affects children. Several measures can be taken to minimize the serious impacts of
a drought. However this must be done as a preventive measure so that if the monsoons fail its
impact on local people’s lives is minimized. In years when the monsoon is adequate, we use
up the good supply of water without trying to conserve it and use the water judiciously. Thus
during a year when the rains are poor, there is no water even for drinking in the drought area.
One of the factors that worsens the effect of drought is deforestation. Once hill slopes
are denuded of forest cover the rainwater rushes down the rivers and is lost. Forest cover
permits water to be held in the area permitting it to seep into the ground. This charges the
underground stores of water in natural aquifers. This can be used in drought years if the
stores have been filled during a good monsoon. If water from the underground stores is
overused, the water table drops and vegetation suffers. This soil and water management and
afforestation are long-term measures that reduce the impact of droughts.
MINERAL RESOURCES
Categories of Mineral Resources
Mineral resources can be divided into two major categories.
 Metallic Mineral Resources

 Non-metallic Mineral Resources
Metallic Minerals are metals that are hard substance and conduct heat and electricity with
characteristics of luster or shine. For example Gold, Silver, Tin, Copper, Lead, Zinc, Iron,
Nickel, Chromium, and Aluminum.
Characteristics of Metallic Minerals
 Metallic Minerals present a metallic shine in their appearance.

 Contains metals in their chemical composition.
 Potential source of the metal that can be got through mining.
 Metallic minerals contain metal in raw form.
Metallic minerals are further classified into Ferrous and Non-ferrous metallic minerals.
Ferrous Minerals are those minerals that contain iron, for example, Iron ore, manganese,
and Chromites.
Non-Ferrous Minerals are those minerals which do not contain iron, for example, gold,
silver, copper, and lead.
Nonmetallic minerals are a special group of chemical elements from which no new product
can be generated if they are melted. For example sand, gravel, gypsum, halite, dimension
stone.
Characteristics of Nonmetallic Mineral Resources
 Nonmetallic minerals are minerals which are either present a non-metallic shine or luster
in their appearance.
 These minerals do not contain extractable metals in their chemical composition.
Use of Minerals
The use of minerals depends upon its deposits. Some countries are rich in mineral deposits,
while others have no deposits. The greatest use of minerals depends on its properties. For
instance, aluminum is light, strong and durable in nature, so it is used for aircraft, shipping,
and car industries.
Minerals are used in almost all industries. Gold, silver, and platinum are used in the jewelry
industry. Copper is used in coin industry and for making pipes and wire. Silicon obtained
from quartz is used in the computer industry.
Conservation of Mineral Resources
The total volume of consumable minerals resources is just 1% of all the minerals present in
the earth’s crust. However, the consumption rate is so high that these mineral resources which
are non renewable will get exhausted very soon. Here are some of the measures to conserve
minerals:
 Use of minerals in a planned and sustainable manner.

 Recycling of metals
 Use of alternative renewable substitutes.
 Technology should be improved to use the low-grade ores profitably.
Conflicts over water

Water conflict is a term describing a conflict between countries, states, or
groups over an access to water resources. ... However, conflicts occur mostly over freshwater;
because freshwater resources are necessary, yet limited, they are the center of water disputes
arising out of need for potable water and irrigation.
Water is essential for our existence and is fast becoming scarce. Rapidly increasing
population and limited water resources give rise to conflicts over water.
Conflict through use: Unequal distribution of water leads to inter-state or international

disputes.
Examples:
International conflicts
Conflict over water from the Indus between India and Pakistan
1. Conflict over water from the Colorado river between Mexico and USA
2. Conflict over water from the Shatt-al-Arab between Iran and Iraq
3. Conflict over water from the Bhramaputra between India and Bangladesh
International River Water Disputes:
India-Bangladesh Dispute on River Ganga Water:
Ganga water dispute is connected with the Kolkata port. The flow of water of river Ganga
from the steep slope of Himalayas is very fast and within the boundaries of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar,
many companion rivers merge into it. After its entry into Bangladesh, flow of its water becomes slow
and it divides into two rivers named Padma and Ganga.
Padma merges into the Brahmaputra and becomes Meghna in Bangadesh. It then falls in the
Bay of Bengal. Ganges divides itself into many streams in the delta of Sunderban. In 1974, Farakka
barrage was constructed on this flow of water in 1974 to make water available for Kolkata port, so
that ships can sail up to the dock even during dry season and the dock remains free of silt.
Bangladesh had objections to this saying that (1) India diverts the whole water during dry
season towards Kolkata port, which results in insufficient quantity of water in Meghna-Padma river,
and (2) the gates of Farrakka barrage are opened during the rainy season, which results in flood in
Bangladesh.
Mahakali River Dispute: This dispute regarding the water of river Mahakali (called
Sharda in India) is between India and Nepal. The latest dispute relates to Ranakpur and
Pancheshwar projects, but the dispute regarding water of Mahakali stopped after the Nepal
visit of the Foreign Minister of India, Pranab Mukherji, in February 1996. In 1998, the Indo-
Nepal Sub-Commission was established with the objective of taking action on all the aspects
related with the development of water resources.
Indus Valley Treaty: After the partition of India, an agreement for distribution of waters
of river Indus was signed between India and Pakistan. As per the treaty, the waters of rivers
Indus, Jhelum and Chenab were earmarked for India. India for which paid Rs 110 crores as a
onetime amount to Pakistan. On 19 September 1960, both the countries entered into the
Indus Valley Treaty and a permanent Indus Commission of both the countries was
constituted which meets every year.
National conflicts
1. Sharing of Cauvery water between Karnataka and Tamilnadu

