Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Philhis Halili
Philhis Halili
1. Understanding History
It is by the possession and transmission of a culture that man
differs from other animals, and the first culture began with the
habitual use of tools and articulate speech (Pulmer, ed. 1965: 16).
For some writers like Nick Joaquin, history as culture is not
merely a chronological reconstruction of the past nor an analytical
interpretation of past events, but a process of creation or a
formation of culture, specifically a "national culture."
In its broadest meaning, history is the study of past events. It
generally presents the known past. What is unknown is yet to be
retrieved. The recording and analysis of experiences of a society
comprise the totality of a people's history.
In analyzing history, the use of correlated disciplines is
necessary to understand the reasons and consequences of human
actions. By referring to philosophies of history, the theories of
some great thinkers should be considered. In the investigation and
interpretation of the past, these theories could explain how and
why events happen in societies.
Arnold Toynbee's challenge and response theory is based on
the idea that man responds to the situation placed before him. His
actions are based on his thoughts. Thus, the society's way of facing
the challenges depending upon its capabilities uncovers the
pattern of the society's history. Mankind's approach in coping
with challenges determines history.
The 12-volume series of A Study of History (1934-61) is based
on Toynbee's thesis that history reflects the progress of
civilizations and societies. He viewed the past as a succession of
civilizations rather than political entities. For him, there were
patterns in the histories of various civilizations for which he came
to the conclusion that there appears to be laws governing the lives
of human civilizations. The general pattern shows the growth,
breakdown, and eventual dissolution of a particular civilization
leading to the formation of a new one. Based on his hypothesis,
the failure of a civilization to survive was the result of its inability
to respond to challenges.
Under various circumstances, a power will wish to extend its
influence at the expense of another. The threatened power will
then reevaluate the challenge and adopt the course of action to
curb the strategy of the opposing power.
To illustrate, the prehistoric men had shown their ability to
respond to the challenge of surviving amidst the conditions of the
environment. The use of crude stone tools, then later, highly
polished ones, and those made from metal and other raw
materials like clay soil, shows the capacity of human beings to
devise material equipment for subsistence.
The preservation of the man's material equipment is another
challenge that people have to face. Cultural artifacts made of
wood, barks of trees, and other organic materials decompose more
rapidly in hot and humid regions. Many of the objects left behind
by ancient societies are no longer existing as part of archaeological
record because they have disintegrated over time. This
predicament gives an incomplete view of the past. The response
include various kinds of information and techniques on how to
preserve the material legacy of the ancient past. Some of them are
best kept in their original sites like caves that were used for
habitation in the past. While, items such as potsherds (small
fragments of pottery), devices made of stone, metal, bones, and
teeth (covered with hard enamel) can most likely survive and be
presently known and retrieved through the untiring efforts of the
archaeologists.
In the struggle of dauntless Filipinos to regain the lost rights
and freedom during the Spanish era, the propagandists and
revolutionaries responded to colonial oppression by resisting. The
challenge was posed by the colonial subjugation of the Filipinos,
generally characterized by injustice and corruption. The response
was defiance to the prevailing rule.
Man's actions are not just involuntary movements especially
when time allows him to plan his next action. These responses
pass through the process of reasoning and analysis. Often, he
deals with other people to discuss on how to answer a certain
situation.
Associated with the aforementioned premises, the exchange
theory of Alvin Scaff may be carefully thought about. His
exchange theory refers to the systematic statement of principles
that govern the exchange of goods (tangible goods like property or
money and intangible goods like peace or prestige) between
individuals, between groups, between organizations, and even
between nations. This is based on the idea of reciprocity. Alliances
of people, communities as well as nations are rooted in the idea of
interchange.
There are some motivational forces found in the society
affecting the actions of people involved in the situation. A case in
point is the barter system, used in business transactions because
there was no currency during those days. Aside from domestic
trading existing among the barangays and the islands, the early
Filipinos also engaged in foreign trade with China, Japan, Siam
(now Thailand), Borneo, Sumatra, Cambodia, and other islands of
old Malaysia.
Another example in relation to this theory, Mrs. Corazon
'Cory' Aquino, wife of the slain opposition leader, was chosen as
the presidential standard bearer amidst high expectations that she
would free all political prisoners, abolish censorship of the media,
and institute legal proceedings to recover ill-gotten wealth taken
by corrupt public servants once elected into office.
For Georg Wilhelm Hegel (1770-1831), an idea is the moving
force of History. However, man has tasks to do so that events may
happen. Hegel's role of historical man follows a principle, which
he called Weltgiest or world spirit, which embodies ideals like
patriotism, heroism, and unity. Since historical individuals are
ideals and man follows his ideal, this thought, which is guided by
a particular ideal becomes what Hegel called as
Geisteswissenchaften or the world of Spirit of thought. This area of
thought is the thesis. This combines with a particular situation or
matter called Naturwissenchaften, the antithesis or the complete
opposite of the Geisteswissenchaften. By the combination of thesis
and antithesis, man achieves the synthesis, which is the historical
reality.
Applying this theory in history, there were guerilla fighters in
World War II who were guided by their sense of duty and
responsibility to lead the people during the warfare. The situation
was the Japanese invasion. The combination of their thoughts like
patriotism and heroism resulted to their historical acts, manifested
through their deeds and exploits in the battles that were fought
against the Japanese forces during the war era.
In understanding history, another theory to be considered is
the materialist concept of history or economic theory by Karl
Marx, another German philosopher. He asserts that the prevailing
economic system determines the form of societal organization and
the political and intellectual history of the epoch, which thus
attribute actions and events in history to economic motives. For
him, human interrelations depend on the material conditions of
their production. The struggle to maintain life is the most
enduring motivation for any human activity.
To cite an instance, the intensification of inter-island contacts
and the increasing specialization in craftsmanship by early
dwellers were brought about by economic consideration.
Centuries of trade and personal relations with Southeast Asian
neighbors led to the enrichment of Filipino life and culture. As
more dwellers traded with foreign merchants, influences in the
field of commerce, science, religion, language, and the arts became
more evident as they were transmitted to other members of the
society.
Another example is the Spanish colonial era. It has been said
that the three primary motives for vast exploration of lands were
for God, gold, and glory, but the main incentive was for economic
reasons. Colonies are the important sources of raw materials and
opportunities for investment. Spain was at the height of its power
in the 16th century since it exercised political and economic control
in its several colonies.
Another approach to historical studies is the method of
historiography developed by Fernand Braudel (1902-1985),
considered the father of historical structuralism. According to
Braudel, human actions are not only based on human decisions
but also on 'structures' that may be natural (like topography and
natural resources) or man-made (like existing laws and
technological devices). For example, men build houses for shelter.
Even if they want to construct high-rise condominiums in the area,
the builders have to consider the availability of resources, the
budget of the clients, and the building site, to narrje a few.
Furthermore, the introduction of new technology literally
transforms societies and thereby, history.
