PHD Thesis by Carol K Waites THE PROFESSIONAL LIFE-CYCLES AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF ADULT TEACHERS OF ENGLISH TO SPEAKERS OF OTHER LANGUAGES (TESOL)

THE PROFESSIONAL LIFE-CYCLES AND PROFESSIONAL
DEVELOPMENT OF ADULT TEACHERS OF ENGLISH TO

SPEAKERS OF OTHER LANGUAGES (TESOL)
VOLUME I
CAROL K WAITES
A dissertation in fulfilment of the requirements for
the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
at the University of New South Wales
June, 1999
ABSTRACT

This thesis focuses on the findings of a research study conducted in Geneva and Sydney to
examine the career cycles of TESOLs. It explores many of the issues investigated in
Huberman’s study of 160 secondary school teachers in Geneva (1989, 1993). Seventy-
three in-depth interviews were conducted with teachers and trainers / administrators in
adult TESOL, and professional development issues were examined in greater detail than
in the Huberman study.
The central purpose of the study was to test the universality of the Huberman model of
career phases. TESOLs were found to have far more variations during their career cycles
than school teachers, who were in a more stable and predictable situation.
The study focused on particular moments in the career cycle, exploring TESOLs’ levels of
satisfaction. TESOLs in the present study were found to have similar intrinsic satisfactions
and concerns about working conditions as the findings of other TESOL studies. Although
the occupation was reportedly becoming increasingly more professional, its unpredictable
nature made it stimulating and rewarding. In spite of the instability of the TESOL career,
TESOLs appeared to have more positive career experiences overall than many school
teachers with more stable career paths.
The study also examined professional development issues by comparing the perceptions
of TESOLs and their trainers / administrators. They had many divergent opinions as to the
professional development requirements of TESOLs. While there was no conclusive
evidence that professional
i
development could be linked to stages, TESOLs in a phase of diversification were found
to have different professional development requirements from other phases. Personal,
professional and environmental factors also affect the professional development
requirements of TESOLs at any stage.
In summary, it appears that the traditional career phase model is inappropriate when
applied to TESOLs, and perhaps for other similarly unstable careers. With the recent
changes in people’s professional lives, requiring increasing mobility and adaptability in
the changing job market, other career path models to guide counselling, professional
development and other staff management programs will need to be explored.
___________________________________________________
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I gratefully acknowledge the invaluable assistance and patience of the following people:
My supervisor, Professor Fenton Sharpe, AM
My co-supervisor, Dr Robert Conners
My husband, Roy Patterson, our daughter, Alicia, and our son, Thomas
My father, Professor Emeritus Geoffrey Waites
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
VOLUME 1
1
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
Objectives 2
Need for the study 6
Research questions 9
Significance of the study for research and practice 10
Acronyms used in the study 12
Discussion and definition of terms 15
Limitations of the study 16
Chapter summary 17
19
CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW
Life-cycle research 19
Human life-cycles 19
General career cycles 22
Teacher career cycles 24
Motivation and job satisfaction research 41
Professional development research 48
Chapter summary 56
58
CHAPTER III: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
Methodology 61
Pre-interview procedure 71
Selection of subjects 71
Characteristics of the sample 73
The interview schedule 86
Interview methods 92
Analysis and presentation of data 98
iii
Chapter summary 129
131
CHAPTER IV
PHASES AND ITINERARIES IN THE PROFESSIONAL LIFE-CYCLE OF

TESOLS IN GENEVA AND SYDNEY
Huberman’s study of secondary school teachers 132

Geneva TESOL study 133
Motivations for entering TESOL 133
Characteristics of major phases 140
Common itineraries across the whole career for respondents with more 159
than five years’ experience
Overall model of itineraries for Geneva TESOLs 163
Comparison between the Geneva secondary school teachers and 165
Geneva TESOLs
Sydney TESOL study 170
Motivations for entering TESOL 170
Common itineraries across the whole career for respondents with more 207
Overall model of itineraries for Sydney TESOLs 212
Comparison between Huberman’s study and the TESOL studies 219
Motivations for entering the career 219
Common itineraries across the whole career for respondents with 5-29 228
years’ experience
Overall summary of phases and itineraries 233
Chapter summary 240
244
CHAPTER V: SATISFACTION AND DISSATISFACTION WITH TESOL
Huberman’s study of secondary school teachers 245

TESOL studies 248
iv
Is TESOL a career? 249
Beginning teachers’ concerns 254
Stocktaking (moments of doubt) 263
Future aspirations 268
Re-select TESOL? 270
Stocktaking (moments of doubt) 290
Comparison between Huberman’s study and the TESOL studies 300
Stocktaking 302
Comparison between TESOL studies 303
Chapter summary 304
306
CHAPTER VI: PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Introduction 306
Section 1: Perspective of TESOLs 307
Professional development rated as currently useful 308
Professional development related to phases 311
Professional development related to years of experience 314
Analysis of all interviews to identify areas of professional development 316
Definition of “professional development” 320
v
Analysis of all interviews to identify areas of professional development 329
Summary of professional development preferences in the TESOL studies 338
Analysis of interviews to identify areas of professional development 342
Section summary 343
Section 2: Perspectives of trainers and administrators 345
Introduction 345
Teachers’ professional development needs 348
Professional development wanted 357
Ideal professional development for Geneva TESOLs 362
Section summary 368
Teachers’ professional development needs 369
Ideal professional development for Sydney TESOLs 378
Comparison of Geneva and Sydney TESOL studies 382
Professional development needs 382
Ideal professional development 383
Chapter summary 384
vi
VOLUME II
391
CHAPTER VII: CONCLUSION
Methodological issues and limitations of the study 391
Issues concerning the respondents 391
Interview schedule and conducting the interviews 392
Analysing the data 395
Professional life-cycles of TESOLs 396
Research question 1 398
Job satisfaction 424
Research questions 8 and 9 429
A comparison of findings on phases and job satisfaction 434
Professional development 436
Summary of major findings 443
Implications derived from the findings 445
Implications for career phase theory 445
Implications for further research 456
Implications for educational administrators 460
Conclusion 466
vii
469
REFERENCES
LIST OF TABLES
VOLUME 1
Table 3.1: Stage 1: Geneva TESOL study: phases, dates and activities 60
Table 3.2: Stage 2: Sydney TESOL study: dates and activities 60
Table 3.3: Instruments and methodology 66
Table 3.4: Characteristics of the samples and studies 74
Table 3.5: Nationality of TESOLs 77
Table 3.6: Categories of experience and numbers of teacher respondents in the 77
Geneva study
Table 3.7: Distribution of interviewed Geneva teachers and trainers / 78
administrators in different institutions according to sex and status of work
Table 3.8: Qualifications of Geneva respondents 80
Table 3.9: Distribution of Geneva trainers / administrators by institution 80
Table 3.10: Categories of experience and numbers of teacher respondents in 81
the Sydney study
Table 3.11: Distribution of Sydney teachers and trainers / administrators in 82
different institutions according to sex and status of work
Table 3.12: Number of respondents and sex in each institution 84
Table 3.13: Qualifications of Sydney respondents 86
Table 3.14: Commonality of questions in the two TESOL studies with the 89
study by Huberman (1993)
Table 3.15: Relationship between the research questions and the interview 91
questions
viii
Table 3.16: Category of responses by years of experience across the three 97
studies
Table 3.17: Geneva TESOL respondents with less than five years’ experience 101
Table 3.18: Themes used for TESOL studies from Huberman’s study and 103
additional theme names
Table 3.19: Geneva TESOLs with less than five years’ experience (sample) 106
Table 3.20: Sydney TESOLs with 11-19 years’ experience (sample) 107
Table 3.21: Geneva adult TESOL professional life-cycles (sample) 109
Table 3.22a: TESOL phases model 110
Table 3.22b: Preliminary model of career cycles for Geneva and Sydney 111
TESOLs combined
Table 3.23: Nomenclature of common itineraries grouped in each study 116
Table 3.24: Codes relating to themes in the interview 118
Table 3.25: Geneva TESOLs: Passive motivations 123
Table 3.26: Sydney TESOL reasons for hesitating or doubts (sample) 124
Table 3.27: Professional development mentioned as useful by Sydney TESOL 125
respondents (sample only)
Table 3.28: Professional development related to the phases of stabilisation, 126
doubt and experimentation: Sydney TESOLs (sample)
Table 3.29: Type of professional development needed for beginner teachers 128
with less than five years’ experience: Sydney TESOLs
Table 4.1: Active motivations (Geneva TESOLs) 135
Table 4.2: Material motivations (Geneva TESOLs) 138
Table 4.3: Passive motivations (Geneva TESOLs) 139
Table 4.4: Personal factors affecting Geneva TESOLs 154
Table 4.5: Summary of phase Geneva TESOL respondents were in at the time 155
of the study
Table 4.6: Geneva adult TESOL professional life-cycles 157
Table 4.7: Overall summary of positive and negative phases – 166
ix
Geneva TESOLs compared to Huberman
Table 4.8: Active motivations (Sydney TESOLs) 171
Table 4.9: Material motivations (Sydney TESOLs) 175
Table 4.10: Passive motivations (Sydney TESOLs) 177
Table 4.11: Personal factors affecting Sydney TESOLs 200
Table 4.12: Summary of phase Sydney TESOL respondents were in at the time 201
of the study
Table 4.13: Sydney adult TESOL professional life-cycles: positive and negative 204
phases
Table 4.14: Overall summary of phases - Sydney TESOLs compared to 216
Huberman
Table 4.15: Common itineraries across the whole career: 5-29 years’ 229
experience
Table 4.16: Common current harmonious phases across the three studies: 5-29 231
years’ experience
Table 4.17: Overall summary of phases - Sydney TESOLs, Geneva TESOLs 232
compared to Huberman
Table 5.1: Is TESOL a career?: Geneva TESOLs 249
Table 5.2: Positive responses relating to TESOL being a career: Geneva TESOLs 250
Table 5.3: Negative responses relating to TESOL being a career: Geneva 252
TESOLs
Table 5.4: Concerns of beginning teachers: Geneva TESOLs 256
Table 5.5: Pedagogical concerns of beginning teachers: Geneva TESOLs 257
Table 5.6: Affective concerns of beginning teachers: Geneva TESOLs 261
Table 5.7: Personal concerns of beginning teachers: Geneva TESOLs 261
Table 5.8: Positive comments of beginning teachers: Geneva TESOLs 262
Table 5.9: Have you ever thought of leaving? Geneva TESOLs 264
x
Table 5.10: Motives for leaving teaching: Geneva TESOLs 265
Table 5.11: Future plans: Geneva TESOLs 268
Table 5.12: Re-select TESOL or not? Geneva TESOLs 271
Table 5.13: Reasons for re-selecting or possibly re-selecting TESOL: Geneva 271
TESOLs
Table 5.14: Reasons for not re-selecting TESOL: Geneva TESOLs 273
Table 5.15: Is TESOL a career? 275
Table 5.16: Positive responses relating to TESOL being a career: Sydney 276
TESOLs
Table 5.17: Negative responses relating to TESOL being a career: Sydney 278
TESOLs
Table 5.18: Negative memories: Sydney TESOLs 281
Table 5.19: Positive memories: Sydney TESOLs 282
Table 5.20: Concerns of beginning teachers: Sydney TESOLs 283
Table 5.21: Pedagogical concerns of beginning teachers: Sydney TESOLs 284
Table 5.22: Positive features for beginning teachers: Sydney TESOLs 287
Table 5.23: Concerns of beginning teachers: Sydney TESOLs 288
Table 5.24: Personal concerns of beginning teachers: Sydney TESOLs 289
Table 5.25: Have you ever thought of leaving? Sydney TESOLs 290
Table 5.26: Motives for leaving teaching: Sydney TESOLs 291
Table 5.27: Future plans: Sydney TESOLs 293
Table 5.28: Re-select TESOL or not? Sydney TESOLs 295
Table 5.29: Reasons for re-selecting TESOL: Sydney TESOLs 296
Table 5.30: Conditional reasons for re-selecting TESOL: Sydney TESOLs 299
Table 6.1: Professional development described as useful currently: Geneva 308
TESOLs
doubt and experimentation: Geneva TESOLs
Table 6.3: Professional development preferences for respondents 315
xi
with less than five years’ experience
Table 6.4: Professional development preferences for respondents with more 316
Table 6.5: Categories of professional development mentioned throughout the 317
interviews: Geneva TESOLs
Table 6.6: Professional development described as useful currently: Sydney 321
TESOLs
doubt and experimentation: Sydney TESOLs
Table 6.8: Professional development preferences for respondents with less 328
Table 6.9: Professional development preferences for respondents with more 329
Table 6.10: Categories of professional development mentioned throughout all 330
interviews: Sydney TESOLs
Table 6.11: Type of professional development needed for teachers with less 353
than five years’ experience: Geneva TESOL study
Table 6.12: Type of professional development needed for teachers with more 355
than five years’ experience: Geneva TESOL study
Table 6.13: Type of professional development wanted by Geneva TESOLs as 358
perceived by trainers / administrators
Table 6.14: Geneva TESOL trainers / administrators’ ideal professional 363
development for teachers compared to teachers’ unsolicited responses
Table 6.15: Type of professional development needed for teachers with less 370
than five years’ experience: Sydney TESOL study
Table 6.16: Type of professional development needed for teachers with 5-10 372
years’ experience: Sydney TESOL study
Table 6.17: Type of professional development needed for teachers with 11-29 374
years’ experience: Sydney TESOL study
Table 6.18: Type of professional development wanted by Sydney TESOLs as 376
perceived by trainers / administrators
xii
Table 6.19: Sydney TESOL trainers / administrators’ ideal professional 379
development for teachers
Table 6.20: Factors perceived as important by TESOL teachers from both 384
studies
Table 6.21: Four categories of professional development mentioned by TESOLs 386
VOLUME II
Table 7.1: Modal sequences of the teacher career cycle: a schematic model 403
Table 7.2a: Preliminary model of career cycles for Geneva and Sydney TESOLs 406
combined
Table 7.2b: Preliminary model of career cycles for Geneva and Sydney 408
combined
Table 7.3: Roles of TESOL teachers and range of developmental programs 415
undertaken by TESOLs in Sydney
LIST OF FIGURES
VOLUME 1
Figure 2.1: The human life-cycle: a thematic model 22
Figure 2.2: Dynamics of the Teacher Career Cycle 30
Figure 2.3a: Modal sequences of the Teacher Career Cycle: A Schematic 39
Model
Figure 2.3b: Huberman’s findings from 1982-1986 study in Geneva, 40
Switzerland
Figure 3.1: Interviewing: the continuum model 64
Figure 3.2: Geneva respondents with less than five years’ experience (sample) 100
Figure 3.3: Phases model for Geneva TESOL respondents with less than five 108
years’ experience
xiii
Figure 3.4: Geneva TESOLs with 5-10 years’ experience: Achieved harmony 113
(sample)
Figure 3.5: Stabilisation following training 114
Figure 3.6a: Harmonious career 115
Figure 3.6b: Relatively harmonious career 115
Figure 3.7: Pre-TESOL experience: sample of respondents’ quotes 121
Figure 3.8: Motivations for entering the career: sample of respondents’ quotes 122
Figure 3.9: Responses about hesitations for entering the career (sample) 124
Figure 3.10: Sample of responses on professional development useful for 125
Sydney TESOLs
Figure 3.11: Professional development mentioned as needed for Sydney 127
TESOLs with less than five years’ experience (sample)
Figure 4.1: Harmonious early itinerary 142
Figure 4.2: Relatively harmonious early itinerary 142
Figure 4.3: Problematic early itinerary 143
Figure 4.4: Partial itinerary leading to new challenge 146
Figure 4.5a: Positive itinerary leading to stabilisation 148
Figure 4.5b: Problematic itinerary leading to stabilisation 148
Figure 4.6: Itinerary leading to new challenge 149
Figure 4.7: Doubts leading to balance or not with private life following doubts 153
Figure 4.8: Harmonious itinerary 160
Figure 4.9: Achieved harmony - developing / growing 161
Figure 4.10: Achieved harmony - commitment 162
Figure 4.11: Problematic career 163
Figure 4.12: Overall model of itineraries for Geneva TESOLs 164
Figure 4.13a: Harmonious early itinerary 179
Figure 4.13b: Relatively harmonious early itinerary 180
Figure 4.14: Problematic early itinerary 181
Figure 4.15a: More confident in years 1-3 183
xiv
Figure 4.15b: More confident in years 2-5; year 10 183
Figure 4.15c: Training leading to increased confidence 183
Figure 4.16: Effects of inservice training 185
Figure 4.17a: Itinerary 1: Experimentation leading to stabilisation 189
Figure 4.17b: Itinerary 2: Easy, mixed or painful beginnings leading to 189
stabilisation
Figure 4.17c: Itinerary 3: “Bewildered” or change leading to stabilisation 190
Figure 4.18a: Stabilisation following training 190
Figure 4.18b: Stabilisation followed by training 191
Figure 4.19: Itinerary following reassessment 193
Figure 4.20: Reassessment following stabilisation 194
Figure 4.21: Reassessment following changes 195
Figure 4.22: Itineraries following dissatisfaction 196
Figure 4.23a: Itinerary 1: Doubts leading back to teaching 197
Figure 4.23b: Itinerary 2: Dissatisfaction leading to more confident 197
Figure 4.23c: Itinerary 3: Doubts leading to training 198
Figure 4.24: Maturing / consolidation / growing / mastery 199
Figure 4.25: Itineraries leading to new challenges 199
Figure 4.26: Harmonious itinerary 208
Figure 4.27: Relatively harmonious career 210
Figure 4.28: Achieved harmony 210
Figure 4.29a: Positive itinerary including reassessment 211
Figure 4.29b: Problematic itinerary including reassessment 212
Figure 4.30: Unresolved problems 212
Figure 4.31: Summary of phases and itineraries for Sydney TESOLs 214
VOLUME II
397
Table 7.1: Preliminary model of career cycles of TESOLs
Table 7.2: Preliminary model applied to Geneva and Sydney TESOLs: analysis 399
of motivational factors for entry
Table 7.3: Contextual factors (personal and professional) affecting 411
xv
TESOLs’ professional life-cycles
Table 7.4: Preliminary model of the career cycles of Sydney and Geneva 422
TESOLs with the factors affecting them
Table 7.5: Positive and negative aspects relating to TESOL being a career 425
Table 7.6: Negative aspects of TESOL: moments of doubt 428
Table 7.7: TESOLs’ future aspirations 430
Table 7.8a: Reasons for re-selecting TESOL 432
Table 7.9: Preliminary model of TESOLs’ professional development and 437
associated environmental factors impacting on success
Table 7.10: Preliminary TESOL model of career cycles and factors affecting 448
them
Table 7.11: Traditional and “emerging” career path models 456
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix A: Interview questions in the TESOL studies 491
Interview questions in the Huberman study 502
Appendix B: Coding the interviews 504
Appendix C: Entering TESOL: background of TESOLs 509
Appendix D: Hesitations in choosing TESOL as a career 521
Appendix E: Sydney TESOLs’ responses to the Geneva TESOL list of 527
motivations for entering TESOL
Appendix F: Definition of the term “career” and attitudes towards TESOL as a 535
career
Appendix G: Beginning teaching: background information 542
Appendix H: Responses to secondary school teachers’ list of concerns 545
Appendix I: Sydney TESOLs’ responses to the Geneva list of beginning teacher 554
concerns
Appendix J: Sydney TESOLs’ responses to the Geneva list of doubts 560
Appendix K: Definition of the term “professional development” by Sydney 565
TESOLs
xvi
Appendix L: Sydney TESOLs’ responses to the Geneva TESOL list of 568
professional development rated as useful
Appendix M: Background profile of trainers / administrators 574
Appendix N: Profile of institutions and professional development programs 597
Appendix O: Sydney trainers’ / administrators’ responses to the Geneva 622
trainers’ / administrators’ list of professional development rated as important for
teachers
LIST OF TABLES IN APPENDICES