2. Sharing of Krishna water between Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh
3. Sharing of Siruveni water between Tamilnadu and Kerala
Cauvery River Water Dispute:
The dispute over Cauvery, famous as the Ganga of South India, is again in the limelight. The
problem between Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, the central government and the Supreme Court is at its
climax. The origin of river Cauvery is in Brahmgiri hills (1341 m) near Sahyadri (Western ghat) in
district Coorg of Karnataka. It flows through Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, finally merging into the Bay
of Bengal.Total length of the river is 802 kms. At present, the problem of distribution of water is
pending due to the intervention of central government and Supreme Court. In spite of orders of the
Supreme Court dated 5 October 2002, the Karnataka government decided not to give water to Tamil
Nadu. Hence J. Jayalalitha, Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, filed a contempt petition against the
decision of Karnataka government in the Supreme Court of India. The Supreme Court had ordered as
per its judgment on 4th November 2002, that Karnataka would release 9000 cusec water daily for
Tamil Nadu. Even after the order of the Supreme Court, it was decided in a cabinet meeting under the
chairmanship of S. M. Krishna, Chief Minister of Karnataka, not to give water to Tamil Nadu.
The dispute still continues and the Sutlej-Yamuna link Canal has not yet been completed due to the
dispute. Thousands of acres of water of Ravi and Beas rivers is going to Pakistan, while the lands of
farmers of south Haryana are becoming barren land due to non-completion of the link canal.
Yamuna Water Dispute: This dispute is connected with five states of north India, i.e., Haryana,
Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Delhi and Himachal Pradesh. An agreement regarding Yamuna water was
signed between Haryana and Uttar Pradesh in 1954 according to which 77 per cent water of Yamuna
was to go to Haryana and 23 per cent to Uttar Pradesh. After 20-25 years, Delhi, Rajasthan and
Himachal Pradesh also started demanding a share in the water of Yamuna.
According to the agreement, Haryana was to get 47.82 per cent water, Uttar Pradesh was to
get 33.65 per cent, Rajasthan to get 9.34 per cent, Delhi 6.24 per cent and Himachal was to get 3.15
per cent. This agreement would continue till 2025. In the agreement it was provided that whenever
there is water supply in Yamuna, water supply would be given to Delhi on priority.
Construction of dams or power stations:
For hydroelectric power generation, dams are built across the rivers, and this initiates
conflicts between the states.
Conflict through pollution:
Rivers are also used for industrial purposes. They act as reservoirs for supply of fresh
water and also a receptor of waste water and rubbish from the industry. Water crossing
borders that has been polluted by wastes from one country develops into an international
conflict.
Management of water conflicts
1. Concerted efforts are required to enforce laws that check these practices to
control water pollution
2. In order to overcome the problem of sharing river water in a country, the
concept of interlinking of rivers has been suggested
3. Rivers should be nationalized, the National Water Authority and River Basin
Authority should be given powers to ensure equitable distribution of basin
water.
DAMS - Benefits and Problems
Dams are built across rivers to store water for irrigation, hydroelectric power
generation and flood control. The dams built to serve more than one purpose are called
"multi-purpose dams". These dams were called the "temples of modern India" by the
country's first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru.
Benefits of Dams
1. Dams are built to control flood and store flood water

2. Sometimes dams are used for diverting part or all of the water from river into
a channel.
3. Dams are used mainly for drinking and agricultural purposes.
4. Dams are built for generating electricity
5. Dams are used for recreational purposes
6. Navigation and fishery can be developed in the dam areas
Problems of Dams
Dams may face problems upstream or downstream as listed below:
Upstream problems
1. Displacement of tribal people