In the Braudelian approach, to achieve "total history" is to
integrate all aspects of man's past. This involves the study of
history in its total view made possible by examining the
circumstances underlying such political, economic, social, and
cultural events.
The pioneers of Philippine nationalist historiography
generally wrote in Spanish, and occasionally, in Tagalog. The
group in Spain included the Filipino propagandists Jose P. Rizal,
Marcelo H. del Pilar, Graciano Lopez Jaena, as well as Pedro
Paterno, T. H. Pardo de Tavera, Gregorio Sancianco y Gozon, and
among others.
For Rizal, history offers the key to national identity and the
basis for future development. In his writings, he used history to
show a uniquely Filipino culture, one which evolved through
centuries of contact with other Asians. He edited Dr. Antonio de
Morga's Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas. His annotations of Sucesos was
Ms major historical work. He depicted the destructive effects of
western colonization on early Filipino societies.
Teodoro Agoncillo (1912-1985) is considered as the father of
Filipino nationalist historiography. He wrote the conditions of the
Philippine past by analyzing the conditions of the masses. His
efforts in rewriting history like other contemporary historians
were reactions to the traditional presentations of Philippine
history, being colonial and elitist.
Philippine history is a people's history. As defined by Renato
Constantino, history is "the recorded struggle of people for ever
increasing freedom and for newer and higher realization of the
human person." It is not about the story of man as the individual,
but man as the associated man. Man interacts with nature and
with other men, thus, consciously changing his own perspective
and to some extent, the system of environment.
Based on Constantino's supposition that "Philippine history is
a story of struggle," the study has to be reassessed with a
nationalist perspective in the interest of objectivity. This is to allow
the modern Filipino to form a clear picture of his ancestors'
conditions and sentiments from the point of view of Filipino
writers to correct some historical impressions made by colonial
historiography tending to racial bias.
***
History is not merely tin1 woi \ »>! heroes and great men as
elucidated by Constantino in his book the Philippines: A Pant
Revisited. He pointed out that the masses of individuals as well as
the social forces generated by collective lives and struggles have to
be included. Men must struggle together to survive the exigencies
of natural or social forces intervening their development. The
associated man, as part of the society, makes history through his
collective lives.
Constantino further mentioned that history is not necessarily
presenting a long, unbroken chain of events. It illustrates
movement of people and ideas over time and space. They may
even be in conflict with one another. It is now the task of the
historian to weave particular events into a total view so that these
experiences can be summed up and analyzed.
However, for Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911), absolute
objectivity is inconceivable. Since people grow up in cultural
environments, they have imbibed the prevailing worldview in
addition to their own nature. The worldview that they have
developed are colored with perspective from which people
understand their environments and the events that happen.
Clearly, this results to subjectivity according to Dilthey.
In conclusion, history can serve as a guide to present and
succeeding generations in facing the challenges of the times. By
projecting the people's aspirations, a people's history will enable
us to grasp the direction of the country's development and
identify the factors that impede real progress. Truly, the need for a
real people's history becomes more urgent as we Filipinos search
for truly Filipino solutions to the problems besetting our country.
2. Sources of History
Sources of information provide the evidence from which the
historian obtains facts about the past. In writing history, the
historian not only relies on past thoughts, rather, reenacts it in the
context of analyzing the documents and other records left. This is
an indispensable condition in the quest for historical facts.
Literature, sports, visual and performing arts like dance can also
be considered as visual records of a country's history and culture.
Printed sources for the study of early Philippine history can
be traced from the missionary chronicles published by the various
religious orders assigned to the Philippines, which include the
Augustinians, Franciscans, Dominicans, Jesuits, and Recollects.
Although generally viewed as moralistic and ethnocentric with
regard to description of Filipino culture and society, these records
provided valuable contribution for the study of history during the
Spanish period in the Philippines.
Friars of the religious orders who had later known the
dialects of the natives, recorded observations of Filipino society
and culture like Fray Juan de Plasencia (1589), a Franciscan and
Fray Pedro Chirino (1604), a Jesuit.
****
1I w only sociilnr histor ian in the islands before 1887 was Dr.
Antonio de Moi'j'.a with his Sucesos de las Islas Filipinos (Mexico,
1609), a book on 16th century Philippines.
The Filipino Muslims were able to preserve written materials
of great historical value. The first is the sarsila or tarsila, which is a
genealogical record of the sultans or datus who tried to preserve
the lineage of the ruling class like the Sulu Sarsila and the
Maguindanao Tarsila. Copies are in the possession of the existing
heirs. Translations are found in Najeeb Saleeby's works.
Another material is the kitab, a book attributed to the late
Hadji Butu Abdul Baqui, Wazir of the Sulu Sultanate, who tried to
record the historical and personal events of his time-the early 20th
century.
Philippine Insurgent Records (renamed the Philippine
Revolutionary Records, now located in the National Library)
represents the records captured by the United States Army during
its suppression of the Filipino resistance against American
takeover of the Philippines from 1899-1903.
An important repository of Filipiniana materials is the
National Library, established in Manila on March 9, 1900 to honor
the memory of American military personnel killed during the
Filipino-American War. Years later, Public Law Act No. 1935,
mandated the creation of The Philippine Library, to consolidate all
libraries in the Philippine colonial government. Then, in 1916, the
colonial administration decided to merge The Philippine Library
with other entities and it came to be known as the Philippine
Library and Museum. However, in 1928, the Philippine
Legislature passed Public Law No. 3477 providing for the separate
entities to be called The National Museum and the National
Library.
Pursuant to Executive Order No. 486, s. 1951, issued by
President Elpidio Quirino and a follow-up order, Executive Order
No. 39, s. 1963 by President Diosdado Macapagal, public school
teachers throughout the Philippines were assigned to collect the
histories and customs of their localities. These records are now
known as the Historical Data Papers or Provincial Histories, intended
to replace government records destroyed during the World War II.
Sources of history may be classified as primary and
secondary. Primary sources are those that have witnessed the
event that took place or have been part of the incident being
studied. These include written records (e.g. narratives,
manuscripts, public documents, letters, diaries), fossils, artifacts,
and testimony from living witnesses. On the other hand,
secondary sources have not been part of the event being
considered such as magazines, newspapers, pamphlets,
typescripts, and articles written about the primary sources.
In the Philippines, aside from the National Archives, there
are other important repositories of historic documents, which
include the Archives of the Dominican Province of the Philippines
(Sto. Domingo Convent), the Archives of the University of Santo
Tomas, the Archives of the Province of Our Lady of the Most Holy
Rosary, the Jesuit Archives at the Ateneo de Manila University,
and the Archives of the Archbishopric of Manila. Primary and
secondary sources are also found in libraries as well as in private
collections.
Archaeology studies and reconstructs the cultural events of
the past through the material remains left by people.
Archaeologists study artifacts (material equipment made by
people of the past like tools, pottery, and jewelry) and fossils
(preserved remains of plants, animals, and people of a remote
geological past). Archaeological excavation refers to the systematic
recovery and study of these pieces of material evidence.