Table C.1: Trajectories of careers and studies (Geneva TESOLs) 510
Table C.2: General qualifications before entry to TESOL 511
Table C.3: Specific TESOL qualifications at entry 511
Table C.4: Non-teaching experience prior to teaching 513
Table C.5: Entry to TESOL (Geneva TESOLs) 515
Table C.6: Career, studies and teaching experience prior to TESOL 517
Table C.7: Qualifications before entry to TESOL 518
Table C.8: Qualifications at entry of Sydney TESOL respondents 519
Table C.9: Non-teaching experience prior to teaching 519
Table D.1: Any hesitations in choosing TESOL? Geneva TESOLs 521
Table D.2: Reasons given for hesitating by Geneva TESOLs 522
Table D.3: Reasons for not having hesitations (Geneva TESOLs) 523
Table D.4: Any hesitations in choosing TESOL? Sydney TESOLs 525
Table D.5: Reasons given for hesitating by Sydney TESOLs 525
Table E.1: List of motivations for entering TESOL (Sydney TESOLs) 528
Table F.1: Definition of “career”: Geneva TESOLs 536
Table F.2: Definition of “career”: Sydney TESOLs 539
Table G.1: Geographical location of first year teaching 543
Table G.2: Year started TESOL 544
Table H.1: Were you (are you) confronted with these problems? 546
Table H.2: Were you (are you) confronted with these problems? (List derived 547
from Huberman): Geneva TESOLs
xvii
Table H.3: Were you (are you) confronted with these problems? (List derived 551
from Huberman): Sydney TESOLs
Table I.1: Geneva TESOL additional beginners’ concerns / positive comments: 555
Sydney TESOLs
Table J.1: Motives for leaving : Sydney TESOL comments 561
Table K.1: Definition of the term “professional development” by Sydney 565
TESOLs
Table L.1: Sydney TESOLs’ responses to the Geneva TESOL list of professional 570
development rated as useful
Table M.1: Summary of distribution of roles and worksites of Geneva trainers / 576
administrators
Table M.2: Geneva TESOL trainers / administrators: background and roles 577
Table M.3: Pedagogical and training roles: Geneva TESOLs 584
Table M.4: Sydney TESOL trainers and administrators: background and roles 586
Table M.5: Training and administrative roles: Sydney TESOLs 592
Table N.1: Types of professional development programs mentioned in 602
chronological order by trainers / administrators: Geneva TESOLs
Table N.2: Types of professional development programs trainers and 609
administrators were currently involved in conducting: Geneva TESOLs
Table N.3: Professional development programs respondents were involved in: 616
Sydney TESOLs
Table O.1: Type of professional development needed for less than five years’ 624
experience (Sydney TESOL combined list)
Table O.2: Type of professional development needed for 5-10 years’ 626
Table O.3: Type of professional development needed for 11-29 years’ 627
Table O.4: Professional development wanted as perceived by trainers / 630
administrators (Sydney TESOL combined responses)
xviii
Table O.5: Sydney trainers’ / administrators’ ideal professional development for 633
teachers (combined responses)
xix
1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

In the last 20 years an increasing number of studies have focused on the development
of school teachers throughout their careers (for example, Ball and Goodson, 1985;
Holly and McLoughlin (Eds.), 1989; Huberman, 1989, 1992, 1993; Huberman with
Grounauer and Marti, 1993; Kremer-Hayson, Vonk and Fessler (Eds.), 1993; Maclean,
1992 and Sikes, Measor and Woods, 1985). These studies on teachers have followed
the broader life cycle studies of the last 60 years, including those using the
psychodynamic approach (Allport, 1961; Erikson, 1959; Gould, 1978; Jung, 1930 and
Darrow, Klein, Levinson and McKee, 1978), the sociological approach (Becker, 1952;
Donovan, 1920; Hall, 1948; Hughes, 1971; Geer, 1966; Lortie, 1975; Mayo and
Lombard, 1944; Park and Burgess, 1925; Roth, 1963 and Whyte, 1943); life-span
development psychology (for example, Baltes, Featherman and Lerner (Eds.), 1990 and
Shaie and Schooler, 1989) and adult development theories (for example, Loevinger,
1966; Neugarten, 1976 and Oja, 1980, 1989).
One of the most influential studies of teacher career cycles was the research conducted
by Huberman, which included a study of secondary school teachers in Switzerland by
Huberman, Grounauer and Marti (1982-86), and documented in 1989 and 1993.
Huberman’s study investigated whether the 'classic' studies of the individual life cycle
would be replicated when applied to secondary school teachers. More specifically, he
wanted to determine whether there is a discernible developmental sequence in the
teaching career, and, if so, to identify its main patterns and configurations. Finally, he set
out to ascertain whether there are identifiable career sequences which lead to the
perception by teachers of their 'professional satisfaction' or 'dissatisfaction'. This current
study of two groups of Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOLs)
explores and expands on aspects of the Huberman study in order to examine the
relationships between the career cycles of TESOLs in two
2
locations and the recognised career cycles of school teachers, and the most appropriate
professional development of TESOLs at different stages of their careers.
Objectives
This study has three major objectives and some subsidiary objectives. The first and
major objective of the study was to examine the professional life cycles of TESOLs in two
locations, Geneva and Sydney, using Huberman’s conceptual framework. This would
provide an indication of the robustness of the framework when applied to a very different
cohort of teachers.
Several assumptions underlie this primary objective. Secondary school teachers tend to
have more stable working conditions than adult TESOLs and tend to have joined the
profession straight from university studies. These teachers, therefore, may have been in
the profession for most of their adult careers, and may have reached negative phases of
‘defensive focusing’, ‘withdrawal’, ‘disenchantment’ or ‘positive focusing’, also called
‘cultivating my garden’, which is a term Huberman borrowed from Candide. (Huberman,
1993, p. 109, for example). The different backgrounds of the TESOL respondents might
affect the phases they traverse and may lead to a different general career path from that
of school teachers.
A subsidiary purpose was to note the effect of environmental, social and historical
factors on TESOLs during the course of their career cycles (Fessler, 1985 and
Huberman, 1989). Huberman maintained that teachers playing out their careers in
times of historical or social turbulence are likely to have radically different careers from
those traversing their careers in periods of calm, or periods of growth and expansion. In
the study on school teachers, Huberman identified a number of periods of turbulence
and restructuring of the system and identified the extent to which this affected their
career cycles. The TESOL study also set out to identify the effect environmental factors
may have on adult TESOLs and the phases they traverse as well as to discover whether
the environmental factors were similar.
3
The assumption underlying this subsidiary purpose is that the TESOL industry has
recently been affected by a series of historical events: the economic recession which
affected all industries world-wide from 1988-1992; the Gulf War (1991), which affected
the TESOL industry in Australia by temporarily stifling the numbers of students travelling
from Asian countries to Australia, resulting in the collapse of some of the language
colleges in Australia; the events of Tiananmen Square (1989) and the resulting collapse
of many English language schools in Sydney, and the subsequent tightening of
government control over the industry in Australia; the later boom in the profession
(48,900 ELICOS students in 1996 provided $227 million in fee income) (Coorey, 1997),
and the current downturn due to the financial instability in Asia (for example, Illing and
Coorey, 1997). All these factors have affected in some way the career paths of TESOL
teachers, their morale and their opportunities for advancement.
Two locations were selected which would reflect in some ways the two sides of the
TESOL industry: Geneva and Sydney. Geneva is an example of a non-Anglophone major
cosmopolitan city and was somewhat typical of non-Anglophone centres in that there
were high levels of instability in the working conditions with a large number of casual or
freelance teachers, and relatively limited possibilities for professional development. The
TESOL field in Geneva was at the time of the study unregulated with unqualified native-
English speaker teachers being employed, although in most professional centres the
requirements for qualifications were becoming more stringent. There was a training
centre offering Certificate (CELTA) and Diploma (DELTA) qualifications, but with no clear
incentive to qualify beyond Certificate level. Diploma courses were rarely conducted.
Teaching opportunities were mainly limited to company teaching, private school
teaching or examination preparation with few opportunities for promotion or opportunity
to move into different areas.
Sydney represents an Anglophone environment with more stable working conditions

and multiple opportunities for professional development. Several centres offer
Certificate and Diploma level courses as well as opportunities for study at university in
graduate diploma, masters and doctorate level programs.
4
A greater range of teaching opportunities exists for native-English speaker teachers:
teaching migrants, teaching ELICOS students and teaching English for entry to
university. There are far more schools including private schools, university centres,
centres for Technical and Further Education (TAFE), Adult Migrant English Programs
(MEP) and business colleges. However, there is little in-company teaching. The field is
tightly controlled by an accreditation body ensuring minimum standards of teaching, a
teachers’ award establishing salary scales and working conditions and the nature of
facilities required to be available in the schools.
The second major objective of the study was to explore levels of satisfaction and
dissatisfaction with the TESOL career. Job satisfaction has been the focus of a number
of TESOL studies. Pennington (1991, 1992), Pennington and Riley (1991) and
Pennington and Ho (1995), found that TESOL teachers typically express moderate or
high job satisfaction in connection with the intrinsic values of teaching work, while
registering low job satisfaction in connection with pay and particularly with opportunities
for advancement. Another study by Blaber and Tobash (1989) reported a high level of
concern among ESL practitioners about pay, benefits and professional status. In
Australia, a survey by McKnight (1992) reached similar conclusions, with positive
intrinsic motivation towards TESOL work being coupled with its lack of professional
recognition. These research findings suggest that the intrinsic rewards and positive
social relations of the job may compensate to some degree for the inadequate career
structure and financial rewards which many perceive as existing in the TESOL field.
This TESOL study had a number of subsidiary purposes in the exploration of levels of
satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the career. Firstly, similar areas to those Huberman
analysed were identified and explored, such as initial motivations of teachers for
entering the career, their willingness to re-select the career, their concerns as beginning
teachers and how they overcame these, and their moments of doubt or reasons for
stocktaking. Secondly, a number of other questions were posed in the two TESOL
studies in order to further test assumptions about the nature of the career. These
included questions
5
regarding their future career aspirations and their acceptance of TESOL as a profession.
This issue is also explored in Johnston (1997).
The third major objective of the study was to explore the professional development
needs of TESOLs from the perspective of teachers and the trainers/administrators. This
exploration was carried out in a different way from the method used by Huberman as
both teachers and trainers/administrators were interviewed and the questions posed
were different. However, the intention was again to test Huberman’s findings as well as
to explore other areas of professional development. Huberman (1995) suggested that
pedagogical mastery was increased by specific modes of solitary and communal work.
He found that the most popular form of professional development was the ‘lone wolf’
scenario with teachers working alone and ‘tinkering’ in their classrooms interspersed
with short readings and consultation with colleagues, not with specialists (Huberman,
1995, p. 207). Huberman also argued that conventional inservice training was largely
unsuccessful, especially when conducted by specialists far removed from the
classroom, or as “one-offs” (Huberman, 1995, p. 207). He recommended inservice
training to support the ‘craft-like tinkering’ as a way of expanding and improving
teachers’ repertoires of instruction, suggesting that more productive moves might be
made in extending teachers’ networks and that a more collaborative approach would
enable them to learn from each other's skills. “Tinkering” is a term which Huberman
borrowed from the French anthropologist Levi-Strauss (1966), in which the idea of
b ricolage (tinkering) is introduced. His metaphor for tinkering is an instructional
handyperson, a do-it-yourself craftsperson who can put to use a host of materials lying
around at various stages of instructional disrepair (Huberman, 1996, p. 132).
The subsidiary purpose to this objective was to identify how teachers defined
professional development and described their professional development needs at their
current stage of development. Trainers/administrators were also interviewed about their
perceptions of teachers’ needs at various stages in the career cycle, and about
teachers’ aspirations. In this way, perceptions of both teachers and
trainers/administrators could be compared to identify aspects
6
which were agreed upon as well as possible misperceptions that may have arisen.
The TESOL trainers / administrators were further questioned as to their ideal
professional development aspirations if constraints were removed. The underlying
assumption in this part of the study is that budgets for professional development are
fairly restricted in most institutions, resulting often in ad-hoc professional development
arrangements with little consultation or research into the needs of teachers. Teachers,
especially those who are freelance, are often forced to self-fund their professional
development.
Need for the study

This study addresses three areas of need for research in the field of TESOL:
professional life-cycles of TESOLs, job satisfaction and professional development. The
body of research in the field of adult TESOL is meagre compared with that of school
teaching. TESOL is gaining in professionalism and warrants research because of the
danger of educational administrators making decisions based on anecdotal evidence or
because they believe they know what teachers want or need. The present study is
aimed at confirming or denying such impressions and should also help administrators
to better understand their TESOLs.
Professional life cycles of TESOLs
This study of career cycles of TESOLs will help to determine the robustness and
‘universality’ of Huberman’s framework. Huberman questioned whether the mid-life
crisis is connected in some way to the psychological evolution of the teacher, or ‘does it
depend more on the sickly institutional structure?’ (1993, p. 263). Huberman stated:
the best way to answer these questions would be to study the professional life
cycle of teachers working in schools of a starkly different nature' (1993, p. 263).
7
The mid-life crisis may be different in the TESOL group due to late entry and other
factors. It is also important to know how robust the professional life-cycle concept is
with professions which vary greatly from one another.
Another important area of need for career cycle research generally arises from the
changing employment situation globally. Since the late 1980s and early 1990s, the
current global economic situation has been undergoing substantial change, resulting in
downsizing of companies, resulting job losses and casualisation of many industries
(Thurow, 1996, p. 26), including established ones such as banking. In the process of
downsizing, a contingent workforce is developing composed of involuntary part-timers,
temporary workers, limited-term contract workers and casual staff. They receive lower
wages, fewer fringe benefits, fewer paid holidays, and must accept greater economic
risks and uncertainty. Over the last decade three quarters of the increase in part-time
work had been involuntary (Thurow, 1996, p. 29). As a result, the career phase models
currently in use may be superseded and may relate to another era of secure
employment. Therefore, there is a need to explore different types of professions to
challenge the robustness of the current phases models. TESOL is an interesting field to
research due to the insecure working conditions it has always experienced, the high
levels of casualisation, part-time workers and contract staff and the mobility of members
of the profession.
Freeman and Richards (1993) called for substantial research in TESOL to examine
how teachers’ conception of their work unfolds throughout their career. Richards
(1994), a British academic in teacher development in TESOL, again took up this theme
of calling for a research agenda in TESOL to explore teacher thinking, citing
Huberman’s study as a valuable framework to further understand teachers’ lives and
careers. In his view, we need to know how teachers change over time and he cited
Huberman’s study as “illuminating” (1994, p. 403). He affirmed that “the lives of
teachers are deserving of study, not least because person and practice cannot be
separated.” He suggested that “an understanding of teacher knowledge derived from
such intimate research can then be combined with findings from
8
wider investigations into teacher careers to form the basis for developing an adequate
epistemology of experience” (1994, p. 403).
Since this study was begun, Johnston (1997) explored the lives of EFL / ESL teachers
in Poland. As no other published studies of career paths in the TESOL field appear to
exist, it is of value to explore the profession as seen through the eyes of teachers in two
centres which are fairly active in the field: Geneva and Sydney.
Job satisfaction and dissatisfaction
There can be little doubt that studying job satisfaction is necessary and important. The
only published material exploring job satisfaction and dissatisfaction of TESOLs is
concerned with working conditions for TESOL employees and job satisfaction in the
USA, (for example, Blaber and Tobash, 1989); Canada (for example, Pennington, 1991;
1992; Pennington and Riley, 1991 and Pennington and Ho, 1995) and Australia (for
example, McKnight, 1992). The main findings indicate that TESOLs find the extrinsic
aspects of their career unrewarding, especially those relating to working conditions,
status, pay and opportunities for advancement, while intrinsic aspects such as a love of
the subject matter are found to be rewarding.
Professional Development
Professional Development or inservice training can be narrowly perceived to be the

programmed courses and workshops which teachers attend in their place of work.
However, professional development also encompasses other aspects of a teacher’s
development throughout the career cycle. For example, Huberman (1993, 1995)
described teachers’ “tinkering” or experimenting in their classrooms, combined with
bursts of reading and consulting with colleagues. This is a process which he stated
continues throughout the teacher’s career cycle.
Alternatively, the professional development of TESOL teachers can be considered to be

well developed, with an abundance of inservice courses and currently a plethora of
masters courses in TESOL in Australia and Britain.
9
The professional development undertaken at the institutional level and by individual
teachers is described in professional newsletters such as the IATEFL (International
Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language) newsletter on professional
development. In addition, teacher training books have recently appeared on topics such
as “cooperative development” (Edge, 1992) and “the reflective approach” (Wallace,
1991). However, this literature focuses mainly on pre-service notions of training, or on
institutional group professional development.
It is also of interest to explore what the teacher considers to be the most significant
professional development undertaken, and how this matches the opportunities available
within the profession and the perceptions of trainers / administrators. There are few
available studies exploring teachers’ professional development needs and interests in
the TESOL field.
Research questions
The following research questions were posed to fulfil the objectives of this study. They
address the three major objectives of the study, addressing issues of professional life
cycles, job satisfaction and professional development.
Professional life cycles
1. What motivated TESOLs to enter the profession?