2. Loss of non-forest land
3. Loss of forests, flora and fauna
4. Landslides, sedimentation and siltation occurs
5. Stagnation and Water logging around reservoirs retards plant growth
6. Breeding of vectors and vector-borne diseases
7. Reservoir Induced Seismicity (RIS) causes earthquakes
8. Navigation and aquaculture activities can be developed in the dam area
Downstream problems
1. Water logging and salinity due to over irrigation
2. Reduced water flow and silt deposition in rivers
3. Salt intrusion at river mouth
4. Since the sediments carrying nutrients gets deposited in the reservoir, the
fertility of the land along the river gets reduced
5. Due to structural defects or faulty design of the dam may cause sudden dam
failure leading to collapse and destruction to life and property.
Food Resources
Food Resources
The food resources are a composite of the goods (the foodstuffs) and the services in
commerce and distribution through which these are made available for consumption. It is
easy to overemphasize the goods, to undervalue the services.
Today our food comes almost entirely from agriculture, animal husbandry and
fishing. Although India is self-sufficient in food production, it is only because of modern
patterns of agriculture that are unsustainable and which pollute our environment with
excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides.
The FAO defines sustainable agriculture as that which conserves land, water and plant
and animal genetic resources, does not degrade the environment and is economically viable
and socially acceptable. Most of our large farms grow single crops (monoculture). If this crop
is hit by a pest, the entire crop can be devastated, leaving the farmer with no income during
the year.
On the other hand, if the farmer uses traditional varieties and grows several different
crops, the chance of complete failure is lowered considerably. Many studies have shown that
one can use alternatives to inorganic fertilizers and pesticides. This is known as Integrated
Crop Management.
World Food Problems:
In many developing countries where populations are expanding rapidly, the production
of food is unable to keep pace with the growing demand. Food production in 64 of the 105
developing countries is lagging behind their population growth levels.
These countries are unable to produce more food, or do not have the financial means to
import it. India is one of the countries that have been able to produce enough food by
cultivating a large proportion of its arable land through irrigation. The Green Revolution of
the 60’s reduced starvation in the country. However many of the technologies we have used
to achieve this are now being questioned.
• Our fertile soils are being exploited faster than they can recuperate.
• Forests, grasslands and wetlands have been converted to agricultural use, which
has led to serious ecological questions.
• Our fish resources, both marine and inland, show evidence of exhaustion.
• There are great disparities in the availability of nutritious food. Some
communities such as tribal people still face serious food problems leading to
malnutrition especially among women and children.
These issues bring in new questions as to how demands will be met in future even with
a slowing of population growth. Today the world is seeing a changing trend in dietary habits.
As living standards are improving, people are eating more non-vegetarian food. As people
change from eating grain to meat, the world’s demand for feed for livestock based on
agriculture increases as well. This uses more land per unit of food produced and the result is
that the world’s poor do not get enough to eat. Women play an extremely vital role in food
production as well as cooking the meal and feeding children. In most rural communities they
have the least exposure to technical training and to health workers trained in
teaching/learning on issues related to nutritional aspects. Women and girls frequently receive
less food than the men.
These disparities need to be corrected. In India there is a shortage of cultivable

productive land. Thus farm sizes are too small to support a family on farm produce alone.
With each generation, farms are being subdivided further.
Changes Caused by Agriculture and Overgrazing

 Poor environmental agriculture practices such as slash and burn, shifting cultivation
degrade the forests.
 The loss of nutrients and overuse of agriculture chemicals are major factors in Land
degradation.
 The loss of genetic diversity in crop plants is leading to a fall in agriculture produce.
 Modern agriculture practices have resulted in a serious loss of genetic variability of

crops. Most of the rice varieties (30 -50,000) in India have been lost.
 Intensive agriculture operations, fossil fuel combustion and widespread cultivation

of leguminous crops have led to huge additional quantities of nitrogen. This has
increased a variety of ill effects ranging from reduced soil fertility and overfeeding
of lakes, rivers and coastal waters.
 Due to increase in population, there is an increase in demand for higher production,

which led to increase in agriculture land over the last four decades by converting
forest area, marginal and hill areas.
Effects of Modern Agriculture - Fertilizer Pesticide Problems.
Agriculture
Agriculture is an art, science and industry of managing the growth of plants and
animals for human use. Agriculture includes preparation of soil for cultivation of crops,
harvesting crops, breeding and raising livestock, dairying and forestry.
The two major types of agriculture are:
1. Traditional agriculture and

2. Modern or Industrialized agriculture
Modern Agriculture
Modern agriculture makes use of hybrid seeds of single crop variety, technologically
advanced equipment, fertilizers, pesticides and water to produce large amounts of single crop.
Problems using fertilizers
1. Micronutrient imbalance: Chemical fertilizers used in modern agriculture contain

Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium (N,P,K) which are macronutrients. Excess use of
fertilizers in fields causes micronutrient imbalance. Ex: Excessive use of fertilizers in
Punjab and Haryana caused deficiency of micronutrient Zinc thereby affecting
productivity of soil.
2. Nitrate pollution: Excess Nitrogenous fertilizers applied in fields leach deep into the
soil contaminating the groundwater. If the concentration of nitrate in drinking water
exceeds 25 mg/L it leads to a fatal condition in new-born babies. This condition is
termed "Blue Baby Syndrome"
3. Eutrophication: The application of excess fertilizers in fields leads to wash off of the
nutrient loaded water into nearby lakes causing over-nourishment. This is called
"Eutrophication". Eutrophication causes the lakes to be attacked by "algal blooms".
Algal blooms use nutrients rapidly and grow fast. Their life is short, they die and
pollute water thereby affecting aquatic life in the lake.
Problems in using Pesticides:

In order to improve crop yield, pesticides are used indiscriminately in agriculture.
Pesticides are of two types:
1. First generation pesticides that use Sulphur, Arsenic, Lead or Mercury to kill pests
2. Second generation pesticides such as Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethane (DDT) used
to kill pests. These pesticides are organic in nature. Although these pesticides protect
our crops from severe losses due to pests, they have several side-effects as listed
below:
3. Death of non-target organisms: Several insecticides kill not only the target species but
also several beneficial not target organisms
4. Pesticide resistance: Some pests that survive the pesticide generate highly resistant
generations that are immune to all kinds of pesticides. These pests are called
"superpests"
5. Bio-magnification: Most pesticides are non-biodegradable and accumulis ate in the
food chain. This is called bio-accumulation or bio-magnification. These pesticides in
a bio-magnified form are harmful to human beings.
6. Risk of cancer: Pesticide enhances the risk of cancer in two ways (i) It acts as a
carcinogen and (ii) It indirectly suppresses the immune system.

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Environmental Science Notes For 2017-2018

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ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

UNIT – I ENVIRONMENT AND ECOSYSTEM

DEFINITION, SCOPE, IMPORTANCE AND NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS

Our dependence on nature is so great that we cannot continue to live without

Environmental issues are

Population directly contributed by Nutrient

Structure and Functions of an Ecosystem

ABIOTIC FACTORS BIOTIC FACTORS

PRIMARY SECONDARY TERTIARY

ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM

The Energy Cycle

Nutrient cycling in a typical ecosystem

India’s Bio-geographic Zones

1. The cold mountainous snow covered Trans Himalayan region of Ladakh.

India as a Mega Diversity Nation

Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or

Major Primary Pollutants Generates by Human Activity

Secondary pollutants include:

Measures to Control Air Pollution.

Biochemical oxygen demand or B.O.D is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by

Causes of Soil Pollution

Pollution in soil is associated with

Effects of Soil Pollution - Agricultural

Nose pollution – definition

Causes of Nose pollution

Noise Pollution Solutions

Sources of Nuclear Hazards

Air Pollution for e-waste recycling

Water Pollution for e-waste recycling

Soil Pollution for e-waste recycling

Source of e-wastes Constituent Health effects

Reuse large electronics

Recycle electronics and batteries in e-waste recycling bins located around

Natural resources, the natural wealth of a country, consisting of land,forests, mineral d

It can be classified into two types

Which can be regenerated within a given span of time or known as renewable

ii) Non-renewable sources

Example: Aboiotic – available in nature only in limited amounts – Oil,Petrol,Gas.

The temporary or permanent clearance of large expanses of forest for agriculture or

Causes: 1. Forest fires

Effects: 1. People who live there lose their livelihood

1. Forest fire should be protected

Use of Surface and Ground Water

1. The increased extraction of groundwater far in excess of the natural recharge

Categories of Mineral Resources

Mineral resources can be divided into two major categories.

 Metallic Mineral Resources

Characteristics of Metallic Minerals

 Metallic Minerals present a metallic shine in their appearance.

 Use of minerals in a planned and sustainable manner.

Conflicts over water

Conflict through use: Unequal distribution of water leads to inter-state or international

International River Water Disputes:

India-Bangladesh Dispute on River Ganga Water:

and it divides into two rivers named Padma and Ganga.

related with the development of water resources.

constituted which meets every year.

1. Sharing of Cauvery water between Karnataka and Tamilnadu

Cauvery River Water Dispute:

Himachal Pradesh also started demanding a share in the water of Yamuna.

Construction of dams or power stations:

Conflict through pollution:

Management of water conflicts