Prehistory, a term given by 19th century French scholars,
covers the past human experiences prior to the existence of written
records. The basic source of prehistory is prehistoric archaeology,
which is one of the fields of anthropological archaeology. It
studies societies at the time writing system has not yet been
invented. Societies with written records are being studied in
historical archaeology.
Archaeology gives us an idea on how things might have
looked like at a particular time. Cultural artifacts may be looked at
as concrete expressions of the ancient settlers' way in dealing with
the problem of adaptation to the environment. Their achievements
in material and social culture show much of their behavior, values,
and beliefs as well as their intellectual maturity.
Unfortunately, the reconstruction of Philippine prehistory
will always be incomplete. Many of the objects recovered have
disintegrated over time. Materials like wood, barks of trees, and
clothing decompose easily particularly in a tropical climate such
as ours. Devices made of stone, clay soil, metal and the like, can
survive the society that created it and thus, be presently known
through the efforts of the archaeologists.
Early archaeological undertakings in the Philippines began
with the first major expedition in 1881 by a Frenchman, Alfred
Marche in the island of Marinduque and the other sites in Central
Philippines. Most of his collections are now with the Musee de 1'
homme in Paris, and some in Madrid. There were also sporadic
finds and pot-hunting activities in various parts of the archipelago
prior to this major archaeological excavation. Feodor Jagor, a
German traveler, reported having encountered a priest in Naga,
Camarines Sur who collected artifacts from ancient graveyards.
Dr. Antonio de Morga, in his Sucesos de Las Islas Filipinas
(Historical Events of the Philippine Islands), described the ancient
artifacts that were recovered by farmers in Luzon, particularly in
Ilocos, Pangasinan,
I'a m pang, i and Manila. Phese were day vessels of dark brown
color and some marked with characters. These items are no longer
being manufactured in the islands.
Jose Rizal was noted to have found ground and polished
stone tools during his exile in Dapitan, Zamboanga del Norte.
The second major archaeological exploration was carried out
by Carl Guthe from the University of Michigan from 1922-1925.
With his team, they conducted several test-digs in Palawan, Bohol,
Northern Mindanao, and other places in Central* Philippines. The
purpose of this Michigan archaeological expedition was to collect
Chinese ceramics exported to the Philippines from China, to look
into the early Filipino-Chinese relationship. The collection,
resulting from the excavation, consisted of more than 30 cubic tons
of prehistoric artifacts. They are now kept at the University of
Michigan.
From 1926 to the outbreak of the Second World War, much of
the archaeological discoveries were done by Henry Otley Beyer
(1883-1966) born in Edgewood, Iowa who had married Lingayu
Gambuk, the 15-year- old daughter of a powerful Ifugao chief in
1910.
The discovery of a major archaeological site in Novaliches in
1926, resulting from the construction of a dam for Manila's water
supply, was Beyer's first archaeological research in the country. In
1947, Beyer published the Outline Review of Philippine Archaeology
by Islands and Provinces, a pioneering research activity in
Philippine prehistory.
Larry Wilson, a mining prospector, assisted Beyer in the
exploration of numerous Pleistocene sites in Northern Luzon. It
was Beyer who first disclosed the importance of Palawan in the
search of the early man in the Philippines.
All over the archipelago, the fossilized remains of large
mammals that roamed the islands during the Middle Pleistocene
Epoch have been discovered in the 1920s. The fossils of elephas,
stegodons, rhinoceroses, and deer have been discovered in
Cagayan, Pangasinan, Rizal, Panay Island, and in Northeastern
Mindanao. The elephas, stegodon, and rhinoceros are now extinct
in the country.
In Cabarruyan Island in Lingayen Gulf, a fossilized tooth of a
dwarf elephant was reported to have been retrieved. This specie of
dwarf elephant was subsequently identified and named Elephas
beyeri after H. Otley Beyer, considered as the Father of Philippine
Archaeology and Prehistory. Von Koenigswald, a paleontologist
known for his work on Java Man, gave the name for this specie.
After the Second World War, increased interest in the
prehistoric beginnings of the Philippines evolved. Archaeology
was later on introduced as part of the curriculum at the University
of the Philippines.
Wilhelm <.. Solheim II conducted the first postwar
excavations in Masbate Island from 1951 to 1953. Alfredo
Evangelista and E. Arsenio Manuel assisted him in undertaking
the work.
Between 1950 and 1954, Solheim was the research associate at
the Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology of the University of
the Philippines and the librarian and curator of the American
Historical Collection of the U.S. embassy in Manila. His earliest
work in Philippine archaeology was in 1951, with the publications
on archaeological fieldwork in San Narciso, Tayabas (now
Quezon). His activities included extensive field experience in
Southeast Asia, as well as the various islands of the Pacific Region.
From 1958 to 1962, Robert B. Fox and Alfredo Evangelista,
both working for the National Museum of the Philippines,
undertook a series of test-digs in the caves of Cagraray, Albay, and
Bato, Sorsogon. Tradeware ceramics from China and Thailand
were recovered in Calatagan.
Fox led the Tabon Caves Archaeological Project in
Southwestern Palawan, resulting in the unearthing of late
Pleistocene human fossils and stone tools and implements.
Charcoal materials analyzed by carbon-14 technique revealed the
presence of man in the area between 22,000 to 24,000 years ago.
Human fossil bones of at least three individuals were found.
These included a large frontal bone, with the brows and part of the
nasal bones as well as fragments of a mandible and teeth.
Classified as modern man or Homo Sapiens, these are the earliest
known human inhabitants of the Philippines.
"Neil Mcintosh of the University of Sydney in Australia
undertook the analysis and X-rays of the Tabon skullcap and
mandible in 1975. Details showed the presence of a thin fissure on
the right side of the skull, which according to Mcintosh, may have
been the cause of death of the individual. It was probably due to a
fall or a bump on the head.
Other minor diggings and explorations followed in the 1960s,
particularly in the southern regions of the Visayas and Mindanao,
led by anthropologists of the University of San Carlos in Cebu and
Silliman University in Dumaguete City, Negros Oriental. In 1963-
1964, Marcelino Maceda of San Carlos University, technically
assisted by the National Museum, conducted archaeological
excavations at Kulaman Plateau in Bukidnon and recovered a
number of limestone burial jars. North of this place, Samuel
Briones, a graduate student at Silliman University reported the
presence of limestone burial jars in several caves he visited in 1966.
In Cebu, Karl Hutterer and Rosa Tenazas of San Carlos
University recovered prehistoric artifacts in the middle of Cebu
City. Tenazas carried out archaeological excavations in the Laguna
area and recovered valuable materials, mostly 10 th and 14th century
artifacts in 1968-1969.
In I miery. Bat.mgas, .1 group of students from Ateneo de
Manila conducted archaeological diggings from 1968 to 1970. The
team was composed of Cecilia V. Locsin, Maria Isabel Ongpin, and
Socorro P. Paterno.