2. What are the phases TESOLs pass through in the course of their career?
3. What are the similarities and differences in the career cycles of Huberman’s school
teachers to TESOLs?
4. How valid is Huberman’s career phase model currently in view of the changing
employment situation globally from more tenured secure employment to less security,
greater casualisation and a consequent greater need for mobility?
Job satisfaction
5. Do teachers consider TESOL to be a career?
6. What concerns do beginning TESOL teachers have?
10
7. Do teachers have moments of doubt about the profession?
8. What are teachers’ future career plans?
9. Would teachers re-select TESOL if they had their lives to relive?
10.How do the findings for questions 6, 7 and 9 compare to Huberman’s findings for
secondary school teachers?
Professional Development
11.What are the professional development needs of TESOL teachers at their current
phase of development?
12.Is there a link between professional development needs perceived as useful and the
phase teachers are in?
13.What professional development do TESOL trainers/administrators perceive the
TESOL teachers need at the various phases of their career, and what do they perceive
TESOL teachers want?
14.What ideal aspirations do trainers/administrators have for professional development
programs and how do they compare to TESOL teachers’ perceived needs?
15.How closely does the professional development mentioned as useful by TESOL
teacher respondents match the perceptions of trainers / administrators?
Significance of the study for research and practice
The importance of studying careers in teaching
Studying teachers’ careers is important for employers. The results from such studies
can influence recruitment, retention of teachers in the profession, and teachers’ attitudes
and behaviour and then have implications for professional development. They reveal the
impact of these factors on salary and other costs. As Hughes (1937) proposed, the
study of career cycles helps yield insights into the occupation, the individual and society.
The study of careers of various smaller occupational groups has until recently received
relatively little attention, perhaps because of the complexity involved in carrying out such
studies. The studies focusing on teachers’ careers have been especially limited in
range and number, although interest in research into the teaching career has
11
greatly increased since the 1980s, culminating in the International Journal of
Educational Research devoting a full issue to ‘Research on Teachers’ Professional
Lives’ (Huberman, 1989c).
TESOLs have never enjoyed secure employment in the past and in Australia have
gained some security in their employment only in recent years. With the current Asian
crisis, however, working conditions and job security are taking another step backwards,
emphasising the fairly tenuous nature of TESOL career paths. In this regard, TESOLs
may be representative of many occupations in the modern world where certainty of
tenure and progression is being replaced by greater uncertainty and casualisation. The
current study may therefore also have important implications for career phase theory as
a whole. If the TESOLs in the present study have a different career phase profile from
those in Huberman’s and other teacher and professional career cycle studies, this may
herald the need for more and different research into career paths of various groups of
teachers and other professions in the changing career context.
As affirmed by Richards (1994), a better understanding of the professional life-cycles of

adult TESOLs should provide insights for administrators and teachers themselves on
the likely phases they may traverse. It may enable trainers and administrators to assist
teachers more effectively in devising appropriate professional development programs
throughout teachers’ careers, may assist administrators in personnel management
systems, and may have policy implications.
Job satisfaction and dissatisfaction
Job satisfaction or dissatisfaction of TESOLs is an important topic for further exploration,

particularly as the two sites chosen for the present study have differing working
conditions and opportunities for advancement. Sydney has a regulated TESOL industry
with an accreditation body, teachers’ award and other professional advantages.
Therefore, because of their better working conditions, teachers in Sydney might be
expected to show higher levels of extrinsic satisfaction than those in Geneva. The
findings may suggest areas of
12
concern for administrators to focus on, and ways of enhancing job satisfaction for
TESOLs.
Professional development
The findings on the perceptions of professional development needs of teachers and the
perceptions of the trainers / administrators will assist trainers / administrators in
assessing how closely they are meeting the needs of teachers and to devise programs
that better suit their needs throughout the career.
Acronyms used in the study
Adult TESOL (Teaching or Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages -

Adults)
This acronym is used in the USA and Australia to broadly denote TEFLAs, ELICOS
teachers, TEFLs and TESLs or to refer to the field. This is the definition used in this
study.
ADOS (Assistant Director of Studies)
Some schools have an assistant to the Director of Studies, who is called a Head
Teacher in other schools.
CTEFLA (Certificate in the Teaching of English as a Foreign Language to Adults)
This is the entry level qualification offered by the University of Cambridge Local
Examinations Syndicate and which is accepted worldwide. It consists of a one-month
intensive or three to six-month part time course. It has been renamed CELTA
(Certificate in English Language Teaching to Adults).
Cert TESOL (Certificate in TESOL)
Cert TESOL (Certificate in TESOL) from the University of New South Wales, Institute of
Languages is also an entry level qualification to the TESOL field in Australia.
13
DOS (Director of Studies)
All ELICOS schools in Australia are required to have a Director of Studies, who is
responsible for the academic management of the school, and a Principal Administrator,
who is responsible for the financial management of the school.
DTEFLA (Diploma in the Teaching of English as a Foreign Language to Adults)
This is the inservice qualification offered by the University of Cambridge Local

Examinations Syndicate and which is taken worldwide after a minimum two years in the
profession. It consists of a two-month intensive or nine-month part time course with
practical and written exams. It is to be renamed DELTA (Diploma in English Language
Teaching to Adults).
EFL (English as a Foreign Language)
This term is used mainly in Europe, while ESOL is the most common term in Australia
and the US. This term is used mainly to refer to those learning English in a non-
English-speaking country or those learning English in an English-speaking country but
intending to return overseas on completion of their studies.
ELICOS (English Language Intensive Courses for Overseas Students) teachers
This is the term used to denote TESOLs in Australia. These teachers are also broadly
grouped under the heading of TESOLs.
ESL (English as a Second Language)
This term is used mainly to refer to those learning English in an English-speaking

country for the purpose of settling there. Thus migrants in Australia are learners of
English as a Second Language.
IATEFL (International Association for Teachers of English as a Foreign Language to

Adults)
This is an association based in the United Kingdom, but covering Europe, which holds
an annual conference and publishes professional journals.
14
NEAS (National ELICOS Accreditation Scheme)
This is the regulatory body which sets minimum standards for ELICOS schools to
operate including teachers’ qualifications. Only schools which are accredited are
legally able to accept overseas students. ELICOS teachers must have a degree in any
subject area and a minimum of CTEFLA or equivalent plus 800 hours’ experience.
Schools must have accreditation to operate and standards are strictly controlled. This
system was introduced in 1989 (Davison, 1998).
RSA (Royal Society of Arts)
This used to be the body controlling the CTEFLA and DTEFLA, both of which are now
under the control of the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate.
TEFL or TEFLA (Teaching or Teachers of English as a Foreign Language) (to Adults)
These acronyms are used extensively in Europe to describe those learning English in a
non-Anglophone environment. ELICOS is the equivalent in Australia to denote those
students who come to study English for a defined period of time before returning to their
country of origin. They are broadly defined as TESOLs in this study.
TESL (Teaching English as a Second Language)
This term is used to describe teachers of English to immigrants in the United Kingdom,
USA or migrants in Australia. These are students learning to operate in an Anglophone
environment and who are permanent residents of the host country.
TESOL (Teachers or Teaching of English to Speakers of Other Languages)
TESOLs may include those teaching ELICOS or migrant students in Australia.

15
Discussion and definition of terms
Definitions of specific terms used in this study are given below. Some of the terms are
defined in the course of the study.
Stages or phases
The stages, phases or normative / modal sequences of the career are construed in
various studies (for example, Huberman, 1989; Lightfoot, 1985 and Prick, 1986) using
various terms such as career entry, stab ilisation, experimentation and diversification,
stocktaking, serenity, conservatism and disengagement. The initial phase tends to last
from 1-3 years, but the others are recurrent themes with no time limits. In the current
study, a phase is identified using the same term where possible, and new terms are
identified and defined as they arise.
Entry
In the TESOL studies entry is the point at which the TESOL teacher begins his or her
TESOL career. This may be immediately post initial training (usually CTEFLA), which is
recorded at entry, or with no training.
Stabilisation, experimentation and diversification
Stab ilisation corresponds to a definite commitment to the profession and to an

administrative act such as official appointment or granting of tenure for school teachers,
and more commonly a short-term contract in TESOL. Stab ilisation also means freedom
from direct supervision, greater instructional mastery and greater confidence
(Huberman, 1989). The most common next stage outlined in the literature is
experimentation or diversification (Cooper, 1982 and Feiman-Nemser, 1985). This
phase was also identified in the current study.
Challenges / new challenges
These are themes which may be nominated when respondents receive a promotion, or
when they adopt a new role or undertake new areas of specialisation.
16
Stocktaking / doubt
Stocktaking at mid-career involves having doubts about the teaching profession and
possibly considering changing professions (Adams, 1982; Hamon and Rotman, 1984;
Huberman, 1989; MacDonald and Walker, 1974; Prick, 1986 and Sikes, 1985). This
term was also used in the TESOL study.
Training
Training addressed respondents’ in-service training during the career. The TESOL
profession has a number of formal inservice training programs available in Sydney and
in the United Kingdom, such as the DTEFLA, masters and doctoral programs. Some of
the Geneva participants had been to England to complete further training. The CTEFLA
was also sometimes used as inservice training.
Negative themes
Negative themes used in the study include those associated with such themes as
disillusioned / discouraged / stressful / frustration / stagnation.
Transition
This is a theme which describes a period of major change, such as when respondents
change country or school or when they have a transitional period between jobs.
External factors
External factors is a category in the career phase models identifying events or influences
outside of the profession impacting on the career cycle and often resulting in a
temporary or permanent exit. The types of events may include travel, the birth of a child,
personal or family events or circumstances and change of career or activity.
Limitations of the study

The field of adult TESOL includes centres which hire as teachers unqualified students or
itinerants to follow a prescriptive method or who give no initial training. These centres
exist in non-Anglophone countries, and Geneva is no exception. Such centres have
been excluded from this study in order to provide
17
a more comparable sample to Huberman’s qualified school teachers and the adult
TESOLs in Sydney.
The study involves only teachers actively engaged in the profession at the time of
interview. It does not include those who had left the profession at that time. However,
some left the profession during the course of the interviewing.
In Geneva, the respondents in the study were limited to those teaching adult EFL. In
Sydney, teachers had a more varied background and some respondents were currently
engaged in teaching adult migrants, but had taught EFL in the past and were at an
institution where both were taught. It was felt that including a more diverse range of
teachers may give a clearer indication of the opportunities for movement and
diversification.
As there were a total of 73 respondents in the TESOL study compared to 160 in

Huberman’s study, and because random sampling processes were not used, any
generalisations can be made only with very great caution. The research adopts a case
study approach, but, where possible, attempts were made to group the responses in
order to explore categories of answers. However, in what is essentially an exploratory
study, no firm conclusions have been made about the TESOL profession as a whole.
Chapter summary
This is an exploratory study of TESOL professional life-cycles, their job satisfaction and
professional development needs in two different locations. This chapter, Chapter II
reviewing the literature and Chapter III describing the research methodology, provide the
conceptual basis for the framework of the study. Following this, Chapters IV-VI report the
findings from the interviews. Chapter IV describes the motivations for entering the
career and the major phases TESOLs undertake in their career paths and traces the
itineraries they follow. Chapter V addresses the satisfaction levels of TESOLs at
different points in the career. Chapter VI explores the professional development needs
of TESOLs and the perceptions of trainers / administrators about professional
development needs
18
Finally, Chapter VII discusses the findings and their implications for further research and
for practitioners.
19
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter summarises the relevant literature for the three major facets of the TESOL
studies. The literature review for the major part of the study on professional life-cycles
encompasses human life-cycles, general life-cycles and teacher career cycles. This is
followed by a brief review of the literature on motivation, job satisfaction and professional
development.
There is very little published literature about the lives and levels of job satisfaction of
TESOL teachers, but a few articles have been published on the job-related attitudes of
TESOL teachers in Canada, the United States and Australia, and TESOL training and
professional development is the topic of a number of books and articles in professional
journals.
Life-cycle research
Human life-cycles
Extensive research into human life-cycles has been carried out over the last 60 years
with each academic discipline basing its interpretation on a different conceptual
framework. The main approaches include the psychological research, the sociological
literature, the life-span development psychology series and adult development theories.
The psychological research began with Jung (1930) and has included work by Allport
(1961), Erikson’s eight normative ‘life-cycle crises’ (1959) and White’s Lives in Progress
(1952). More recent popular studies, such as Transformations by Gould (1978) and
Levinson, Darrow, Klein, Levinson and McKee’s Seasons of a Man’s Life (1978) have
also taken this approach.
The sociological research into occupations started with Park, Mead, and colleagues at
the University of Chicago in the 1920s and 1930s. Park (1925) and his fellow
researchers studied a variety of low status, often marginalised
20
occupations such as ‘hobo’ (Anderson, 1923) and prostitute (Donovan, 1920), and
adopted a social-psychological and social-interaction approach to the occupations
studied. This heralded the beginnings of occupational research using oral history
methods, the research then widening to include more accepted occupations, such as
school teacher (Donovan, 1938). Studies undertaken by Mayo and Lombard (1944), and
by those involved in the ‘Hawthorn studies’, widened existing approaches to the study of
work and occupations. These studies concentrated on the study of work organisation,
industrial relations and human relations in industry, adopting a psycho-sociological
approach.
Everett Hughes from the University of Chicago developed a coherent framework in the
1940s within which occupational groups could be analysed. Occupational sociology
then became an accepted sub-field of sociology, and in 1974 an international journal
was founded called Sociology of Work and Occupations.
Hughes (for example, 1937, 1949, 1952, 1958, 1971) is therefore the pivotal figure in
occupational sociology with many of the major figures in the field being either students
of his or clearly influenced by his ideas and theoretical approach, for example, Becker
(1952); Geer (1966); Hall (1948); Lortie (1975); Roth (1963) and Whyte (1943). Hughes
and those influenced by him extended the body of research on occupations to include
many more professions.
Another approach to life-cycle research is that of life-span developmental psychology

dating from 1970 on, with studies by Baltes et al. (1990) and Schaie and Schooler
(1989) which utilised empirical data from several disciplines such as biology, history
and sociology, and especially from the sub-disciplines of psychology.
Adult development theories are the basis of another approach reviewed by Oja (1980).
They include the following categories:
21
i) the maturational approach to adult development, which is represented primarily in
the psychoanalytical theories.
ii) life-age theorists (Gould, 1978 and Levinson et al., 1978) who described the
relationship between the ages and the life concerns of adults, focusing on predictable
life-events as regulators for growth. Seasons of a Man's Life by Levinson et al. (1978)
has popularised the concern for ages and life periods. Levinson identified two relatively
stable periods within the psychological life of a normal adult and a Mid-life Transition
period: Early Adult Era (17-32 years) and Middle Adult Era (45-60 years).
iii) life-cycle theorists (Erikson, 1959; Havinghurst, 1972 and Neugarten, 1976)
emphasised the experiences confronted by an adult at various stages of life. Life-cycle
researchers focused on qualitative differences at various points of adult growth and
development. Erikson (1959) suggested eight universal 'stages' of psychosocial
growth. He suggested that each stage represented a major crisis faced during the
normal course of life and that these crises must be successfully overcome in order to
achieve feelings of 'satisfaction'.
iv) cognitive-developmental-stage theorists (Loevinger, 1966; Kohlberg, 1969 and

Hunt, 1971) based their research on the assumption that development results from
changes in the cognitive structure, focusing on particular cognitive and emotional
aspects distinctive to different stages of development. The events that may prompt
cognitive development will vary according to the feature of the developmental stage
currently held by a person. Patterns have been found in the thinking, emotions and
behaviours of adults, and these patterns have been called cognitive-developmental
stages.
Such theorists emphasised that the negotiation of certain life tasks in various life
periods may have a significant impact on the functioning of the adult. Life-cycle theories
also had implications for personal development, for example, the need for assistance
through events such as the unexpected death of a close relative (Neugarten, 1964) as
well as the need for support to work
22
through issues of identity, intimacy, generativity and integrity (Erikson, 1959). Oja (1980,
p. 124) suggested that awareness of the above may help to broaden the focus of staff
development.
Other studies observed gender differences. Krupp (1981) and Levine (1989) identified
major differences between men and women, and across the age cycle (for example in
their 20s and 40s), which must be taken into account. Collectively, the above
approaches have been progressively developed, with a re-emergence of an interest in
biographical studies and longitudinal research in general.
General career cycles
Whilst the professional life-cycle can be conceptualised in many ways, Super (1957)
provided perhaps the most common conceptualisation. He described a succession of
'maxicycles' traversed by individuals in the same profession and across professions.
Then Huberman (1993) attempted to summarise the trends in the general literature,
and offered the model set out in Figure 2.1:
Years of Career phases / themes

experience
1-3 Beginnings, feeling one’s way
↓
4-6 Stabilisation, consolidation
of a pedagogical repertoire
↓←←←→→→↓
7-25 Diversification, activism → Reassessment
↓ ← ↓
26-33 Serenity, affective distance Conservatism
↓ ↓
34-40 Disengagement
(serene or bitter)
Figure 2.1: The human life-cycle: a thematic model (Huberman, 1993, p. 13)
23
Huberman maintained that individuals traverse an exploration phase followed by a
stab ilisation or engagement phase. Exploration involves making a provisional choice,
exploring the configuration of the profession, and trying out one or several roles. If
successful, one moves to a stab ilisation or engagement phase. In this phase, an
attempt is made to master core aspects of the job, to seek out an area of focus, to try for
better working conditions, and, in many cases, to pursue responsibilities which are
more prestigious, powerful and lucrative.
According to empirical studies, many career profiles follow this sequence, but not all
(for example, Phillips, 1982). Super (1985, p. 407) noted that some people stabilise
early, others later, others never, and still others stabilise and then destabilise later.
Huberman (1989) stated that the evolution of a career should be viewed as a process,
not a series of events. For some, this process may appear linear; for others, there are
plateaux, regressions, dead ends and discontinuities. Some careers may not start out
with an exploration phase. Therefore, according to Huberman, the identification of
phases and sequences must be handled with care, as a descriptive rather than a
normative construct.
The ‘classic’ literature put forward the themes of ‘uncertainty’ or reassessment that
many people have been identified as going through in mid-career, and a feeling of
serenity encountered by many later in their careers. Jung (1926) identified a
‘dangerous period’ near the ages of 37-45, when individuals first assess what they
have accomplished professionally and personally. For Jung (1926) and Gould (1978),
this is more an acknowledgment of perceived subconscious or subliminal impulses
than of current achievement. In contrast, a more sociological analysis (for example,
Burns, 1970 and Riley, 1968) construed such an assessment as an attempt to
establish where one should be at this point in life. In the research on teaching, Sikes
(1985) found such a pattern with several respondents expecting to be promoted to
administrative positions or viewing themselves as a failure. For others (for example,
Kimmel, 1975 and Levinson et al., 1978), this assessment period has more to do with
a
24
decision to stay in one’s job for the rest of one’s life or to change before it is too late.
Teacher career cycles
Although life-cycle research has been progressing for decades, there was little interest
in its application to teachers in the 1960s, and until 1970 little was known about the
careers of teachers, apart from the study by Becker (1970) of Chicago schoolteachers
and Peterson’s (1964) chapter on secondary-school teachers. Much of the work since
1970 is based on the work on adult development and life stages (Levinson et al.., 1978;
Loevinger, 1976 and Sheehy, 1976). Until about 1985, virtually all the research on the
career progression of teachers focused on entry into the profession based on work by
Fuller (1969), or on the first few years of teaching. Even in Wittrock (Ed.)’s (1986)
Handb ook of Research on Teaching there is no reference to research on professional
life-cycles, and only a few references to careers (Floden and Huberman, 1989). More
recently there have been numerous biographical studies, many in the oral history
tradition. However, these studies seem to focus on primary and secondary school
teachers.
In addition, a large number of biographical or longitudinal studies on the careers of

teachers were carried out in the 1970s and 1980s in several countries: for example, in
Australia (Ingvarson and Greenway ,1984), Canada (Butt and Raymond, 1985), France
(Hamon and Rotman, 1984), the Netherlands (Prick 1986, 1989), Switzerland (Hirsch
and Ganguillet, 1988 and Huberman, 1989), in Britain (a more detailed review follows)
and the USA (a more detailed review follows). More recently there have been numerous
biographical studies, many using oral history methods (for example, Bacharach, Conley
and Shedd, 1987; Burke, Christensen, Fessler, McDonald and Price, 1987; and
Huberman, 1989).
The studies on teacher career cycles focused on primary and secondary school
teachers, leading to a greater understanding of the professional trajectory of teachers
as well as the consequences of that trajectory, as discussed in Huberman (1989).
However, little, if any, published research
25
appears to exist on teacher career cycles in the adult teaching field, let alone in TESOL.
Gender
Much mainstream research omits consideration of gender or its impact on the work of
teachers reviewed by Acker, (1995-6). In the past 20 years feminist work has considered
questions such as the barriers encountered by women teachers in seeking career
advancement, as well as rejecting the “commonsense” ideas about the differences
between the sexes such as women viewed as the natural carers of children. Abbot
(1993, p. 197) comments that, while there are studies that compare the sexes and
studies that explore differences among sub-groups of women, “varieties of women are
(never) compared to varieties of men.”
Lortie (1973, pp. 486-488) stated that men and women experience different life
contingencies and career realities and noted the need for studies to take into account
sex differences in motivations to enter and stay in the field and their possible
consequences for the occupation. Acker’s study of primary school teachers (1992,
1995) went further in questioning conventional ideas of career. She felt that most of the
existing models of teachers’ careers did not do justice to the “fragmented, accidental
quality” of careers described by the teachers she interviewed and observed over a period
of several years. Respondents were reluctant to make long-term plans with any certainty
although they had provisional plans. Older women often blamed themselves for
“mistakes” that they thought had impeded their progress within the career structure.
Their movements out of teaching had followed their family building, but their re-entry
might have been the consequence of “a chance meeting in the village store.”
Sometimes they had left and re-entered several times and had performed work outside
teaching. The younger teachers took much less time “out”. Some worked part-time, and
all made complicated arrangements for childcare. Although several younger teachers
initially had no well-developed ambitions, several years later they had become deputy
head teachers (Acker, 1987). She found only a few male teachers in the schools she
studied, and found that, as a group, they could not be characterised as more career-
minded than the
26
women, although some did follow a more traditional path. Acker (1995, p. 130)
suggested that “career” needs redefining for both sexes.
Acker believes that the challenge to researchers is to keep gender considerations

paramount while simultaneously deconstructing the concept of teacher and still
managing to achieve some generalisability about teachers’ work. While gender issues
are not the prime focus of this study, most of the teachers were women, and Acker’s
observations and comments will be taken into account in Chapter VII to identify any
parallels or differences.
The following is a discussion of recent research into teacher career cycles in the United
Kingdom, the United States of America and Switzerland.
British research into teacher career cycles

Studies conducted in the United Kingdom include those by Ball and Goodson, 1985;
Hilsum and Start, 1974; Lacey, 1978; Lyons, 1981; MacDonald and Walker, 1974;
Marsland, 1975; Nias, 1989; and Sikes et al. 1985. Several significant studies into the
lives and careers of teachers have emerged in recent years. In Teachers' Lives and
Careers, Ball and Goodson (Eds.) (1985) emphasised the need to view the careers and
work in relation to, and in the context of the lives of teachers as a whole. Contributors to
this book included Measor (1985) and Sikes (1985) who used life history methods.
Measor identified critical influences traversed by teachers in their lifetime. She
described three main critical influences; 'extrinsic', relating to historical events,
'intrinsic', within the natural progression of a career; and 'personal', relating to family
events. She proposed that critical incidents were most likely to occur during these
periods. Sikes (1985) followed the life-cycle of the teacher from probationary year to
retirement and explored ways in which secondary teachers perceive, experience and
adapt to getting old.
Sikes et al. (Eds.) (1985) Teacher Careers: Crises and Continuities, using Levinson et
al.’s (1978) conceptualisation of life development, discussed the problems of the age /
stage approach when considering those entering the teaching career later in life. Their
study examined teachers in different age
27
groups. Their findings indicated that teachers do not all follow the same occupational
career path, nor is the progression of their life career necessarily similar in other
respects as each has his or her own idiosyncratic biography. Yet their accounts do
suggest a broadly common developmental sequence of stages or phases. Each of
these seem to be associated with an evaluation and perhaps a redefinition and/or re-
ordering of interests, commitments and attitudes which are not necessarily consequent
upon events and experiences arising directly out of the work situation.
Studies which included interviews with teachers about their professional development
and changes throughout their careers have also been conducted (Burden, 1981;
Newman, Burden and Applegate, 1980).
US research into teacher career cycles

Examples of studies conducted in the USA include Adams (1982); Burden (1981);
Cooper (1982); Fessler (1985) and Lortie (1975) . In studies by Fessler (1985); Fessler
(1995); Fessler and Christensen (1992) and Burke, Christensen, Fessler, and Price
(1987), a social systems approach (Getzels, Guba, Lipham and Campbell, 1968 and
Hoy and Miskel, 1982) was used to examine the influence of personal and
organisational factors on teacher careers. The Teacher Career Model Cycle by Fessler
(1985) is one of the most elaborated models, based on an extensive literature review by
Christensen, Burke, Fessler and Hagstrom (1983), interviewing 160 teachers and
conducting case studies.
Fessler’s model was influenced by the work of several others who have attempted to
develop theoretical models for teacher career stages (Burden, 1982; Feiman-Nemser
and Floden, 1981; Gregorc, 1973; Katz, 1972; Krupp 1981; Unruh and Turner, 1970 and
Watts, 1980). Their work arose from research carried out by Fuller (1969) in her attempt
to provide meaningful preservice programs for education students at the University of
Texas-Austin.
The Fuller and Brown model (1975) included the following categories of concerns at
various stages in the process of becoming a teacher:
28
• Preteaching concerns
• Early concerns about survival
• Teaching situations concerns
• Concerns about pupils
Fuller noted that, through these stages, the focus of those who were becoming
teachers seemed to progress from concerns for self to concerns for teaching tasks, to,
finally, concerns for the impact they were having on students.
The concept of career stages was further developed in the 1970s with different
researchers proposing various nomenclatures for similar notions: for example Unruh
and Turner (1970) proposed the following periods:
• Initial teaching period (approximately 1-5 years)
• Period of building security (approximately 6-15 years)
• Maturing period (approximately 15 years and more)
Gregorc (1973) reported on observations of teachers in Illinois, and described the

following stages:
• Becoming stage
• Growing stage
• Maturing stage
• Fully functioning stage
Katz (1972) described four stages of pre-school teachers:

• Survival (lasting 1-2 years)
• Consolidation (lasting into the third year)
• Renewal (lasting through the fourth year)
• Maturity (fifth year and beyond)
The views expressed by these authors provided a valuable insight into the notion of
differentiated stages of development of teachers. However, these models were limited
in that they neglected to view mature teachers as continuing to grow and change
(Fessler, 1995). The models proposed by
29
these writers were based largely on their own observations and anecdotal reflections or
on limited samples. Nonetheless they provided a useful base from which more
thoroughly researched models have grown, particularly those by Fessler and
Huberman described below.
Fessler’s model in Figure 2.2 conceptualised a series of stages in the career cycle, in
which he demonstrated how personal and organisational factors interacted to influence
teacher growth and development. A teacher career cycle was proposed to illustrate
how development proceeds through the interplay and resolution of conflict between the
growth needs of individual teachers and the demands of the organisation.
The personal environment includes a number of interactive facets with variables which
govern the career cycle, such as family support structures, life crises and individual
dispositions, and which may operate alone or in combination. The organisational
environment of schools and school systems comprises a second major category of
variables influencing the career cycle, for example, school regulations, the
management style of administrators and supervisors and the union atmosphere in the
system.
31
The components of the career cycle in the Fessler model include the following (Fessler,
1995, pp. 185-186):
• Preservice, including pre-service training or retraining for a new role.
• Induction, including the first few years of employment, or when changing to a new
district.
• Competency b uilding, with teachers keen to improve their teaching skills and to seek
new materials, methods and strategies.
• Enthusiastic and growing, when teachers have reached a high level of competence in
their jobs but continue to progress as professionals. They have high levels of
enthusiasm and job satisfaction.
• Career frustration, characterised by waning job satisfaction, frustration, teacher
“burnout” and disillusionment with teaching. While this tends to occur at the career
midpoint, there is increasing evidence of it occurring relatively early in some careers.
• Career stab ility, in which teachers have reached a plateau in their careers and are
doing what is expected of them but little more. They are not committed to growth and
are in the process of disengaging from the commitment to teaching.
• Career wind-down, when the teacher is preparing to leave the profession. This could
be a pleasant reflective experience or a bitter one, and may last weeks, months or
years.
• Career exit, representing the period of time after the teacher leaves the job, and
could include a period of unemployment or a temporary exit for child rearing.
Fessler insisted that this model should not be viewed as rigid, but as a working, flexible
one:
a dynamic ebb and flow is postulated, with teachers moving in and out of phases
in response to environmental influences from both the personal and
organisational dimensions (1995, p. 187).
32
The Fessler model pays more attention to institutional parameters than the Huberman
model, while both take account of external factors impinging on teachers’ careers.
Swiss research into teacher career cycles

Huberman (1989, 1993) identified a series of sequential stages in career cycles,
following 'life-span development psychology' and studies of adult development and
adult socialization. The study explored whether the 'classic' studies of the individual
life-cycle would be replicated when applied to secondary school teachers. More
specifically, the aim was to determine whether there is a discernible developmental
sequence in the teaching career, and, if so, to identify its main patterns and
configurations. Finally, the aim was to ascertain whether there are identifiable career
sequences which lead to teachers' perceived 'professional satisfaction' or
'dissatisfaction'. The Huberman study was the one on which the current TESOL studies
were largely based. Huberman’s model and findings are therefore discussed in detail
in the following sections.
Huberman (1995, p. 194) argued that much of the classic life-cycle work construes a
normative path of cycles or sequences, along which most or many individuals pass.
He believed that the appeal of such a structured sequence of events is that if large
numbers traverse similar phases, administrators can determine what constitutes a
more or less ‘successful’ or ‘satisfactory’ career, and support structures can be put in
place to assist those with unhappy careers. However, Huberman criticised this
approach stating that it underestimates the effect of social and historical factors
(compare Neugarten and Datan, 1973), and arguing that teachers active in classrooms
one hundred years ago faced radically different circumstances from those in the 1990s
(compare Warren, 1993). Another criticism Huberman levelled at stage theory was its
tendency to view individuals passively, ‘somewhat like marionettes whose
developmental strings are being pulled at critical ages, or in response to a social ‘time
clock’ or as a function of an intrapsychic ‘crisis’ that characterises particular ages and
circumstances’ (1995, p. 195). In fact, Huberman argued, individuals are capable of
planning and observing and can
33
thereby influence or even determine the nature or succession of stages in their careers.
In addition, he believed that a large part of development is neither externally
programmed nor personally engineered but is rather discontinuous or even random.
Fessler and Huberman independently developed models which are similar in their
approach. They argued that the career cycle is not always a linear process. Fessler
believed that teachers move in and out of stages in response to ‘environmental’
influences (Fessler, 1995, p. 187). Both models include the impact of environmental
factors on career paths but the Fessler model gives this aspect more emphasis
because its roots are in social systems theory. While some differences in emphasis
and structure are evident, there are sufficient similarities in these two models to provide
a comprehensive picture of current thinking regarding the teacher career cycle process.
Fessler states that his findings have implications for supervision and staff
development, including the need to identify personalised support systems for teachers
at various stages of their career, support systems to assist teachers in dealing with
personal problems, for example family problems, and new and creative ways of
supporting teachers at various stages in their careers. Examples include enlightened
leave policies, job sharing and diversification in job assignments. He also stated that
school systems need to take account of teacher career stages and the organisational
environment (Fessler, 1995, p. 188).
Stages and phases in the teacher’s career cycle
One of the most comprehensive publications in recent years in this area was the eight
chapters reviewing research: Research on Teachers’ Professional Lives with Huberman
(1989a) as guest editor in the International Journal of Educational Research, Vol 13.
Huberman’s chapter: ‘On teachers’ careers: once over lightly with a broad brush’
(1989b), is devoted to a detailed examination of current research on teachers’
professional lives. In this, Huberman gave an historical perspective to life-cycle
research, and presented general trends in the literature, particularly in regard to the
phases individuals
34
traverse in their career cycles. He reviewed the literature relating to career cycles of
teachers to ascertain how the stages and phases relate to the classic studies of adult
development and socialization. His research on teacher career cycles has been further
documented in The Lives of Teachers (1993) and in Professional Development in
Education by Guskey and Huberman (Eds.) (1995), where the issue of Professional
Development is further explored.
The following is a discussion of the different stages or phases found in the career cycle
as presented by Huberman in Research on Teachers’ Professional Lives (1989a).
Career entry (1-3 years’ experience)
Many of the studies dealt with career entry, or the first two to three years of teaching.
Fewer studies have dealt with the career as a sequence of phases or stages. Those
that did (for example, Adams, 1982; Field, 1979; Fuller, 1969; Huberman, 1989; Katz,
1972 and Watts, 1980) typically described the first phase as Exploration, which is one
of Survival and Discovery as can be seen in Huberman and Fessler’s models and the
reality shock of the first year of teaching (Veenman, 1984). In the sociological literature,
the initial career typically begins with an exploration phase to do with making a
provisional choice and exploring the contours of the profession. If this experience is
successful, then the individual moves to the next phase of stab ilisation.
S tabilisation / engagement (3-5 years’ experience)
The first phase typically leads into a sense of commitment or stab ilisation in the classic
life-cycle literature. Interestingly, this period emerged in a large number of very different
studies set in different places at different times using different instruments. There is a
theme of ‘independence’ and ‘emancipation’ or ‘liberation’ from the role of student
teacher and a feeling more of security and of belonging to a professional guild, as well
as of personal commitment. This often takes place at the time of gaining tenure. In the
psychoanalytical literature (for example, Erikson, 1950 and White, 1952), choosing a
professional identity constitutes a decisive stage in ego development and
35
reflects a stronger affirmation of the self. In more recent studies (for example, Levinson
et al., 1978), professional commitment is a key event, a moment of transition between
two distinct periods of life.
Some of the earlier studies referred to a sense of ‘comfort’ or assurance (for example,
Burden, 1981 and Fuller, 1969) and a lesser concern with self and greater concern with
instructional goals. More recent literature referred to teachers consolidating, then
refining, a basic instructional repertoire (for example, Lightfoot, 1985 and Sikes, 1985).
Some autobiographical accounts (for example, Ball and Goodson, 1985 and Sikes et
al., 1985) and the psychoanalytical literature suggests that this decision is often difficult
for some teachers who may aspire to other occupations.
In Huberman’s study (1989c), one third of teachers, when asked to carve up their
careers, produced a second, mostly positive, phase with a theme identical with or
related to the stab ilisation motif and with at least two of the three dimensions
mentioned earlier: commitment to the choice of teaching and a career, and a more
assertive professional autonomy and instructional mastery. Stabilisation also means
the informal induction into a professional guild.
Diversification and change
While the career literature and research on stages in teaching can make strong claims
for an 'exploration' and 'stabilisation' phase among a sizeable proportion of samples
studied, the evidence is more uncertain beyond that point. Apparently, individual
trajectories later in the career cycle are very diverse. For example, Cooper (1982) and
Feiman-Nemser (1985) described increasing effectiveness in the classroom, while
Sikes’ (1985) findings indicated that teachers become ‘activists’, trying to lobby for
improvement in resources, joining key commissions etc. Some believe the 'activism' is
due to a need for variation, a quest for stimulation, new ideas, challenges and
engagements.
In Huberman’s study (1989c), 35-40% of teachers were in a subset identifying this