The National Museum of the Philippines, led by its chief
archaeologist Robert B. Fox, began a systematic archaeological
work in Cagayan Valley in the 1970s. This marked the ardent
quest for prehistoric man in the area. Comparable to those
previously reported animals (such as elephas, stegodons, and
rhinoceroses), new fossil discoveries such as those of crocodiles,
giant tortoises, pigs; and deer were found in Cagayan.
In 1971, Karl Hutterer returned to the site he previously
explored in Basey River in Southern Samar. The following year,
Wilhelm Solheim II and Avelino Legaspi dug in the area of Davao
del Sur. They found tools made from large shells, manufactured
through a flaking technique similar to that used in making stone
tools.
3. Unhistorical Data
There are some narratives that have been previously accepted
in Philippine history as facts but later were found out to be
historical errors. It is to the credit of many historians who
investigated and took position on what they have discovered in
their careful research. These unhistorical accounts include the
Maragtas (Story), the Code of Kalantiaw, and the Legend of
Princess Urduja.
Maragtas is about the 10 Malay datu from Borneo who settled
into the Philippine islands. According to the Maragtas, at around
1250 A.D., 10 Bornean datu and their families left their kingdom in
search of new homes across the sea to escape the merciless rule of
Sultan Makatunaw. Led by Datu Puti, the Borneans landed in the
island of Panay and bought the lowlands from the Ati king named
Marikudo in exchange for one gold saduk (native hat) and a long
gold necklace for Queen Maningwantiwan. After the land sale and
pact of friendship, the Atis went to the hills. The Malay datus
settled in the lowlands.
Datu Puti, Balensusa, and Dumangsil sailed northward to
Luzon and landed in the region around Lake Bonbon (Taal). There
they built their settlements. Dumangsil and Balensusa's families
occupied other neighboring regions now known as Laguna and
the Bicol Peninsula. Datu Puti left for Borneo after he knew that
his men were leading peaceful lives.
The other seven datu stayed in Panay. They divided the
island into three districts. Hantik (now Antique) was under Datu
Sumakwel. Datu Paiburong ruled Irong-Irong (now lloilo). Datu
Bangkaya governed Aklan (now Aklan and Capiz).
Led by Datu Sumakwel, a political confederation of
barangays (Madya- as) was formed for purposes of protection and
close family relations. The story as told by Father Santaren, further
described the expansion of the Malay settlers to other parts of the
archipelago. The legal code written by
Datu Sumakwel also known as the Maragtas Code was previously
known as the "oldest known written body of laws" in the
Philippines.
William Henry Scott (1921-1993) made the study of
prehistoric source materials for the study of Philippine history, the
subject of his doctoral dissertation at the University of Santo
Tomas. He defended his paper before a panel of well-known
historians on June 16, 1968. The panelists include leodoro
Agoncillo, Gregorio Zaide, Mercedes Grau Santamaria, Nicolas
Zafra, and Father Horacio de la Costa, SJ.
The research of Scott showed that Maragtas is not a
prehispanic document but a book written by Pedro Monteclaro, a
local historian of Panay. Monteclaro's publisher in 1907, noted that
this Maragtas should not be considered as facts, all of which are
accurate and true. The publisher pointed out that many of the
author's data do not tally with what we hear from old men. The
author wrote that two of his manuscripts were rotten and hardly
legible. None of these written materials were preserved for future
generations. He made no explanation about the date as well as the
origin of his sources. Neither were there claims to clarity. There is
no tradition of recording history nor legal decision in Panay
during the precolonial times. Thus, the Maragtas could neither
support the presence of any pre-Spanish Confederation ofMadiaas
(also spelled as Madyaas) nor uphold the existence of a Sumakwel
Code.
Previously regarded as the second oldest legal code in the
Philippines was the Code of Kalantiaw. This code was said to be a
set of ancient laws promulgated in 1433 by Datu Bendara
Kalantiaw (Spanish spelling, Calantiao) of Aklan, the third Muslim
ruler of Panay.
The code itself was contained in one of the chapters of the Las
Antiguas Leyendas de la Isla de Negros (Ancient Legends of Negros
Island) written by Fr. Jose Maria Pavon, a Spanish secular priest
who became a parish priest of Himamaylan, Negros Occidental in
1838-1839. Jose E. Marco of Negros Occidental discovered the
spurious Pavon manuscripts and presented it to Dr. James
Robertson, Director of the Philippine Library and Museum in 1914.
According to Marco's confession, he obtained the two manuscript
volumes from someone who had stolen them from the
Himamaylan conuento during the Revolution.
Director Robertson had the Pavon manuscripts published in
its English translation in 1917. The Philippine Studies Program of
the University of Chicago reprinted the translation in 1957.
Eventually, Filipino historians and textbook writers acknowledged
the authenticity of the Pavon manuscripts without any doubt.
In 1971, the late Ferdinand E. Marcos issued Executive Order
No. 294, which created the Order of Kalantiaw Award for services
in law and justice. He also issued Presidential Decree No. 105 in
1973, making the Kalantiaw Shrine in Batan, Aklan sacred. It
prohibited all forms of desecration including unnecessary noise
and violation of such would mean 10 years ol impi isonrnent.
Postage stamps, naval ships, paintings, and even beauty pageants
(I akambini ni Kalantiaw) were made to honor Datu Kalantiaw.
In the unprecedented doctoral study of Scott, he concluded
that the Pavon manuscripts were not genuine and that the Code of
Kalantiaw was a hoax. He presented his serious objections to this
fake code. They are as follows:
Study Guides
A. Terms/Concepts to Understand Historical
structuralism Prehistoric archaeology
Primary and secondary sources B. Questions to Answer
1. Why did some civilizations fail to survive according to
Arnold Toynbee?
2. How do events happen in history according to Alvin
Scaff?
3. How can historical reality be achieved according to
Georg Hegel?
4. What is the motivation for any human activity according
to Karl Marx?
5. How can total history be achieved according to Fernand
Braudel?
6. Explain Renato Constantino's supposition that
"Philippine history is a story of struggle."
7. Give the brief history of Philippine archaeology.
8. What made William Henry Scott to conclude that
Maragtas is not a prehispanic document?
9. Why did Scott say that the Code of Kalantiaw was a
hoax?
10. Did Princess Urduja really exist in the past?
Chapter II
The Natural Setting and its People
1. How the Earth Was in the Beginning
2. Geological Foundation
Prior to the appearance of modern man in the Philippine
archipelago, history has to depend on the works of geologists. The
geologists seek to understand how the earth evolved into what it
is today and forecast possible geologic events. In Arthur Holmes'
book, The Age of the Earth (1913), he developed a geologic time
scale, which he continued to work on until 1959. The dates given
for certain geological formations are informed estimates, in terms
of years before the present (BP).
According to present estimates, the planet earth is between
4.6 and 4.8 billion years BP. The first dinosaurs were believed to
have appeared around 225 million years ago, during the Mesozoic
Era. At about 65 million years ago, the dinosaurs that once
occupied the valleys, plains, and swamps became extinct. It is
believed that these huge creatures perished with a huge meteorite
that hit the earth or with shattering volcanic eruptions.