phase, but this was far more evident in the earlier phases of older
36
teachers than for those with less than ten years’ experience. Huberman attributed this
to the influence of social or political trends. In some cases, there was a move to
promotion, not change in the classroom. Fear of stagnation was also present (Cooper,
1982; Huberman, 1989b, 1989c and Watts, 1980).
S tocktaking and interrogations in mid-career (12-20 years’ experience; 32-45 years old)
Several studies mentioned a phase which informants described as problematic. There

were some indications that males were more affected than females, and full-timers
more than part-timers, and in several studies teachers reported similar reflections and
behaviours associated with 'mid-life crisis', especially the experience of reviewing one's
life and career and contemplating other careers (Adams, 1982; Hamon and Rotman,
1984; Huberman, 1989; MacDonald and Walker, 1974; Prick, 1986 and Sikes, 1985).
There were indications that many who lived such a time are more likely to relive it later
too (Huberman, 1989a). Many moments of stocktaking are attributed to external factors.
In some cases, this follows a diversification phase that was disappointing or
exhausting. In others, teachers move directly from stab ilisation to interrogations about
their future. Symptoms include boredom with routine to doubts about having chosen a
teaching career.
Many moments of reported reassessment or 'crisis' were attributed to changes within

the school system, poor institutional conditions, family events, intractable classes and
heavy investments in structural change with few results (Huberman, 1989c). While
mid-career may well be a period of increased vulnerability, and of increased
reflectiveness, there is no strong evidence in empirical studies of teaching that it
necessarily brings on the perception of a 'crisis'.
S erenity and affective distance (20-30 years’ experience; 44-55 years old)
This stage, though not reported in all studies, describes the teacher settling into a more
relaxed and self-accepting activity in class, following periods of high
37
energy and activism. Serenity is a phase which teachers with 20-30 years’ experience
(aged 45-55) tend to undergo (Lightfoot, 1985 and Prick, 1986).
In more recent work, teachers with 20-30 years’ experience reported similar
characteristics (for example, Huberman, 1989c; Lightfoot, 1985; McDonald and Walker,
1974; Prick, 1986 and Rempel and Bentley, 1970). The level of career ambition
decreases, as does the level of investment, but the perception of confidence,
effectiveness and serenity appears to compensate for this.
Conservatism (50-60 years old)
Older teachers (aged 50-60) complained about the characteristics of pupils attending
the school, the negative public image of teachers, the lack of commitment of younger
colleagues and / or the opportunistic nature of administrators (Peterson, 1964 and
Prick, 1986). Huberman (1989c) reported a ‘more prudent’ phase (almost half the
sample) among older teachers, with most being far more sceptical towards structural
reform. There was only one subset in Huberman demonstrating Peterson’s and
Prick’s characteristics. The highly conservative subset of teachers in Huberman’s
study bypass the serenity phase, moving directly from the self-questioning phase mid-
career to the final phase of b itter disengagement.
Disengagement / internalisation and withdrawal
Disengagement and withdrawal towards the end of the profession tends to involve
mostly positive tones: a gradual turning towards more reflective pursuits (Becker, 1970
and Nias, 1985). However, a distinct phase of disengagement for the teaching career
has not been clearly demonstrated. Intuitively, there is no reason to believe teachers
behave differently from other professionals at the end of their careers. In the Huberman
study, however, virtually the whole subset of older teachers (more than 30 years
experience) described itself in terms consonant with the disengagement hypothesis.
For some it was serene, and for others it was bitter. However, seniority had brought
with it benefits, and their goal was to preserve these privileges.
38
Summary of major phases in Huberman’s teaching career cycle model
As can be seen in the model in Figure 2.3, Huberman (1989b) identified the following
phases in the career cycle:
Career Entry (1-3 years’ teaching), including themes of survival and discovery.
Exploration phase and reality shock (Veenman, 1984).
Stab ilisation (4-6 years’ teaching). Pedagogically, this phase is associated with 'a
growing sense of mastery ... and a more assertive professional autonomy' (Huberman,
1989b, p. 351)
Diversification and change, which is a period of experimentation, of reforming the
classroom organisation and teaching methods. This includes a quest for stimulation,
new ideas and challenges.
Stocktaking and interrogations at mid-career (7-18 years’ teaching), which is a period of
self-questioning, review and career contemplation. There is increased vulnerability at
this time.
Serenity and Affective Distance, which is a period when teachers become detached
from pupils, career ambitions and their level of investment decreases. Their teaching
objectives become more modest.
Conservatism (19-30 years teaching), which is a period of increased rigidity and
resistance to change.
Disengagement, involving a gradual serene or bitter withdrawal, and a rechannelling of
energies outside school or towards classroom work of a more modest nature.
Figure 2.3a illustrates Huberman’s schematic model for teacher career cycles
including the phases and stages discussed above.
39
Years of Themes / Phases

teaching
1-3 Career entry; Survival and discovery
↓
4-6 Stabilisation
←↓→
7-18 Experimentation / → Stocktaking / interrogations
diversification ↓
↓ ←←
19-30 Serenity→ Conservatism
↓ ↓
31-40 Disengagement
Serene Bitter
Figure 2.3a: Modal sequences of the Teacher Career Cycle: A S chematic Model (in Guskey
and Huberman, 1995, p. 204)
In the model in Figure 2.3a, there is a single stream at the point of career entry running
to the stabilisation phase. Then there are multiple streams throughout the career cycle,
converging again onto a single path at the end, which may be either serene or bitter
depending on the previous trajectory.
The most harmonious sequence runs along the left side of the model:
Experimentation/diversification → serenity → (serene) disengagement
and the most problematic sequence runs along the right side:
Stocktaking/interrogations → conservatism →(b itter) disengagement
Teachers can also bypass a certain phase or revert to a phase experienced earlier in
the career.
Figure 2.3b annotates the findings of his study in Switzerland (1989c, 1993) for easier
comparison with his model summarising the findings from other major
40
studies in his literature review (Huberman, 1989b, 1993; Figure 2.3a). Huberman did
not produce a separate model for his findings, however. In this study, Huberman
corroborated many of the major phases and themes identified in the literature review.
He found several subpatterns, but in general terms he found that teachers go from
Survival and Discovery (the first 3 years), to Stabilisation (years 4-6), to Experimentation
and Diversity (years 7-18), to Focusing Down (19 + years). He found three subpatterns
in the later years from year 19 on, which he labelled 'positive focusing', 'defensive
focusing', and 'disenchantment'.
School teachers: Huberman et al (1993, pp. 244-247)
Survival and discovery

↓
Stabilisation
↓
Experimentation & diversity / renewal and reform
↓
Self-doubt following stabilisation (fear of routine or disappointment) /
Reassessment following disillusionment with attempts at reform
(fleeting moments and not for majority)
↓
Internalisation or serenity following period of self-doubt (not time-bound)
Less activism and less commitment in pursuit of greater serenity
Greater caution towards reform / energetic / open / committed and optimistic
(30-40 years’ experience)
Focusing down
• Positive focusing
• Negative focusing
Disenchantment
Figure 2.3b: Huberman’s findings from 1982-1986 study in Geneva, S witzerland (ref.
Huberman, 1993, pp. 244-247)

41
He addressed the issue of career satisfaction statistically and was able to predict 89%
of the cases of ‘disenchanted’ or ‘dissatisfied’ older teachers and 97% of the cases of
‘satisfied’ teachers. But the study did not predict them before they were 12-15 years
into the career. However, there were indications that teachers who steered clear of
reforms but who invested consistently in ‘productive tinkering’ in the classroom were
more likely to be ‘satisfied’ later on in the career (Guskey and Huberman, 1995, pp.
205-206).
Consequently, the first two phases are as in the classic literature, and the latter phases
differ. He found no consistent evidence of the middle three phases, although 40% of
the sample had self-doubts following a period of stabilisation, and reassessment can
occur through unsuccessful attempts at diversification and reform.
Huberman also argued that social and historical events are influential factors
distinguishing cohorts of teachers, regardless of age or number of years’ experience in
the profession. His findings clearly demonstrate this, with different cohorts of teachers
living through significant periods of structural reform in the educational system in the
1960s.
Motivation and job satisfaction research

There has been increasing understanding of the motivation of people at work during the
course of this century, with one of the most influential theories of motivation being the
two-factor theory of motivation proposed by Herzberg, Mausner and Snyderman, (1959).
Maslow’s more general hierarchy of needs theory was developed some 12 years
earlier, and Herzberg adapted it and applied it to an industrial setting. Herzberg’s
theory posited that motivation is composed of two separate factors:
i) “motivators”, or satisfiers intrinsic to the job, which can lead to job satisfaction,
include:
• Achievement
• Advancement
• The work itself
42
• Possibility for growth
• Responsibility
• Recognition
ii) hygiene factors or “dissatisfiers”, found in the work environment but extrinsic to the
job itself, which can lead to job dissatisfaction, include:
• Interpersonal relations with subordinates, peers and superiors
• Physical working conditions
• Type of supervision
• Salary
• Benefits
• Job security
• Company policies and administrative practices
• Personal life
• Status
According to Herzberg, if “hygiene” needs are not met, the individual is not happy.
Provision for “hygiene” needs, however, does not guarantee increased motivation. The
satisfiers have motivational potential but depend on reasonable “hygiene” needs before
they become operative (Herzberg, 1959, pp. 113-119). Therefore, by eliminating
sources of dissatisfaction one may reduce the dissatisfaction of a worker, but this does
not necessarily mean that such reduction either motivates the worker or leads to
positive job satisfaction.
Sergovianni (1967) replicated Herzberg’s work among teachers, reporting that the two-
factor theory appeared to be supported. His findings were that achievement,
recognition and responsibility were factors which contributed predominantly to teacher
job satisfaction, while interpersonal relations (with students and peers), school policy
and administration, unfairness, status and personal life were factors which contributed
predominantly to teacher dissatisfaction. Further, the satisfaction factors for teachers
tended to focus on the work itself and the dissatisfaction factors on the conditions of
work.
43
However, the early literature does not acknowledge the importance or existence of
context specific sources of satisfaction or dissatisfaction, including factors such as
changes to education (Dinham, 1995). Change in the education system was also
found to have far-reaching consequences for respondents in Huberman’s study (1993).
Other authors have elaborated on other factors such as school-based factors (Dinham,
1998) including leadership, climate and decision-making, school reputation and school
infrastructure, which Dinham grouped together to form a third domain of factors. Others
have suggested the factors affecting job satisfaction may be more productively labelled
in other ways. For example, McCormick and Solman (1992) suggest “intrinsic to the
person” and “extrinsic to the person” rather than “intrinsic to the job” and “extrinsic to the
job”.
While some criticise Herzberg’s theory (for example, Salancik and Pfeffer,1977;
Campbell and Pritchard, 1976, p. 381) and recommend abandoning it for other
approaches such as expectancy theory, which was popularised by Vroom (1964),
others have attempted to build on it to develop a further domain (for example, Dinham,
1998). However, the two-factor theory remains a powerful explanation of motivation in
the workplace. The model used in the current study will be Herzberg’s two-factor model
with the school-based factors which Dinham separated out into a third factor, being
recognised as highly important, but included in Herzberg’s extrinsic “hygiene” factors.
Herzberg’s findings still have important implications for educational administration. In

spite of Herzberg’s insights, much of present management practice is still directed at
controlling the hygiene conditions, which have, at best, limited motivating power for
teachers.
Herzberg suggested three main ideas for those who would apply his theory:
1. Enrich the job, involving redesigning the work to make it more interesting,
challenging and rewarding.
2. Increase the autonomy on the job, to give workers more participation in decision-
making on how the job should be done.
44
3. Expand personnel administration beyond its traditional emphasis on maintenance
factors in order to create or redesign jobs that motivate the incumbents.
Herzberg’s motivation-maintenance theory has been widely accepted and applied to the
management of business and industrial organisations. However, results from other
studies using the same taxonomy have found that intrinsic factors were linked to
dissatisfaction as well as satisfaction (Dunnette, Campbell and Hakel, 1967; Ewen,
Hulin, Cain Smith and Locke, 1966 and Graen, 1966). Other research has indicated
that both extrinsic and intrinsic factors affect job satisfaction, although intrinsic factors
are more significant (Farrugia, 1986; Kyriacou and Sutcliffe, 1977 and Lortie, 1975).
Herzberg’s dichotomy has been reinforced in most studies of the motivation and job
satisfaction of TESOLs.
Job satisfaction of TESOLs
Few articles have been published relating to TESOL teachers’ job satisfaction levels.
Pennington (1991) found ESL teachers typically express moderate or high job
satisfaction in categories to do with the nature of teaching work and its intrinsic values,
while registering low job satisfaction in categories to do with pay and particularly with
opportunities for advancement. Thus, ESL teachers are generally satisfied with the
intrinsic rewards of teaching and not with its extrinsic rewards.
Blaber and Tobash (1989) reported a high level of concern among ESL practitioners
about pay, benefits and professional status. These concerns were confirmed by the
results of two small-scale studies (Pennington and Riley, 1991) that surveyed ESL
practitioners about their job satisfaction. The results of the first survey show a moderate
degree of overall job satisfaction on the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire but the
respondents showed least satisfaction in the areas of opportunity for advancement and
pay. The job aspects rated most highly were Moral Values (being able to do things
which do not go against one’s conscience), and Social Service (the opportunity to
45
perform a social service in one’s work). In general these were intrinsic rewards. The
second of these studies employed the Job Satisfaction Descriptive Index and showed
similar results, with a high overall degree of job satisfaction. The least satisfaction was
again with opportunities for advancement and with salaries, and higher satisfaction was
associated with interaction with co-workers, the nature of work and with supervision.
In Australia, a survey by McKnight (1992) of teachers graduating from the Victoria

College, Melbourne, Graduate Diploma course in TESOL reached conclusions similar to
those from the Pennington and Riley surveys. The positive intrinsic motivation towards
ESL work coupled with its lack of professional recognition is summed up well in the
comment of one teacher in McKnight (1992, p. 27):
Other staff members have a poor attitude to ESL teachers. The lack of
acknowledgment does not detract from the work itself being very fulfilling.
McKnight (1992, p. 24) also noted that
a high proportion of respondents indicate their wish to change sectors (largely

into working with adults), change their field to ESL/EFL, or to seek the more
flexible work arrangements offered in the TESOL field.
McKnight (1992, p. 30) also made the less positive observations about ESL work in
Australia:
Careers in TESOL appear to be marked by horizontal rather than vertical mobility,

and for those teachers who are interested in promotion, the only option in many
cases is to move out of the specialist field. Many teachers who remain in the
TESOL field, particularly in (public) schools, have to tolerate a powerless,
relatively solitary position, and the support of colleagues, administrators and
bureaucrats may be lacking. Many teachers and administrators still appear to
see TESOL as a ‘soft option’
46
and have no understanding of the roles and responsibilities of ESL teachers. For
some teachers in the adult TESOL sector, positions are short-term and insecure,
and their position is in many ways worse than that of school teachers, who at
least have the option to return to subject or grade teaching when the attractions of
ESL begin to pall.
Pennington and Ho (1995) reported their findings on a survey carried out on 95 TESOL
practitioners to identify levels of ‘burnout’ using the Maslach Burnout Inventory Manual.
As compared to the overall figures for the other 11,067 employees surveyed by Maslach
and Jackson (1986), the ESL group was slightly lower on the Emotional Exhaustion
subscale, considerably lower on the Depersonalisation subscale and considerably
higher on the Personal Accomplishment subscale. The ESL group, therefore, seemed
to suffer less from the stress-related effects associated with burnout than did the
general population of human services workers. TESOL educators experience a greater
sense of Personal Accomplishment and less Depersonalisation from their work than
others in the human services professions.
The results obtained confirmed a moderate-to-high degree of satisfaction with intrinsic

aspects of the work such as relationships with others and feelings of worth and
accomplishment that come with fulfilment of job responsibilities. The results of the
surveys outlined above taken together suggest that, for many ESL educators, the
intrinsic rewards and positive social relations of the job may soften the potentially
stressful aspects of ESL work and compensate to some degree for the inadequate
career structure and financial rewards which many perceive as existing in the field.
Pennington and Ho (1995) admitted that these findings may vary depending on the
particular school and educational system within the country from which the respondents
are drawn and whether they work with adults or children. In the McKnight study (1992, p.
26) there was evidence of high stress among teachers working in primary and
secondary schools, including ESL teachers:
47
The figures indicate the obvious preference of teachers who work in the adult
sector at the commencement of their study to remain in that sector on completion
of the (TESOL) course, with 84% of employment subsequent to the course being
spent in the adult sector and only 8% in primary or secondary teaching. These
figures reinforce the impression that the adult sector is extremely attractive to
primary and secondary teachers and ... it is tempting to wonder whether the
stresses of primary and secondary teaching have some bearing on this.
Richards (1994) recommended indepth studies of teachers’ lives and careers in order
to understand teacher thinking better.
In 1997, Johnston explored the life histories of 17 EFL teachers in Poland in which he
echoed the findings of McKnight (1992) confirming empirically that EFL / ESL can be an
“unstable, marginalised, impermanent occupation” (Johnston, 1997, p. 707). He also
suggested that assumptions about the status of EFL / ESL as a profession and about
the possibility of careers in this field are highly questionable. He concluded that EFL
teachers live in complex contexts in which personal, educational, political and
socioeconomic discourses all influence the way the life is told (Johnston, 1997, p. 708).
Johnston (1997) referred to an earlier study on TESOL teachers’ careers by the Centre
for British Teachers (CfBT, 1989) in which the career aspirations of teachers were
expressed in vague terms implying a heavy attrition rate, as the CfBT found that by the
age of 45, a very small proportion were left in full-time EFL employment. The reason
given was the lack of an institutionalised career structure.
The present TESOL study also provided the opportunity to examine levels of job
satisfaction to see how they compare to the findings of current research. As TESOL
educators from different institutions, in different countries and with different working
conditions were included, the results could reveal the degree to which levels of
satisfaction are associated with any of these variables.
48
Model building in the current study
Fessler’s Teacher Career Cycle Model (1985) was developed using the following
specific process of model building (Fessler, 1995, pp. 177-179). The first step in the
process was to gather data that present a view of the “real world”. Based on a synthesis
of data collected, an explanation of teacher careers was hypothesised into a “working
model”. This model-building phase of theory development requires the synthesis and
expansion of prior knowledge into a framework that adds new insights and structures for
analysis. The working model should at this stage be viewed as a tentative paradigm
that offers the current best explanation for existing data. Subsequent data gathered
should be cycled back into the model to make modifications and refinements. Given the
dynamic nature of model building described by Fessler, the working model should serve
the dual purpose of providing guidelines for action and a structure for future research.
For the researcher, the working model offered a framework for research and further
analysis.
The current study on TESOL career cycles will take account of the Fessler and
Huberman models (Figure 2.1) described earlier in this chapter in an attempt to build a
modified model which applies to TESOL professional life-cycles and may have wider
application, at least to careers with similar characteristics to those of TESOLs. This will
be presented in the theoretical discussion in Chapter VII.
Professional development research