The Philippine soil is composed of numerous rocks, which
came from regions far from the archipelago's present location. It
was during the Tertiary period(54 million-2 million years BP) of
the Cenozoic era that the land structure of the Philippines was
defined (looking like a nymph lying across the ocean).
In the northern part, the Philippine archipelago was believed
to be adjoined to Formosa (now Taiwan) during the Eocene (53-54
million years BP) and Oligocene epochs (37-38 million years BP).
However, the Formosan connection was severed during the
Miocene epoch (26 million years BP). The combined effects of
volcanism and other tectonic movements of the basement complex
brought about the disjunction.
As connections with other areas changed, the internal
structure of the archipelago also underwent changes with the
flattening of the crustal surface of the existing higher grounds
during the Pliocene epoch (7-13 million years BP). The emergence
of man on earth was estimated at 5 million years BP.
Pleistocene epoch (1.6 million years to 10,000 years BP), the
first division of the Quaternary period, is the epoch prior to the
Holocene epoch (10,000 years BP to the present). During the
Pleistocene epoch, the earth underwent a series of alternating
warm and cold climates. In Europe, scientists agree that there
occurred four cold phases known geologically as Gunz, Mindel,
Riss, and Wurm. In the United States, these cold phases were
known as Jerseyian, Kansan glacial, Ulinoian-Iowan glacial, and
Wisconsin glacial. Between the cold phases are the three
interglacial or warm periods. Each interglacial period lasted for
several thousands of years.
The Pleistocene marked the beginning of evolutionary
processes in both flora and fauna. The freezing of the northern and
southern hemispheres caused an extensive spread of sea ice in the
area and helped provide a suitable climate for ice-age animals like
the mastodon and saber-toothed tiger. In Asia, the Mongolian area
and the Himalayas were also topped with ice sheets. There was a
widespread distribution of glaciers in the higher regions of the
African continent.
In some regions of Africa and Asia, particularly along the
southern coasts, there were no ice sheets. Instead, the climatic
condition was characterized by extensive and continuous rain.
This phenomenon is known as the fluvial condition. Such condition
gave rise to the growth of rainforests and marshes, which favored
the survival of large animals.
Based on recent studies, the earth has undergone 20 cycles of
glaciation over the past two million years. During the Pleistocene,
the glaciers accumulated a big quantity of water in the form of ice,
causing water levels in the world's oceans to drop. The earth's
climate, which began warming some 18,000 years ago, caused the
oceans to regain their present levels. The movements of the water
resulting from vast glaciations and deglaciations in the temperate
region caused convergence, as well as the separation of
landmasses.
Some historians claim that the Philippines is a remnant of a
lost continent in the Pacific called Mu or Lemuria, the other
remnants are Marianas and other mid-Pacific islands, and Borneo,
Java, Sumatra, and the Celebes.
The adherents of the Pacific or Magmatic theory say that the
Philippines came into existence after the eruptions of volcanoes
beneath the Pacific Ocean in remote epochs. When the spewed
magma piled up and cooled down, this resulted to Philippine
island formation. This theory explains that the cores of our
mountain systems are similar to the rocks found beneath the
ocean.
On the other hand, the Asiatic Theory or Land Bridges
Theory states that the Philippines was once part of Continental
Asia. At the end of the last Ice Age, the ice sheets melted, causing
the sea level to rise and submerge the land bridges that had
connected the Philippines to the Asian mainland.
I )uring the glm lal periods, ocean levels were much lower,
thereupon exposing the Sunda Slu-ll and the Sahul Shelf. These
are extensions of continents otherwise known as continental
shelves.
In Asia, the Sunda Shelf, which is an extension of the coastal
shelf of Southeast Asia, included the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra,
Java, and Borneo to Palawan. From Borneo, the Philippines was
linked through a narrow projection of island now occupied by
Balabac, Palawan, and Calamianes. The continental shelf known
as Sahul Shelf is an extension of the coastal shelf of Australia. It
covered the islands of New Guinea and the Aru Islands of
Indonesia.
When the Sunda and Sahul Shelves were exposed, the land
bridges were believed to have connected most of Indonesia, New
Guinea, and Australia. Dark-skinned people, ancestors to the
Australoids, traveled across the bridges to New Guinea and other
islands of Melanesia. The Mongoloid people then populated New
Guinea and gradually journeyed to the southeast by sailing
canoes.
The Pleistocene lasted for a long period of time. At the height
of the interglacial period, a great river system flowed from the
interior of Asia mainland and Australia, pouring into the outlying
areas. The riverine connections brought about the drifting of
species of fish. This explains the striking similarities of fish fauna
in Eastern Sumatra with those in Western Borneo and species
found in the Philippines. Similarly, there is a close faunal and
floral relationship between Eastern Mindanao and North Borneo.
The existence of the shallow China Sea between the Asian
mainland and the Philippines, as well as the presence of a
foredeep at the eastern margin of the country, indicates that the
archipelago was once the edge of the Asian continental platform.
These reasons further support the Asiatic Theory or the Land
Bridges Theory that most scientists accept.
5. Country's Climate
The Philippines, situated at the Torrid Zone, has a tropical
climate with a mean annual temperature of about 27'C (about
80°F). Mountain slopes and peaks found in the archipelago are
cooler. The country has two seasons, dry and wet. In most of the
islands, rainy season occurs from May to November. During this
period, the wind blows from the southwest. Often, the country
experiences typhoons from the months of June to October. The dry
season occurs from December to April, when the wind blows from
the northeast.
When typhoon signal no. 2 is hoisted, classes at the pre-
school, elementary, and secondary levels in all public and private
schools are automatically suspended. In 2007, the National
Disaster Coordinating Council (NDCC) issued a memorandum
stating that information from the Philippine Atmospheric
Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration
(PAGASA) could be used as basis to recommend decisions to the
Department of Education (DepEd) and Commission on Higher
Education (CHED) concerning suspension of classes.
***
In place of the waves of migration theory, modern
scholars suggest the so-called core population theory.
According to this theory, the inhabitants of the
Philippines consist of a core population to which came
accretions of people who moved in from the region. The
movements of people were erratic rather than in
sequential waves.
***
Study Guides
Inculturation
Questions to Answer
1. What do creation stories tell about the early Filipinos?
2. How does the country's geography affect the Filipino people?
3. Identify and describe the culture of the indigenous people of
the Philippines.
4. Why do modem day scholars oppose Beyer's waves of
migration
theory?
Chapter III
Pre-Colonial Philippines
Study Guides
Chapter IV
The Spanish Era
Study Guides
"Terms/Concepts to Understand
Inter caetera bull Vassalage
Reduccion Plaza complex
Retablo Pacto de retroventa
Questions to Answer
1. What prompted the Europeans to search new lands in the 14 th .
century to the 16th century?