According to the literature on professional development, collaboration between
teachers is essential in order for it to be successful (for example, Fullan and
Hargreaves, 1991). Therefore, structures which support collegiality such as
observation of peers, feedback from peers, consultation and reflection with peers,
planning and evaluating together are all positive factors (Anastos and Arcowitz, 1987;
Eisner, 1988; Johnson and Johnson, 1987; Lieberman and Miller, 1984 and Little,
1984). Yet schools (particularly secondary schools) are generally designed on a model
that divides and isolates teachers.
49
Furthermore, we know that developing new skills and incorporating new ideas into
practice requires large time provisions (Fullan, 1985; Goodlad, 1984; Joyce, 1986;
Sirotnik, 1987 and Welsh, 1986). However, school timetables allow little time for
professional development activities of this sort, as teachers are fully occupied teaching.
Another aspect of professional development which has received attention in recent

years is that of personalising or giving individual attention to teachers’ professional
development (for example, Eraut, 1993, Fessler, 1995 and Levine, 1989).
Finally, we know that while professional development sponsored by outside agencies

is acknowledged as important, the most crucial professional development is that which
is built into the school itself and is part of the normal cycle of a school’s renewal
(Bolam, 1982; Goodlad, 1983 and Joyce, 1986).
Huberman demonstrated that life concerns are deeply implicated in teachers’

approaches to instruction. He illustrated this with reference to a group of mid-career
teachers, whom he termed Positive Focusers, who focused their interest and
commitments on particular parts of their work (a subject, or a grade level, perhaps),
built up their outside interests and avoided school-wide innovation. Yet, having found
and defined their areas of interest and preference, the positive focusers were still open
to and interested in experimenting with their practice, in making small changes and
improvements in their own domain. They were proud of their classroom mastery and
always sought to improve it further, but only in their own way and in their own time.
Huberman found, therefore, that teachers who avoided reforms or other multiple
classroom innovations, but who invested consistently in classroom-level experiments
or ‘productive tinkering’, experimenting with new groupings and new materials, were
more likely to be ‘satisfied’ later on in their careers than others. Additionally, they were
far more likely to be satisfied than their peers who had been involved in schoolwide or
districtwide projects throughout their careers. This latter group felt that the time and
efforts expended on
50
ambitious attempts to change on-going practices had essentially exhausted and
embittered them, given the few concrete results they observed in their classrooms. Yet
they usually described the first experiences of ‘experimentation’ or ‘renewal’ as the
most exciting and formative years of their career.
Three factors were predictive of professional satisfaction later in the career cycle:
i) Higher levels of satisfaction were experienced by teachers who spontaneously
sought some form of role shift when they began to feel stale.
ii) When asked to describe their ‘best years’, teachers overwhelmingly mentioned
specific cohorts or classes with whom they had enjoyed privileged relationships.
iii) The experience of achieving significant results in the classroom when low
performing students improved their performance also led to satisfaction. In many
cases this followed a major instructional shift on the part of the teachers.
These factors correspond closely to the mainstream literature on satisfaction.

According to Ashton and Webb (1986, p. 162):
work is likely to be satisfying when we value what we do, when it

challenges and extends us, when we do it well, and when we have ample
evidence confirming our success.
There are important lessons to be learned from this group of positive focusers for
teacher development as a whole. First, Huberman advocated a craft model as the most
appropriate model for career development. This is one which encourages and supports
teachers in their experimentation in their own classrooms, as a way of expanding and
improving their repertoires of instruction. Second, he argued that inservice training
would need to be designed to support these needs of craft-like tinkering, and he
suggested that workshops, peer coaching and similar activities are likely to prove too
codified and scripted for most individualistic craftworkers. More productive moves might
51
be made in extending teachers’ networks so that they can learn from each other's skills.
Huberman also concluded that such conditions of professional satisfaction are not so
difficult to ‘deliver’ at the organisational level. Sustaining professional growth seems to
require manageable working conditions, opportunities to experiment without sanctions if
difficulties are encountered, periodic shifts in role assignments, regular access to
collegial expertise and external stimulation, and a reasonable chance to achieve
significant outcomes in the classroom.
Huberman indicated that his findings have valuable implications for school
administrators:
On the practical level, studies of the teacher career have an obvious relevance.
For example, recent work on ‘school improvement’ shows that many of the key
determinants are career-related: how administrators and teachers view
implementation of new practices is closely related to how they construe next
steps in their careers. In the same vein, work on ‘staff development’ or ‘workplace
conditions’ has been shown to be closely tied up with career-related variables.
Clearly, issues of personnel policy are contingent on an understanding of the
contours and dynamics of the professional career cycle of teachers (1989a, p.
343).
Developmental models of the teaching career tell us that there are different concerns at
different moments in the professional life-cycle. A teacher at the beginning of his or her
career has different concerns from one who has been teaching for 20 years. Some
analysts (for example, Burden, 1986; Fessler and Burke, 1988 and Glickman, 1990)
have suggested that stage-appropriate staff development opportunities can be
developed. However, Huberman was sceptical of ‘career-phase engineering’ and was
more inclined towards collaborative work among teachers at different points in their
career (Huberman, 1992).
52
In addition to the ‘lone-wolf’ scenario, which he suggested would remain entrenched,
Huberman (1995, pp. 208-218) also further developed his ideas on professional
development, proposing several ‘innovating’ paradigms: a closed individual cycle, an
open individual cycle, a closed collective cycle, and an open collective cycle.
The closed individual cycle depicts the way teachers deal with everyday instructional
problems in their classrooms, diagnosing the problem, experimenting with different
ways of resolving the problem, and abandoning or adopting the new ways, depending
on how successful they are.
The open individual cycle is similar to the closed one, except that the teacher reaches
out for assistance outside the classroom, either to colleagues, to people at the local
teacher education faculty or to a wider span of materials. Huberman still classified this
as the ‘lone-wolf’ paradigm as the success of the enterprise depends almost entirely on
the social network of the colleagues and their willingness to make something of the
information and expertise provided.
In the closed collective cycle the teacher collaborates with colleagues from several
schools with the same pedagogical interests. The teacher therefore broadens the input
from sources further afield than immediate colleagues. The teachers exchange
information and experiment individually or collectively. This cycle of experimentation and
reflection is a core component of this and the next cycle.
In the open collective cycle, in which the group comes from several schools, the cycle is
managed by the group, but specialists are called in at specific moments for specific
purposes. This cycle involves a series of possible steps involving teachers from various
centres setting up experiments, trying out new methods and observing peers enacting
new practice under everyday conditions, all with specialist input at appropriate moments.
Following this the group adopts some of the new approaches they have tested together
and abandons others. More importantly, they will have created an enlarged network of
teachers in their area, the network being further connected to specialists in university
and resource centres.
53
Professional development of TESOLs
The field of TESOL has a number of professional development opportunities for its
members through programs, conferences and journals offered through professional
organisations such as the Australian-based National Centre for English Language
Teaching and Research (NCELTR) at Macquarie University, Sydney and the Australian
Council of TESOL Associations (ACTA); the US-based TESOL International, and the
British-based International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language
(IATEFL). These indicate that teachers of TESOL in Australia and other parts of the world
participate in inservice professional development opportunities during the course of their
career. Universities are increasingly offering masters programs specialising in Applied
Linguistics and TESOL (see, for example, Ward & Wilson (Eds.), 1996, p. 3).
While the teacher-as-researcher is a well-known concept in general education,

classroom research in TESOL has been seen until recently as involving linguistic
research (Edge, 1992). However, this impression is slowly changing and new
possibilities for the autonomous teacher / researcher can be found in Allwright and
Bailey (1991), Clark (1987), Nunan (1989; 1997), Wallace (1991) and Wright (1987).
Action research in the classroom, peer observation and reflection on practice are ways
the teacher may take steps for self-improvement, either independently or collaboratively
with colleagues. According to Richards (1991, p. 21):
A primary goal of inservice programs is to provide teachers with ways of looking at

their own classrooms from a different perspective. Activities which promote self-
enquiry and critical thinking are central for continued professional growth and are
designed to help teachers move from a level where their classroom actions are
guided by routine to a level where their practices are guided by reflection and
critical thinking.
Edge (1992), in ‘Cooperative Development’, described a cooperative process of

professional development in which teachers collaborate with their colleagues in
54
order to discover their own ways of gaining more satisfaction from their teaching.
Nunan (1997) states that interest in teacher-research in TESOL has grown substantially
in the last seven or eight years, with the publication of practical manuals (for example,
Nunan, 1989; 1992), and the staging of a biennial Teachers Develop Research
conference, and an increase in the number of teacher-research presentations at
international conferences such as those of TESOL and the International Association of
Teachers of English as a Foreign Language (IATEFL) (Nunan, 1997, p. 365).
Murphy (1994) summarised the concern, raised by various experts in the field of second
language teacher education, that there is a lack of an underlying theoretical foundation to
its practice and Freeman (1989, p. 27) warned that second language education has
become increasingly fragmented and unfocused’ because it lacks ‘a coherent,

commonly accepted foundation.
Murphy (1994), however, argued that TESOL educators have access to a range of useful
principles serving to bridge the gap between theory and practice, presenting an outline
for a unified, though still emerging, theory of second language teacher education. He
linked six broad principles, which are widely discussed, with implications for practices of
TESOL teacher education (Murphy, 1994, p. 10):
• Becoming well informed
• Investing in one’s own teaching
• Collaborating with other teachers
• Exploring promising strategies of effective second language teaching
• Recognising processes, strategies and styles of second language learning
and language use
• Participating in continuing professional development opportunities
55
In his discussion of these principles, aspects of Huberman’s open collective cycle are
evident.
In the TESOL professional development literature, there is an emerging importance

given to peer, in contrast to supervisory, collaboration. Nunan (1991), for example,
believed that teachers need to ‘discover and develop their own philosophy of teaching,
and to create their own methodological practices’ through reflecting on their own and
other teachers’ authentic classroom experiences (1991, p. 16). He presented readings
and tasks designed to assist teachers in collecting and analysing data relevant to their
own and their colleagues’ instructional decisions. A recurring theme presented by
Nunan (1991), Wallace (1991) and others, is the suggestion that teachers benefit if they
are able to work collaboratively while exploring alternative instructional procedures. This
coincides with Huberman’s models for professional development and the literature
generally.
Procedures encouraging reflective analyses of teaching have been well documented

within the field of teacher observation (for example, Day, Whitaker and Johnston, 1990),
classroom-centred research (Allwright, 1987; Richards, 1990 and Wajnryb, 1992), action
research (Nunan, 1989) and exploratory teaching (Allwright and Bailey, 1991). Murphy
suggested that, while these teacher education areas are technically different, they are
closely related in that teachers benefit from focused collaboration with peers who share
similar interests. Allwright and Bailey (1991), Nunan (1989) and Wallace (1991)
provided alternative procedures for teachers to engage in reflective/exploratory teaching.
Ways of participating in continuing professional development opportunities described by

Murphy (1994) included attending conferences, workshops and other formal and
informal gatherings of language teachers. Nunan (1989) recommended informal peer
discussions, seminar presentations, convention-style delivery of papers, slide shows,
video reports and workshops and edited manuscript submissions to refereed journals.
56
According to Richards (1991, p. 13):
The difference between what teachers think they need to know and what experts
think teachers need to know is often striking.
He cited an example where teachers disavowed any interest in the theoretical issues
occupying an important place in graduate TESOL programs. The findings of this study
may assist in confirming or denying this assertion.
Chapter summary
In summary, this literature review provides the basis of the conceptual framework of the
study. Huberman’s model was used for comparative purposes, and the TESOL studies
expanded on aspects of his study to develop a professional life-cycle model for TESOLs.
This is described in Chapter IV. The study also focuses on specific moments and
phases of the career cycle in order to identify aspects of job satisfaction described in
Chapter V. The study intended to identify whether the same types of satisfaction and
dissatisfaction would be found in TESOLs as the research revealed in the studies in the
literature review. The literature on professional development revealed a range of
recommended types of individual and collective professional development to enhance
teachers’ satisfaction and growth throughout the career cycle. This study explores
professional development for TESOLs in a non-directive fashion in order to discover
which aspects of professional development TESOLs would identify as important. The
findings on professional development are described in Chapter VI.
Having reviewed the literature which formed the basis of the TESOL studies, Chapter III
sets out the research design and methodology.
57
58
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

This chapter sets out the research design and methodology employed to answer the
research questions. It describes in detail the way the research project unfolded, the
approaches employed to select the research sites, the selection of respondents for the
studies, the roles of the researcher and the characteristics of the sample. It also
describes the development of the interview schedule, and provides a list of interview
questions and relates these to the research questions. Following this, the interview
methods are described. Finally, there is a detailed description of the methods of analysis
and presentation of data, with examples given for each step taken in the analysis.
The base methodology of the study was influenced by Huberman (1989,1992,1993), and
the study sought to use similar qualitative methods to those in Huberman’s study in order
to obtain comparable data for a group of teachers with very different characteristics and
from different circumstances.
The focus of Huberman’s study was on teachers themselves identifying, describing and
interpreting successive moments in their career. Such an approach avoids labelling data
with constructs from research literature that may not be appropriate. The methods used,
therefore, were qualitative. Qualitative research is especially appropriate in circumstances
in which the particular context plays a significant role in determining the behaviour
observed. Such methods enable more intimate familiarity with social life, and provide
more valid knowledge “through detailed, dense acquaintanceship” with social life
(Lofland, 1976, p. 8). The fundamental characteristic of qualitative research is its
commitment to viewing events, actions, norms and values from the perspective of the
people who are being studied (Bryman, 1988, p. 61). Typical methods are interviewing
and participant observation. According to Filstead (1970, p. 6):
59
Qualitative methodology allows the researcher to “get close to the data,” thereby
developing the analytical, conceptual, and categorical components of explanation
from the data itself.
Methods of analysis were, therefore, geared to organising the available data in ways which
illuminated the research questions posed in the study.
The main method used in this study, as in Huberman’s, was interviewing, although the
researcher was also to a degree a participant observer throughout. The study focused on
the data obtained through interview, but some of the viewpoints expressed at interview
were further verified or not by observations made in the course of the study. During
previous visits to the first research site to focus the research topic, a detailed diary was
kept from September 1992-May 1993 with day-to-day observations, and five managers of
less professional schools were interviewed. Less professional schools are those
preferring to hire unqualified teachers who can be trained on the job. The working
conditions and pay rates are inferior with only casual work offered, and the teaching
syllabus and methodology are often rigidly imposed. While these do not form a part of the
current study, they serve as an example of the extent to which the researcher attempted to
gain an understanding of the field prior to the main study.
Tables 3.1 and 3.2 indicate that this study was carried out in two distinct stages. Stage I
occurred in Geneva, Switzerland from July 1993 to December 1994, and Stage 2 in
Sydney, Australia from September 1995 to March 1996. Although many features of the
research methodology were replicated in both studies, some changes were made as a
result of experience. In that sense, the methodology evolved as the study progressed.
60
Table 3.1: S tage 1: Geneva TES OL study; phases, dates and activities
Date Stage Activity
Geneva: 1st visit Not part of current Preliminary investigation: Interviews

Jan 1992 study with 5 managers of “less
Geneva: 2nd visit professional” schools living and
Sept 1992-May 1993 working in Geneva: Detailed diary
and observations
Geneva Phase I Interview 1 (question 1) with 22
July - Dec 1993 Interviews 1 and 2 teachers
Interview 2 (questions 2-11) with 9
teachers
April - Dec 1994 Phase II Interviews 1 and 2: with six more
Interviews 1 and 2 teachers
Interview 2: eight teachers from
phase I reinterviewed by phone or
face-to-face
Oct-Dec 1994 Phase III Interview 3 (professional
Interview 3 development questions 12-15): eigh
respondents from original sample
and two new respondents
Table 3.2: S tage 2: S ydney TES OL study; dates and activities
Date Stage Activity
Sydney: January Stage 2: phase Interviews with 32 TESOL teachers

1995-March 1996 Teacher
interviews
Sydney: December Stage 2: phase Interviews with 11 TESOL trainers /
1995-March 1996 II administrators
Trainer /
administrator
interviews
The Geneva interviews were carried out in several phases as the preliminary interviews
were analysed and other questions of interest were added for clarification or expansion.
Respondents were contacted again to gather responses to the additional questions. In
some cases the interviews were
61
conducted face-to-face, and in other cases by phone when a quick response was needed
or the respondent was not available for a meeting. Sometimes respondents were no
longer available for additional interviews.
Therefore, some Geneva interviews were carried out on several occasions. Several of the
later Geneva interviews were carried out in one session of two hours. As this proved to be
successful, all Sydney interviews were conducted in one session.
In Geneva, interview 1 consisted of the Huberman question asking respondents to divide

their professional lives into phases. Interview 2 consisted of the remainder of the
Huberman questions for teachers and some additional questions. Interview 3 consisted
of the questions for administrators and / or trainers.
Methodology
The methodology used was qualitative with interview questions designed to gather data to
answer the research questions.
Ethical considerations
Ethical considerations were addressed at the outset of the study. Respondents included
freelance teachers who worked at several institutions. The employers of all the schools
from which the majority of the respondents came were informed about the study, and the
managers of two of the main sites were also respondents in the study. However, all
respondents were asked individually for permission to use the data on a confidential
basis prior to the interview. Permission was also sought to tape the interviews, and in
some cases they were not taped at the request of the respondent. The nature of the
information gained was personal to them. Therefore, no written consent was sought from
the schools as all interviews were conducted on an individual personal basis and much of
the information sought was not relevant to the respondents’ current situation as it
addressed their past career, often in another school or schools.
62
Participant roles
The roles adopted by the researcher are summarised below.
i) Interviewer and data analyst
The researcher carried out the interviews and analysed the data for the two studies to a
certain extent as a participant observer (see ii below) for the Geneva study, and more as
an outsider in the Sydney study.
ii) Participant observer
Participant observation, also known as “field observation”, “qualitative observation” or