2. Explain the efforts of the westerners to conquer the Philippines.
3. What made some historians believed that it was in Masao,
Butuan and not in Limasawa, Leyte where the first recorded
Christian mass took place?
4. Did the Spaniards succeed in promoting Hispanic culture
among the early Filipinos?
5. Describe the general condition of the Filipino-Chinese during
the Spanish period. What caused them to revolt against the
colonial government?
6. When the British forces occupied Manila in 1762, what
happened as a result to the Philippine political scenario?
Chapter V
Struggle for Rights and Freedom
Some were thrown into jail while the rest were exiled to the
Marianas Islands on March 14,1872. Among those who left on board
in the Flores de Maria were Father Jose Maria Guevarra, Father Pedro
Dandan, Joaquin Pardo de Tavera, Antonio Maria Regidor, Maximo
Patemo, Jose Maria Basa, Balbino Mauricio, and Pio Maria Basa.
Study Guides
A. Terms/Concepts to Understand
Nationalism Liberal ideas
Racial prejudice Secularization
Manifest destiny
B. Questions to Answer
1. What were the common grievances of the Filipinos against
the Spanish colonial administration?
2. Why did the early Filipino revolts fail to liberate the
country from the Spaniards?
3. What were the efforts of the Filipino propagandists to
achieve peaceful reforms?
4. When is a revolution justifiable?
5. Describe the organizational structure of the Katipunan.
6. Who could be a better revolutionary leader, Andres
Bonifacio or Emilio Aguinaldo?
7. What caused the Filipino-American collaboration against
the Spaniards?
Chapter VI
The Birth of a Nation
Study Guides
Terms/Concepts to Understand
Marangal na Dalit ng Katagalugan Constituent Assembly
Dictatorial government Separation of Church and State
El Heraldo de la Revolucion Pontifical flag
Questions to Answer
1. What is the significance of the proclamation of Philippine
Independence in 1898?
2. How was the transition of governance from the Spaniards to the
Americans made possible in the Philippines?
3. What has transpired in the Malolos Congress, which brought
about the establishment of the First Philippine Republic?
4. Explain, why is the Malolos Republic considered in history as
the First Philippine Republic and not the Kakarong Republic
nor the Biak-na-Bato Republic?
Chapter VII
The American Rule
5. The Colorums
Indigenous religious groups mostly thrive in isolated islands
and mountainous localities. Some are induced by the power of
natural forces, others a mixture of Catholicism, and superstition. The
remnants of Hermano Pule's Cofradia de San Jose retreated to the
mountains between Tayabas and Laguna. They settled at the
mountain of San Cristobal and considered this place their Jerusalem.
This group came to be known as colorum, a corruption of the Latin
phrase, et saecula saeculorum (world without end) used at Mass to end
certain prayers.
During the American occupation, the term colorum was used
by the authorities to refer to rebel organizations with mystical
characteristics.These colorum groups were characterized by religious
fanaticism, which was a combination of Catholic devotion, hero-
worship and folk-superstition. Members were recruited from the
oppressed masses that sought the messiahs for their redemption.
Colorum organizations were active in the 1920s. In Leyte and
Samar, the Sociedad de la Confianza was formed. The Caballeros de la
Sagrada Familia had one thousand followers in Pampanga,
Pangasinan, Bulacan, and Nueva Ecija. Other colorum groups were
established in Tarlac, Rizal, La Union, Batangas, and Surigao.
In Tarlac, the colorums worshipped Jose Rizal and Apo Ipe
Salvador. They believed that the two leaders would resurrect and
save them. Felipe Salvador, otherwise known as Apo Ipe was born in
Baliuag, Bulacan on May 26, 1870. When the Katipuneros from
Balintawak arrived in Baliuag, Ipe joined them. He was appointed as
colonel by Aguinaldo in 1899. When Aguinaldo surrendered to the
Americans, he went to the mountains and began his guerrilla
operations. Soon, he organized his group and called it Santa Iglesia
or Holy Church.
Apo Ipe warned his followers that a second deluge would occur
and destroy all non-followers and that after the flood, there would be
rain of gold and jewels for his followers. The colorums of Tarlac
believed that anting-antings made all members invulnerable to the
bullets fired by the enemy.
In Surigao, the colorum groups were devoted to the Sacred
Heart of Jesus, Immaculate Heart of Mary, and Jose Rizal. They
believed that one day Rizal would return and rule the Philippines.
The group grew in number and spread from Surigao to Agusan,
Cotabato, Samar, and Leyte.
The colorums of Surigao began their uprising by the end of
1923. They killed five Constabulary soldiers and later attacked a
Constabulary detachment, which resulted in the death of the
provincial commander and 12 soldiers. The government had to
suppress the colorum rebellion, which lasted from January to
October, 1924.
Governor General Leonard Wood, recognizing the patriotic zeal
that animated the colorum rebellion, prohibited the display of
pictures of Filipino heroes in all public schools in Mindanao.
In Nueva Ecija, Pedro Kabola founded a secret society in 1923
called Kapisanan Makabola Makarinag. They intended to assault the
municipal building of San Jose and execute all town officials so that
independence could be achieved. Subsequently, land would be
equally apportioned among the masses and the caciques as well as the
Americans would be expelled from the country. But before the
appointed date of the attack, the Constabulary troopers were able to
discover the plan. Kabola was killed. Hundreds of Kapisanan
members were arrested and jailed for conspiracy and sedition.
In Pangasinan, an Ilocano named Pedro Calosa began
organizing a colorum group in 1929. Members were given ranks
ranging from corporal to general and wore colorful red and white
uniforms with anting-antings embroidered on them.
In January 1931, the colorums decided to attack the town of
Tayug, supposed to be the spark of that would ignite the Central
Luzon area in a peasant revolution. Armed with knives, bolos, and a
few guns, Calosa and his followers marched on Tayug at the night
and managed to rout the soldiers. When a Constabulary detachment
arrived, the colorum group retreated into the convent. Pedro Calosa
escaped but was captured a few days later.
In an interview years later, Calosa himself said that many of the
colorum members were tenants who had been ejected by hacenderos,
or were small farmers deprived of their lands by land grabbers who
used their power to advance their personal interests.
9. Sakdalism
Benigno Ramos, leader of a popular movement Sakdal, used to
be a Senate clerk. In 1930, he purposely left his job to work against
the administration. The immediate cause of his resignation was his
involvement in a student picket staged in a Manila high school,
which had been provoked by negative remarks made by an
American teacher against the Filipino students. A number of Filipino
professionals gave their support for the students. Ramos had already
been warned by Quezon not to join the protest action but still he
declined.
Ramos consequently founded Sakdal, a weekly tabloid, which
became the vehicle for bitter denunciations of the ruling oligarchy.
This tabloid exposed the discontentment of the masses. It also
adopted the position that independence is not given but must be
taken through the united action of the people. Through its
newspaper, the Sakdal movement campaigned against
maldistribution of property, excessive taxes, and the concentration of
land ownership to a few. Subsequently, Ramos transformed the
movement into a political party.