“direct observation” (Lofland and Lofland, 1984, p. 12), refers to the process by which
an investigator establishes and sustains a many-sided and relatively long-term

relationship with a human association in its natural setting for the purpose of
developing a scientific understanding of that association. This may not be the
person’s sole purpose for being present in the setting, but it is at least an important
one.
The researcher worked as a TESOL in Geneva for two and a half years, spending one and
a half years conducting the interviews with colleagues for the Geneva part of the study.
Therefore, the researcher experienced first hand the life of a TESOL in Geneva.
The researcher gradually became accepted as a participant in the field, being involved in
teaching and training during the first year. As a participant observer, therefore, the
researcher listened to the problems of teachers and teacher trainers and administrators.
The researcher was often privy to confidential information and reports. Whilst these were
not used in the study, they helped to confirm or question some of the data.
The researcher was invited to give guest talks, to train teachers in various institutions, and
to become president of the professional development association of TESOLs in Geneva.
These functions served to repay to some extent the
63
respondents in the study, to broaden the possible sample and to gain a better
understanding of the field.
The insider status of the researcher gave an understanding of the social system involved
and the jargon in use, for example, the many acronyms: CTEFLA, DTEFLA, M.Ed. (EFL); MA
Applied Linguistics without the need for clarification. The insider was able to check details
such as employment conditions and was also aware of the history of working conditions.
As the motivation for being in Geneva was primarily the study, it was evidently difficult to be
a participant observer while maintaining a neutral role. Having made contacts in the
schools, these were the source of all the teachers interviewed there. The researcher’s
teaching and training were mainly carried out at the international organisation.
In Sydney, the researcher works in a different department from ELICOS in the language
teaching institution attached to the university which formed part of the study, thereby
maintaining more of an outsider status than in the Geneva studies.
Professional skills brought to the role of researcher
Other professional skills were employed in the role as interviewer. Training as a linguist
encourages sensitivity to responses to questions and the choice of words.
Having trained as an interpreter, which involved acquiring notetaking skills, the researcher
found that the transcripts obtained from the notes provided reliable records when checked
against the tape recordings.
Methods
Interviewing was the method employed in data gathering to seek opinions and
perceptions and to have an account of the history of the careers and lives of the
respondents. According to Shaver (1981, p. 83), perception is “the understanding of the
world that you construct from data obtained through your senses”. It is acknowledged that
every investigator approaches research with a personal frame of reference that focuses
the inquiry and may influence data
64
collection, analysis and presentation of findings. However, a questionnaire would not
have elicited the depth of information obtained, nor would it have enabled the participants
to describe so freely the framework of their professional lives and the amount of time to
spend on different phases.
Perceptions are inescapable in all social science research. The present study was
specifically based upon perceptions and reflections of respondents drawn from a social
setting in an educational institution.
The interview is often viewed on a continuum as demonstrated in Figure 3.1:
Structured → Focused or semi-structured→ Unstructured / In-depth

Quantitative →→→→→→→→→→→→→→→ Qualitative
Figure 3.1: Interviewing: the continuum model (Taylor and Bogdan, 1984; Minichiello,
Aroni, Timewell and Alexander, 1990, p. 89)
At one end of the scale are structured research tools such as oral opinion polls, attitude
surveys and questionnaires which are administered to a large group of respondents in a
highly structured interview form. Results are often analysed using quantitative methods.
Semi-structured or focused interviewing is often used either as part of or to complement
the quantitatively-oriented structured interview, or as part of the qualitatively-oriented in-
depth interviewing model. This process essentially entails the use of the broad topic of
interest to guide the interview. The content of the interview focuses on the issues that are
central to the research question, but the type of questioning and discussion allows greater
flexibility than does the survey-style interview. As with the in-depth interview, this may
reduce the comparability of interviews within the study but tends to provide a more valid
explanation of the informant's perception of reality (Minichiello et al, 1990, p. 93). Part of
this study used a semi-structured interview format with a series of questions asked of all
respondents. Respondents in Sydney and Geneva were also asked to comment on lists
of factors mentioned by school teachers from Huberman’s study, and in Sydney they were
asked to comment on the outcomes of the Geneva study.
65
In-depth interviewing, which has been referred to as nondirective, nonstandardised, and
open-ended interviewing, is at the other end of the continuum. According to Taylor and
Bogdan (1984, p. 77), in-depth interviews are:
repeated face-to-face encounters between the researcher and informants directed

towards understanding informants' perspectives on their lives, experiences or
situations as expressed in their own words.
In this type of interviewing, therefore, the respondents may be interviewed frequently and
substantial background detail may be collected. The interviews can last for many hours
and the rapport established can lead to greater understanding. In-depth interviewing is
directed towards learning about events and activities that cannot be observed directly. The
in-depth interview seeks to discover the informants' experience of a particular topic or
situation in a language that is natural to them. This reduces the possible distorting effect
of symbols and language which are not part of their everyday usage. Hence, there is a
significant move from the interrogative process used in a structured interview toward that
of a more conversational process.
Huberman’s study (1993, pp.24-25) involved an interview schedule with 14 questions of a

diverse nature (see Appendix A for the main questions as described in Huberman, 1993).
Some questions, notably the first, were totally open-ended, deliberately general in scope,
inviting respondents to elaborate fully their own lines of response. Others took a dual form,
being open-ended at the outset, then becoming progressively more directive as the
response emerged. There were also several more tightly structured questions, also
beginning with an open-ended enquiry. In these, after an initial response, respondents
received a flash card containing a list of items to comment on.
The TESOL studies adopted some in-depth interviewing techniques for many of the open-
ended questions. The first question, for example, which asked respondents to describe
their career, adopted this technique. Other questions
66
included a list of factors for comment, involving more focused interviewing techniques as
in Huberman’s study.
Table 3.3 describes the methodology employed in the three studies. The TESOL studies
used the same interviewer on all occasions, while Huberman had many interviewers
trained for his study.
Table 3.3: Instruments and methodology
Methodology Huberman’s Geneva Sydney

study TESOLs TESOLs
Number of interviewers multiple one one
Total interview length (ave.) 5 hours 2 hours 2 hours
Interview types all used all used, in one all used

- face-to-face or two (one session
- open-ended and focused sessions only)
- directive with lists and (mainly face-to
examples face, but a few
- in more than one session phone calls for
- taped and transcribed from follow up data)
notes taken
Interview methodology -
similar to clinical interviews, yes yes yes
oral history
Respondents' reaction to positive positive positive
interviews
Advantages and limitations of the interview as a research method
The interview allows both parties to explore the meaning of the questions and answers
involved. Any misunderstandings can be checked immediately by either party in a way
which is not possible with questionnaires or other survey techniques. Interviews are
therefore valuable in that they involve sharing and negotiation of understanding, and they
give rapid, immediate responses.
67
Interviewing is, therefore, an appropriate method to gain access to individuals' worlds and
interpretations. According to Spradley (1979), “an ethnographic interview is a particular
kind of speech event,” similar to a friendly conversation. However, the interview differs
from a conversation in both structure and purpose. For instance, the interview is not
balanced, as most conversations are, because the interviewer asks most of the questions
and sets the framework for the discussion. Also, the researcher uses repetition to clarify
responses and encourages the informants to elaborate on their answers. Therefore, the
research interview is a rather special conversational interaction with its own particular
dynamics. Many writers stress the importance of the interviewer's role, and the ability to
develop a rapport with the respondent that will enable the interviewer to elicit frank
answers. This involves the ability to simulate spontaneous participation while evaluating
the respondent's views toward the interview, to evaluate moods and such feelings as
anxiety, suspicion, and sincerity (Goode and Hatt, 1952, p. 186 and Hyman with Cobb,
1954).
The respondent-interviewer's attractiveness or unattractiveness to one another, and the

social, physical, and role distance can all produce bias and error because these are
integral to the structure of everyday conduct. If the goal of the interview is to achieve some
measure of “naturalness,” then reliability cannot be achieved by the same procedures for
all subjects, but only for each subject taken separately (Cicourel, 1964, pp. 79-80).
Therefore interviews must be seen, to some degree at least, as a series of separate case
studies.
Interviews, like any social interaction, are subject to fabrications, exaggerations, and
distortions. Although verbal accounts may lend insight into impressions of the world and
behaviour, there can be a great discrepancy between what is said and what is done
(Deutscher, 1973). This is true also of most other data-gathering methods, particularly
surveys. Another point to consider is that what people do and say differs in different
situations. Since the interview is a special kind of situation, it cannot be assumed that
what is said in an interview is what that person necessarily believes or says in other
situations.
68
Many of the problems inherent in interviewing are a part of social interaction and
communication in everyday life. Hyman et al. (1954) support the view that the interview will
always contain variable meaning structures which typically influence all social interaction.
In using life history methods, one of the factors to bear in mind is that discontinuity is
typically underestimated by individuals when recounting their own lives to make sense of
their past through their current perceptions. In other words, some career sequences may
be creations from a series of disjointed events to which researchers and informants have
attempted to give shape and meaning (Huberman, 1995).
The “trustworthiness” of the study
If practitioners and other researchers are to derive benefit from a study, they must have
confidence in the quality, or overall “trustworthiness”, (Lincoln and Guba, 1985) of the
procedures and the resultant findings. The types of considerations include reliability,
validity and generalisability. Guba's (1985) equivalent labels for qualitative research
include: “credibility”, “transferability”, and “confirmability”.
Credibility or reliability
The first construct, credibility or reliability, means ensuring that the inquiry was conducted
in such a manner as to ensure that the subject was accurately identified and described.
The insider status of the researcher tends to enhance the credibility of these TESOL
studies. The interviews were conducted in as similar a fashion as possible in each
setting, using the same questions and with the same researcher using the same
techniques. While some questions were added for the Sydney study, the same wording of
the main questions was retained and the same qualitative methods used in each setting
for conducting the study. Where additional lists of prompts were shown to Sydney
respondents, these were shown only after the main question had been answered with no
prompt to ensure comparability.
69
Transferability
The second construct proposed by Lincoln and Guba is transferability, or the

generalisability of the study. McCutcheon (1981) expressed the view that
generalisability in interpretive studies ... rests on the readers' ability to generalise

personally to their own situations rather than on the researcher's generalising to
populations larger than the sample used in the particular study.
While the perceptions of respondents may not be representative of the opinions of other
teaching staff, the data analysis may permit some readers to find personal relevance in
specific viewpoints. In order to discover the degree of generalisability of the conclusions
obtained from the analysis, further research would need to be carried out.
No attempt has been made to generalise beyond the samples in these studies but an
effort was made to obtain a variety of views by carrying out studies in the quite different
international situations and by including interviewees to cover a range of strata in each
circumstance.
Confirmability
Another consideration is objectivity, which concerns the “confirmability” of the study

(Lincoln and Guba, 1985). In other words, if the same procedures were followed in
another study, would the new analysis and interpretation of data result in the same
findings? The data analysis of the present studies includes detailed accounts of
responses and cross-referencing across interviews, often including direct quotations from
informants in the report with more detailed tables and additional information being
retained in appendices, to permit external scrutiny of interpretations and conclusions. The
use of triangulation (see below) also increases the objectivity of the study by allowing
various means of “confirmability”.
70
Triangulation
Triangulation means the combination of methods or sources of data in a single study

(Denzin, 1978; Taylor and Bogdan 1984, p. 68). It can enhance a study's transferability
and confirmability. Data from different sources can be used to corroborate, elaborate or
illuminate the research. Designing a study in which multiple methods are used, and there
are multiple informants or more than one data gathering technique, can greatly strengthen
the study's usefulness for other settings. It can capture a more complete, holistic and
contextual portrayal of the study. The present study did not use triangulation of methods
because the sole formal source of data was the interview. However, by interviewing a
wide variety of respondents in two different circumstances, content triangulation was
carried out.
Subjectivity
While as much objectivity as possible was sought, it is clear that the subjectivity of the
researcher will ultimately shape this kind of research. He or she must gain some
understanding, even sympathy, for the participants in order to gain entry into their world.
Personal insights increase the likelihood of being able to describe the complex social
system being studied. However, there must be controls for bias in interpretation. Such
controls might include the following (adapted from Marshall and Rossman, 1989, pp. 147-
148):
• a constant search for negative instances
• checking and rechecking the data and purposeful testing of possible rival hypotheses
• discussing biases, including biases of interest (personal, professional) and theoretical
biases and assumptions
• documenting field decisions altering strategies or substantive focus
• explicit data collection methods
• negative instances of the findings displayed and accounted for.
In the Sydney TESOL study, one method employed for searching for negative instances or
for omissions was that of showing the interviewees a list of items mentioned by Geneva
TESOLs. This was only done after the original question
71
had been answered spontaneously (see Appendix A). This served to further explore
unstated aspects of the question and to provide further opportunities for discussion. It
also served to identify how different responses may be when focusing respondents on
specific aspects of a question. Evidence was further corroborated in different parts of the
interviews as many of the questions covered the same ground from different angles. The
interviews were further analysed and compared with against other parts of the interviews
in order to ensure that isolated comments on an issue could not be misinterpreted or
given undue weight.
Therefore, the responses given to each question were not viewed in isolation, but were
corroborated with evidence from other parts of the interview. When there was a possible
doubt as to the exact interpretation of a comment and no further evidence was found to
support or refute the proposed interpretation, the comment was not included in the
analysis. These types of misinterpretations were largely avoided by giving the
respondents their interview transcripts for comment or change.
Pre-interview procedure
Selection of subjects
In a qualitative study it is difficult to determine how many people to interview. Huberman’s

study was conducted in Geneva and Lausanne in three sites (Geneva lower secondary,
Geneva high school , Vaud high school) with 160 secondary teachers in the state system
with between five and thirty-nine years of teaching experience. The sampling procedure
involved using official records to identify the years of appointment, and was stratified
according to years of teaching experience. Approximately 25% of the respondents had
some additional responsibilities to teaching, although these non-teaching responsibilities
never exceeded 50% of their role. Therefore, the principal professional activity of the
sample group was teaching.
The two groups of teachers interviewed for the present TESOL studies were from Geneva
and Sydney, and both groups were teachers of adults in the private
72
system. Huberman personally recommended that the researcher should interview 25
teachers in Geneva because of the much smaller total pool of ESOL teachers compared
to secondary school teachers (personal correspondence from Huberman, 2 April, 1994).
The number of 25 was thought to provide a sufficient range to elicit useful data on career
issues. The aim in Geneva was therefore to interview at least 25 teachers for an initial
interview, and as many as possible for the second interview, taking into account that some
may not be available one year later. All respondents were teachers of ESOL to adults,
some were trainers and / or administrators in addition to their teaching, and two were
mainly administrators. For the teachers’ interviews, all respondents in both studies
performed teaching for at least 50% of their time. Trainers / administrators were
interviewed separately. All respondents in both studies were native speakers of English
or close to native-speaker level of proficiency (in the case of one Swiss respondent in
Geneva).
In fact, in Geneva, 30 people were interviewed, and 61 interviews were conducted over a
period of 18 months between July 1993-December 1994. The research in Geneva was
limited to three main teaching centres, and it included some freelance teachers who
taught at one or more of the selected sites. The three selected sites were the most
professional ones identified during a preliminary investigation 18 months before the study
took place. The aim was to interview teachers from the most professional sites. This was
important to ascertain in Geneva as there were no official controls over standards, while in
Sydney there were. The criteria used to select the sites were therefore those indicating at
least minimum levels of professionalism:
• institutions requiring CTEFLA minimum or equivalent qualification for recruitment of
teachers.
• institutions offering a minimum standard of working conditions, such as:
1. contracts for full-time staff
2. provision of professional development opportunities or institutional
support to attend external training
3. minimum hourly rates (CHF50 for a fully qualified teacher)
73
4. resources and support structures such as course coordinators, books and
tapes, computers, preparation areas and support
5. testing and placement procedures for enrolling students
An effort was made to interview as many men as possible, as there are few in the field.
Five of the 30 (17%) respondents were male, which is regarded as a reasonably
representative proportion of the total TESOL population.
The research site in Sydney included four main teaching centres. In Sydney 43
respondents were interviewed. Similar criteria to those for the Geneva study were used to
select the sites. Fourteen of the 43 (33%) respondents were male.
“Snowball” sampling (Minichiello et al, 1990; 198) occurred as respondents often

recommended others who were included if they fitted the study criteria. Sampling bias
could arise if respondents with rapport with the researcher and a willingness to respond
to questions had been recruited preferentially. Consequently, an effort was made to
include in the study some respondents who were unknown to the researcher.
Characteristics of the sample
This section examines the characteristics of the sample. As an exploration of the field of
TESOLs, the study was intended to be a set of case studies, with sufficient numbers of
respondents to be able to draw some tentative general conclusions. An effort was made
to include respondents differing by sex, place of work, type of work, and years of
experience.
Table 3.4 compares and contrasts the samples of the three studies, showing similarities
between the two TESOL studies, particularly in the areas of median years of experience
and median age, and differences in the number of freelance teachers employed, in the
sex distribution and in the number of administrators interviewed. In Huberman’s study the
sample was larger, the teachers were older and more experienced, the subjects taught
were more varied and the sex distribution was fairly equal.
74
Table 3.4: Characteristics of the samples and studies
Characteristics Huberman’s Geneva TESOL study Sydney TESOL

study study
Dates of study 1982-1986 July - Dec 1993; April January 1995-

- Dec 1994 March 1996
Number of 160 teachers Total: 30 including Total: 43 including
respondents 28 teachers and 32 teachers and
2 administrators 11 trainers/admin
Years of experience 5-39 6 mths-29 yrs 6 mths - 27 yrs
Median experience 15 11 9
(years)
Male: female (by % o 46:54 17:83 33:67
sample)
Age range (years) 28-67 25-55 25-55
Median age (years) 44 42 38
Academic discipline all subjects TESOL TESOL