In the 1934 election of delegates to the Constitutional
Convention, the Sakdalistas desired to have a number of candidates.
In campaign meetings and through their paper, the Sakdalistas
opposed colonial education in the country, in particular Camilo
Osias' grade school "Readers," for their glorification of American
culture. They also expressed opinion against American economic
control and the military bases. In this election, the Sakdalistas with
three candidates for representatives won.
With the coalition of the Antis and Pros of the Nacionalista
Party for the 1935 National Elections, the Sakdalistas predicted the
greater expansion of American economic power. They continued
their barrio campaigns to boycott the plebiscite for the
Commonwealth Constitution. However, Governor Frank Murphy
issued a ruling that any campaign against the plebiscite shall be
branded as seditious. As a consequence, many Sakdalistas were
arrested.
In various parts of the country, perpetuation of feudal and
usurious practices, which originated from the Spanish regime,
intensified the agony of the peasant masses. On May 2,1935, one
hundred fifty peasants armed with bolos and paltiks marched to the
municipal hall of San Ildefonso, Bulacan and hauled down the
American and Philippine flags, and raised the red Sakdal flag. Other
Sakdalistas did the same in Cavite, Rizal, and Laguna. The peasants
occupied the town halls and burned American flags in such places as
Tanza, and Caridad in Cavite, and Cabuyao and Sta. Rosa in Laguna.
Altogether, almost sixty thousand Sakdalistas were involved.
On the second day, constabulary troopers suppressed the
uprisings in the beleaguered towns. Disorganized and poorly armed,
the peasants were in no way equal to the Constabulary detachments
dispatched in the centers of the rebellion. Fifty-seven peasants were
killed, hundreds were wounded, and around five hundred were
imprisoned.
Benigno Ramos was in Japan when the revolt broke out. He was
then arranging for Japanese support for the Sakdal party. He denied
his involvement on the May 2 incident. Disowned by their leader,
many peasants withdrew support for Ramos. As a result, Sakdalista
influence greatly diminished in the countryside.
Study Guides
A. Terms/Concepts to Understand
Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation Bates Treaty
Philippine Commission Brigandage Act
Autonomy
Sedition Law
B. Questions to Answer
1. What were the incidents that precipitated the Filipino-
American War in 1899?
2. Why did Apolinario Mabini resign as cabinet member of
the Aguinaldo government? Would you agree with his
decision?
3. What were the cultural changes brought about by the
Americans to the Filipinos?
4. How did the militant groups in the country operate during
the American regime?
5. What were the significant American policies that led ,to
the recognition of Philippine sovereignty?
Chapter VIII
Commonwealth Period
1. The Transition
The Filipino people opted to continue asserting their right to
political independence. A transition government was a precondition
given by the United States pursuant to the Tydings-McDuffie Law.
Amidst colorful ceremonies, the Commonwealth of the Philippines
was inaugurated on November 15, 1935 at the Legislative Building.
The country now had a self-ruling government except in matters of
treasury and foreign affairs. Recognition of Philippine independence
by the United States was to come in 1945.
Some U.S. officials and dignitaries who attended the ceremonies
were Vice-President Nance Garner, Speaker Joseph Byrnes of the
U.S. House of Representatives, U.S. Secretary of War George Dern,
and General Douglas MacArthur. Chief Justice Ramon Avancena of
the Supreme Court sworn into office the new state officials, which
include President Manuel L. Quezon, Vice-President Sergio Osmena,
and the members of the National Assembly. In this occasion, U.S.
Secretary Dern proclaimed the existence of the Commonwealth of
the Philippines and the termination of the Philippine government
established under the Jones Law.
Upon assuming office, President Quezon secured the enactment
of laws that would improve the conditions of the marginalized
society. He readily adopted the policy of social justice, referring to
justice to the common tao by improving his condition.
The policy measures included the following: the establishment
of a Court of Industrial Relations to resolve labor disputes and the
promotion of social justice as shown by the Eight-Hour Labor Act
and the Minimum Wage Law. Written contracts between
landowners and tenants as requisite, as well as the establishment of
credit facilities for farmers were also included. Authority given to
the President to acquire private lands for resale to farmers was also
part of the social justice policy.
Considering the problem of national security, the National
Assembly enacted Commonwealth Act No. 1, the National Defense
Act, which provided for citizens' army. In formulating the Philippine
defense system, President Quezon requested and obtained the
services of General Douglas MacArthur who became the Field
Marshal of the Philippine Army.
Filipino-American relations continued in the transition period
provided by the Tydings-McDuffie Law. In 1937, Quezon and
President
Roosevelt agreed to create a joint Philippine-American committee to
probe into the economic problems of the Philippines and to
recommend a program for economic development. The Joint
Preparatory Committee on Philippine Affairs (JPCPA) was
established on April 14, 1937. For over a year, conferences were held
in Washington, San Francisco and in Manila. In 1938, the JPCPA
recommended the grant of political independence to the Philippines
on July 4,1946 and the extension of Philippine-American preferential
trade to December 31,1960.
Growth of agriculture, commerce, and industries also took
place in the economy although this may be attributed to a
considerable number of foreign capitalists who had investments in
the country. The Chinese for one, heavily invested in industries,
which included rice production, tobacco, hemp, copra, logging and
timber, manufacturing, banking, and real estate. They also controlled
a big percent of the retail trade. Together with the Americans, they
controlled the country's foreign trade.
Aside from the Chinese, the Japanese also invested largely in
the country. Prior to Japanese invasion in the country, the Japanese
had already penetrated the Philippines for economic reasons. In
1903, when Baguio was chosen as a summer capital, the Americans
hired one thousand five hundred Japanese workers to build the
zigzag road to that city.
After the road was completed, one hundred of them stayed and
migrated to Davao to work on American hemp and coconut
plantations. By 1907, their leader, Kyosaburo S. Ohta had formed the
Ohta Development Company. Soon other Japanese corporations
were established. By 1930, the Japanese had practically controlled the
deep-sea fishing industry. By 1935, a big percentage of the abaca
production in Davao came from the Japanese corporations. They
likewise invested in mining, logging, manufacturing, and extractive
industries. Thus, prior to the outbreak of World War II, Davao had a
big population of Japanese migrants.
In these Japanese enterprises, Filipinos were often used as
fronts or dummies. Alarmed by this situation, the National
Assembly passed the Anti-Dummy Law in May 1939, which
punished Filipinos who would allow themselves to be used as fronts
by alien businessmen and investors. The government in this manner
attempted to secure the utilization of resources by Filipinos.
There was also a growing apprehension over the political and
social consequences of unchecked immigration of a big number of
foreigners, especially the Chinese and the Japanese. Thereupon in
May 1940, the Philippine Immigration Law was enacted. The law
limited to 500, the number of immigrants permitted annually to
enter the country.
Civic-minded citizens, supportive of the government's program
in enabling Filipinos to engage in retail merchandising, established
the
National Economic Protectionism Association (NEPA) and the
Consumers' Cooperative League of the Philippines. Consequently,
Filipino participation in retail trade substantially improved.
In accordance to Commonwealth Act No. 184, s. 1936 enacted
by the National Assembly, the Institute of National Language was
established to make a study of the different Philippine languages for
the purpose of evolving and adopting a national language. After a
comprehensive study of the country's language condition, the
institute recommended to President Quezon the adoption of Tagalog
as the basis of the national language.
On December 30, 1937, President Quezon proclaimed through
Executive Order No. 134 the National Language of the Philippines
based on the Tagalog vernacular. The teaching of the National
Language in all schools in the country began on June 19,1940. By
virtue of Commonwealth Act No. 570, the National Language was
declared one of the official languages of the Philippines effective July
4, 1946. The said act also ordered that all textbooks written in the
National Language be prepared under the supervision of the Bureau
of Education, subject to the approval of the Institute of National
Language. (Secretary of Education and Culture Jose E. Romero
issued Department Order No. 7 on August 13,1959 mandating
Pilipino in referring to the National Language, The Tagalog-based
Pilipino remains an official and common national language until the
ratification of the 1987 Constitution, which prescribes Filipino as the
national language of the Philippines and an official language).
Other accomplishments of the Commonwealth Government
included the creation of the following new offices: National
Economic Council, Census Commission, and the Commission of
Mindanao and Sulu. Filipinization of the judiciary from the Supreme
Court to the municipal courts was completed. Woman suffrage was
finally allowed as shown in the May 14, 1935 plebiscite to ratify the
1935 Constitution. Pursuant to the Public Defenders Act,
appointment of public defenders (government lawyers) was made to
extend legal services to the people. New chartered cities were also
established - Cebu, Iloilo, Bacolod, Davao, Zamboanga, San Pablo,
Quezon City, Cavite, and Tagaytay.
Three amendments to the 1935 Philippine Constitution were
ratified by the national plebiscite on June 18,1940. The amendments
included the tenure of the office of the President and Vice-President
to four years with reelection for another term. Another legislative
revision is the establishment of a bicameral Congress of the
Philippines, with the Senate as Upper House and the House of
Representatives as Lower House. The creation of an independent
Commission on Elections composed of three members to supervise
all elections was also part of the revised provision.
2. Decade of Unrest
It was in the 1930s when Hitler's troops occupied Austria,
Czechoslovakia, and Poland and invaded Norway, Denmark, France,
the Soviet Union, and the rest of Europe. Japan had been at war with
Manchuria in 1931 and later invaded China in 1937. In 1940, Japan
occupied the northern part of French Indo-China and the following
year the whole French colony. America and Britain consequently
imposed economic sanctions in Japan. America froze Japanese assets
in America to prevent Japan from using these to her advantage.
Britain renounced her commercial treaties with Japan.
The imperialistic design of Japan in Southeast Asia could not
simply be ignored. The Commonwealth government feared that the
country would be the next target; thus it tried to lay its groundwork
for any contingency. Compulsory military training of able-bodied
Filipino youths under the supervision of General Douglas
MacArthur was made. In July 1941, the Philippine reserve and
regular forces joined forces with the United States Army. This
combined military forces known as United States Armed Forces in
the Far East (USAFFE) was placed under the command of General
MacArthur.
The Civilian Emergency Administration was likewise
organized. The Philippine National Red Cross conducted practice
evacuation drills in Manila and in other towns. The first simulated
blackout was conducted in Manila on July 10,1941. In October of the
same year, the whole archipelago experienced other simulated
blackout.
Notwithstanding the diversification and growth of agricultural
production, the living conditions of the farmers did not improve.
Exorbitant rental fees, arbitrary ejection, and other agrarian problems
intensified their agony. Though the previous government assumed
control of many religious estates, still many tracts of land were sold
to private American entrepreneur and big Filipino landowners. The
problems of the peasants were compounded when some influential
landowners resorted to a system of landownership characterized by
fraudulent resurvey of their estates.
Conscious of their common grievances, the peasants formed
organizations to realize their objectives. One of these organizations
was die Kapisanan Panahoti Na (The Time Has Come), composed of
tenants in haciendas in Dinalupihan, Bataan; San Rafael, San
Ildefonso, Bigaa, and Polo in Bulacan; San Pedro Tunasan in Laguna;
and Lian in Batangas. The members were concerned with the resale
of the lands to the tillers.
Other peasant organizations were Dumating Na (It Has Come),
composed of tenants of Hacienda Buenavista in San Rafael and Oras
Na (It is Time) in a Jesuit estate at San Pedro, Laguna.
From 1935 to the outbreak of war in 1941, the recognized leader
of the peasantry in Central Luzon was Pedro Abad Santos, known as
Don Perico.
A bar topnotcher and a member of the landed aristocracy, Don
Perico was elected in 1917 to the Philippine Assembly. In 1929, he
founded his Socialist Party. Regarded as a traitor by his hacendero
province-mates, he devoted the remaining years of his life to the
cause of the peasants. Under his guidance, the peasants and rural
workers conducted many protest actions, from strikes to the burning
of rice and cane fields and the carting away of farm produce.
Study Guides
Social justice
Anti-Dummy Law
National language
Official language
Rainbow 5 POWs
Death March
Religious us of the Virgin Mary
B. Questions to Answer
1. How did President Manuel L. Quezon implement the
Social justice Program under his administration?
2. Why is there a need for a national language?
3. What caused the Japanese forces to invade the Philippines
during the Pacific War?
4. Discuss the gruesome picture of the Philippine archipelago
at the onset of World War II.
5. Do you think the surrender of Bataan and Corregidor was
necessary at that time?
Chapter IX
The Japanese Occupation
Study Guides
Chapter X
The Republic
Study Guides
A. Terms / Concepts to Understand
Bell Trade Act Coup d' etat
Parity Rights Blue Book
Military Bases Agreement Oplan Sagittarius
Bell Mission AVSECOM
Melby Mission APEC
Rizal Bill Visiting Forces Agreement
Filipino First Policy SONA
B. Questions to Answer
1. Cite incidents under various political administrations
wherein the following qualities were evident:
a. creativity and resourcefulness
b. faith and religiosity
c. dishonesty and treachery
d. loyalty and bravery
2. What brought about the People Power 1 and 2? Discuss the
results of these mass actions.
3. What should the Filipinos do to achieve a sustainable
economic growth?
4. Is there a need to change the 1987 Philippine Constitution?
Why?
References
Abueva, Jose V. Filipino Nationalism Various Meanings, Constant and
Changing Goals, Continuing Relevance. Quezon City: University
of the Philippines Press, 1999.
Agoncillo, Teodoro A. The Revolt of the Masses, The Story of Bonifacio
and the Katipunan. Quezon City: The University of the Philippine
Press, 2002.
Alarcon, Norma I. Philippine Architecture During the Pre-Spanish
and Spanish Periods. Manila: UST Publishing House, 1991.
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