taught
Source of 100% Geneva 20% international 47% university

respondents (by % o lower and organisation language centre
sample) upper 43% private 53% private
secondary language schools language schools
schools 37% freelance
In Huberman’s study, a total of 160 respondents were interviewed; including teachers

from the middle school (n=88), Geneva high school (n=52) and Vaud high school (n=20).
Respondents were divided into 5-10 years of experience (24%), 11-19 years of experience
(39%), 20-29 years of experience (21%) and 30-39 years of experience (16%).
In the Geneva TESOL study, 28 teacher and two additional trainer / administrator
respondents were interviewed; 25 females and five males. They were drawn from an
international organisation’s language training unit and two schools, and a
75
number were freelance. The two additional trainers / administrators included one from the
international organisation and the other from one of the schools. In the Geneva TESOL
study the respondents could have been divided by years of work experience into four main
categories as in Huberman’s study. However, owing to the relatively small number in the
sample, they have been considered as a whole in the analysis.
In the Sydney study, 32 teacher respondents and 11 trainer / administrators were

interviewed; 28 females and 15 males. They were drawn from a university language
centre and from three adult TESOL schools. There were no freelance teachers.
There were few respondents in the TESOL studies with 20-29 years’ experience, let alone
30-39 years as this is a profession attracting many respondents well into their
professional lives, and because as a “new” profession, even those who entered at a
young age have not yet had time to develop the years of experience common to school
teachers. This situation may be changing, however, as there were a number of younger
respondents with less than five years’ experience in the Sydney TESOL study. Huberman
did not examine the category with less than five years’ experience, presumably because
they would be too new to the profession to be able to present a lengthy enough career
path to be of interest. Presumably in most cases they would have been young people
starting out in their first profession. However, this did not appear to be the case in the
TESOL studies as in most cases people did not discover TESOL until later. Therefore, the
initial phase of the career path was considered of interest to this study, as many
respondents had had other careers beforehand and may therefore have reached phases
earlier than young people starting out in their first career.
In the Huberman study, the respondents were analysed separately according to whether
they were male or female, and from the middle or high school. This is because historical
factors affected them differently. As there were fewer respondents in the TESOL studies
and historical factors were not so significant in the Geneva TESOL study, and unlikely to
have affected males or females differently in the Sydney TESOL study, the respondents
have generally been
76
considered as a whole. Only where an historical or other factor appeared to affect males
and females differently are the differences discussed in the analysis. For comparative
purposes the Huberman male and female respondents for each category have been
considered as a whole group, involving combining all the relevant tables from the
Huberman study to present a single table of itineraries covering both men and women.
For the purpose of the present study, the respondents were not considered according to
their years of experience at the time of the study but were analysed as a whole group,
reflecting back on different phases of their career. However, in the Professional
Development section, an attempt was made to link years of experience to “current”
professional development requirements. For this one section only, respondents were
divided for analysis into two categories, of 0-10 and 11-29 years’ experience.
Nationality / language
Table 3.5 indicates that two-thirds of Geneva respondents (18) were from Britain; eight
were from other English speaking countries and two were Swiss nationals, but English
“native-speaker like” as their own education or professional experience had been in
English.
The majority of Sydney respondents were of Australian origins (21), eight were from
Britain, the remainder originally being from other English-speaking countries.
77
Table 3.5: Nationality of TES OLs

Responses
Nationality Geneva Sydney

respondents respondents
American 6 1
Australian - 21
British 18 8
Canadian - 1
New Zealander 1 -
South African 1 1
Swiss 1 -
Swiss / British 1 -
Total responses 28 32
Geneva TESOL study
Table 3.6 shows the number of respondents in the Geneva study for each category based
on years of experience.
Table 3.6: Categories of experience and numbers of teacher respondents in the Geneva study
Category: years of experience Responses

1. 0-4 9
2. 5-10 6
3. 11-19 8
4. 20-29 5
Total responses 28*
* The total number of respondents included two trainers / administrators not interviewed
as teachers.
Two additional respondents and eight of the above respondents were also interviewed for
the trainers/administrators’ interview. All told, of the 30 respondents, 25 were females and
five males, which is roughly representative of
78
the distribution of the sexes across the population of Geneva TESOLs according to an
analysis at the time of the study of staff lists from the main teaching institutions from which
the samples were drawn.
The distribution of Geneva teachers and trainers / administrators in different institutions
according to sex and status of work is shown in Table 3.7. Respondents came from three
selected institutions and many also worked freelance across institutions or in companies.
Of the total respondents (n=30), 15 were freelance mostly working in multiple worksites,
13 worked full-time in the Schools (9) or the international organisation (4), and two worked
part time at the international organisation. The five male and 25 female respondents gave
a total of 46 responses.
Table 3.7: Distribution of interviewed Geneva teachers and trainers/ administrators in

different institutions according to sex and status of work (n=30)
Responses
Institution Men Women
School A full-time - 6
School B full-time 2 1
International organisation A full-time 2 2
Total full-time 4 9
International organisation A part-time - 2
Total part-time - 2
School A freelance - 10
School B freelance - 6
International organisation A 1 3
freelance
Other freelance 1 8
International organisation C - 2
freelance
Total freelance 2* 29*
TOTAL RESPONSES 6* 40*
* Some of the 30 respondents worked in multiple worksites. There were 13 female

freelance / freelance respondents, and two male freelance respondents.
79
No respondents worked on a part-time permanent basis in the schools; those working
regular part-time hours being employed on a freelance basis with none of the benefits of a
permanent contract. If there were insufficient teaching hours for a full-time employee in
School A for a period of time, the employee would be expected to produce materials during
time not teaching and make up the teaching hours at a later date.
The international organisation had two permanent part-time employees sharing one full-
time position with good working conditions. The full-time employees at the international
organisation also enjoyed good working conditions. However, there were few such
positions available (three full-time positions in TESOL) with no apparent prospect of future
expansion. These working conditions were clearly in sharp contrast to the conditions in
the schools (according to information gained from educational managers and
respondents in the different worksites and from personal experience).
Table 3.7 also shows the distribution of males and females in the different institutions.
Four of the five males held full-time responsible positions. Nine of the 25 women held
full-time positions. Two of these held officially recognised positions of responsibility
beyond teaching. The remainder were teachers, some with additional duties without
formal recognition. This suggests that men may be keener to further their careers than
women. Differences between men and women are alluded to where relevant, but no
definite conclusions could be drawn as the sample was too small.
Among the Geneva respondents, 20% had no recognised TESOL qualification (see Table
3.8 which sets out the qualifications of the Geneva TESOL respondents). Twenty years
ago specialist qualifications in TESOL were not available in Geneva, and in few places
elsewhere in the world. The Certificate and Diploma qualification became available in
Geneva in the early 1980s. Half the respondents entered the field as qualified school
teachers, one third with the CTEFLA, one third with the DTEFLA and 10% with a masters
degree in TESOL. One was currently undertaking a masters degree in the field.
80
Table 3.8: Qualifications of Geneva respondents
Responses
Qualifications Number % cases
No recognised TESOL qualification 6 20
School teacher qualification 14 47
CTEFLA 11 37
DTEFLA 10 33
MA or MEd 3 10
MA in progress 1 3
Total responses 45*

* 30 respondents gave 45 responses
The distribution of Geneva trainers / administrators by institution is shown in Table 3.9.

Only three of the respondents in the Geneva study were employed full-time in the area of
training and / or administration, the remainder retaining a large number of teaching hours
or being employed casually.
Table 3.9: Distribution of Geneva trainers/administrators by institution (n=10)
Responses
Institution Full-time Full-time Freelance

trainer / teacher with trainer / admin
administrator other duties
School A - 2 1
School B 2 - 3
International organisation 1 1 1
Other schools - - 5
Total responses 3* 3* 10*

* multiple responses: 10 respondents gave 16 responses
School A had no formal external training program, but had an extensive, less formal
internal in-servicing program. Two of the respondents were responsible for providing in-
servicing in addition to their teaching duties, while one freelance trainer was employed as
a consultant.
81
School B is a training institution, and half the trainer respondents were involved in training
in that institution. Two of the respondents from School B were employed full-time, while
three were freelance trainers.
Sydney TESOL study
In Sydney, similar criteria were used to select respondents. All respondents (with one
exception) were interviewed with the same questions on one occasion only; thus the
numbers of responses for all questions is more consistent than for Geneva. The
exception related to one respondent who asked for the interview to be held in two
sessions because of time constraints. All interviews were conducted face-to-face and
were taped.
All the teachers had taught or were currently teaching in the English Language Intensive
Courses for Overseas Students (ELICOS) area (TEFLA), while some also had experience
teaching English as a Second Language (ESL), and/or teaching adult migrants. There
were 10 males and 22 females in the teachers’ interviews, and five males and six females
in the trainers/administrators’ interviews.
Thirty-two respondents were interviewed for the teachers’ interview in Sydney, and a further
11 for the trainers’/administrators’ interview from the same institutions as the teachers.
The teachers were subdivided into four categories according to years of experience as is
shown in Table 3.10:
Table 3.10: Categories of experience and numbers of teacher respondents in the S ydney
study (n=32)
Category of years experience Responses

1. 0-4 9
2. 5-10 12
3. 11-19 9
4. 20-29 2
Total responses 32
82
There were only two respondents with more than 20 years’ experience, with the largest
numbers of respondents having 5-10 years’ experience.
Table 3.11 sets out the distribution of Sydney respondents by institution, sex and work
status.
Table 3.11: Distribution of S ydney teachers and trainers/ administrators in different

institutions according to sex and status of work (n=43)
Responses
Institution Male Male Female Female Total

trainers teachers trainers teachers
A: Full time (FT)
School A 1 2 2 3 8
School B 2 - - 2 4
School C - 4 1 - 5
University language 2 3 3 5 13
centre
Total full-time 5 9 6 10 30
B: Part time (PT)
School A - - - 1 1
School B - - - 2 2
School C - - - - -
University language - - - 5 5
centre
Total part-time - - - 8 8
C: Freelance
School A - - - - -
School B - - - - -
School C - - - 1 1
University language - - - 2 2
centre
83
Table 3.11 (continued)

Total freelance - - - 3 3
Exit because of illness - 1 - - 1

(School A) - previously
FT
Exit for maternity - - - 1 1
reasons (School A) -
previously FT
Total exit - 1 - 1 2
TOTAL RESPONSES 5 10 6 22 43
All the trainers/administrators were full-time employees. As can be seen in Table 3.11, of
the teachers, there were 19 full-time, eight part-time, three freelance and two who had left
the profession but had previously worked full-time at School A. The more experienced
teachers in the middle categories (5-19 years’ experience) demonstrated the most
commitment, with the majority working full-time. The respondents with fewer than five
years’ experience showed the least stability in employment. There were also fewer
opportunities for full-time employment early in the career.
All the male teachers held full-time positions except for one who had exited, but who
previously was full-time. The women respondents held positions ranging from full-time
(10) to part-time (8) and freelance (3). All the trainers/administrators were full-time.
While definitive statistics on the size of the school were not available, the university
language centre was the largest, followed in order by School A, School B and School C
(see Table 3.12). The numbers and sex of respondents were roughly proportional to the
size of the school.
84
Table 3.12: Number of respondents and sex in each institution in S ydney
Responses
Workplace Teachers Trainers / Females Males Total

admin.
University 15 5 15 5 20
language centre
School A 8 3 7 4 11
School B 4 2 4 2 6
School C 5 1 2 4 6
Total responses 32 11 28 15 43
Twenty respondents held full-time positions, while eight were employed part-time. Two
had left the profession and two were freelance. Full-time contracts ranged from
permanent to fixed contracts for one term to one year. Two of the respondents had been
working full-time at School A but had temporarily left the profession, one for maternity
reasons and the other for medical reasons. Neither was sure of returning to School A.
Those working part-time did so by choice, some holding permanent part-time positions.
Of those in part-time employment, five respondents chose to work part-time for family
reasons, while three were single and had other interests.
One respondent was working casually in two of the institutions, and two were working on a
freelance basis for a limited period at one institution in a transitional period in their
careers.
Respondents’ roles
Teachers
Fourteen of the 32 respondents were full-time teachers, while the others performed other
duties in addition to teaching. As would be expected, the majority of respondents at the
beginning of their career were teachers only, while those later in the career had other
duties as well.
85
For respondents in the Sydney study, the main activity was teaching at least 50% of the
time. The exception was one respondent who taught only nine hours a week as well as
having a range of other duties including counselling and coordinating. Another was a
head teacher who had only recently taken up the position and was currently teaching 10
hours a week. A full-time teacher usually teaches 20 hours a week in Sydney, and is
present at the workplace for about 35 hours a week. A teacher/coordinator usually
teaches between 12-16 hours a week and coordinates other teachers on the program as
well as overseeing the curriculum. The “other duties” carried out included: supervising
other teachers as Head Teacher, developing materials and assisting in the Individual
Learning Centre, acting as Activities Officer organising student excursions and other
activities, being Counsellor for overseas students, teacher training duties, assisting in
organising the professional development program and marketing courses off-site.
Trainers / administrators
Three of the respondents were teacher trainers and eight were administrators. While
some of the administrators also had some professional development duties or
participated in the teacher training department, their main roles were as Director of
Studies, Director or Head Teacher. These respondents had few, if any, teaching duties.
Qualifications
Table 3.13 shows the qualifications of Sydney respondents. Only one Sydney respondent
was unqualified. The remainder had multiple qualifications. Fifty-three percent of the
respondents had a school teaching qualification, 53% had a Certificate in TESOL
qualification, and 53% a DTEFLA qualification. Twelve percent had a graduate diploma,
33% a masters degree, four respondents were currently undertaking a masters degree
and two a doctorate. The Sydney respondents, therefore, were well qualified, many
undertaking further formal studies throughout their career.
86
Table 3.13: Qualifications of S ydney respondents
Responses
Qualification Number % cases
No recognised qualification 1 2
School teacher qualification 23 53
CTEFLA 23 53
DTEFLA 23 53
Graduate Diploma TESOL 5 12
MA or MEd 14 33
MA in progress 4 9
Doctorate in progress 2 5
Total responses 95*

* multiple responses: 43 respondents gave 95 responses
The interview schedule

The interviews were divided into three sets of questions for the Geneva respondents; two
sets for teachers and one set for trainers/administrators, and most of the respondents
were interviewed in separate sessions for each set of questions.
In the Sydney study, there was one set of questions for teachers and another set for
trainers / administrators.
The interview questions fell into three main areas:
Career cycle phases
Respondents were asked to recount their career from graduation on, dividing it into developmental
phases, as in Huberman’s study (1993). They were also asked what their future plans were, a
question not addressed in Huberman’s study. This was to identify the likelihood of their remaining in
TESOL, which would give an indication of satisfaction with the profession.

Career entry, teachers’ motivations and satisfactions
This series of questions was designed to elicit from the respondents how motivated and
satisfied they had been during their careers. Respondents were
87
asked about their motivations for and hesitations in entering TESOL (Huberman and
TESOL studies); whether they would re-select TESOL (Huberman and TESOL studies);
what they planned to do in the future (TESOL studies only); whether they had ever thought
of leaving the profession, or whether they had had moments of doubt (Huberman and
TESOL studies); their concerns as beginner teachers (Huberman and TESOL studies)
and ways of overcoming these concerns (Huberman and Sydney TESOL studies); and
whether TESOL can be considered a career, and what the term “career” means (TESOL
studies). As so many of the TESOL studies had highlighted dissatisfaction with extrinsic
career factors, the question relating to TESOL being a career was added to explore to what
extent respondents felt TESOL provided a genuinely professional career.
An additional question, not addressed by Huberman, was asked: what sort of professional
development is useful for you? This was in place of Huberman’s questions on years of
caution, levels of activism and pedagogical mastery. The researcher’s interest lay less in
teaching methods and classroom issues raised by these questions, and more in
professional development systems and approaches in use in TESOL institutions and
practised by members of the profession.
Professional development was an important issue to be explored in the TESOL studies.

The needs could be diverse considering the relatively recent professionalisation of the
field and the lack of in-service opportunities or initial training afforded some older
teachers. Additionally, there is now a one month certificate course which older teachers
may complete. As trainers/ administrators were interviewed about professional
development needs of their teachers, it was felt that it was also necessary to gain the
opinion of the recipients of professional development, the teachers themselves.
In the Geneva study, although 28 respondents were interviewed for the first interview and
only 23 for the second, in some cases clear evidence existed from the first interview to
infer answers to questions not specifically asked of some recipients.
88
Ten respondents who were interviewed as trainers/administrators were questioned
regarding their beliefs about professional development, as they were most directly
responsible for the professional development of the teachers interviewed in the first part of
the study. By including trainers / administrators in the study, it was possible to compare
the perceptions of teachers and management, particularly about issues of professional
development.
In the Sydney study, no respondent was interviewed as both a teacher and a trainer /
administrator as in Sydney trainers/administrators held full-time positions with reduced or
no teaching, making duplication unnecessary.
Interview questions
The interview schedules and questions as they were used for teachers and trainers /
administrators in Geneva and Sydney are set out in Appendix A.
Table 3.14 shows the extent of commonality in relation to questions asked in the TESOL
and Huberman studies:
89
Table 3.14: Commonality of questions in the two TES OL studies with the study by Huberman
(1993)
Interview questions Huberman Geneva Sydney
study TESOL TESOL
study study
Motivation for career entry Yes Yes Yes
How did you enter the profession?
List of motivations from Geneva TESOLs for No Yes Yes
comment
Career phases Yes Yes Yes
Plot your career into phases
Career definition - professionalisation No Yes Yes
Define your concept of career and its
relationship to TESOL
Beginning teaching Yes Yes Yes
Reflect back on when you first taught
Describe 2 situations that caused problems
Did you experience these concerns (list of
secondary school teacher concerns for
comment)?
List of beginner concerns from Geneva No No Yes
TESOLs for comment
Stocktaking mid-career Yes Yes Yes
Have you ever thought of leaving teaching?
List of concerns from Geneva TESOLs in No No Yes
moments of doubt
Future aspirations No Yes Yes
What of the future?
Reselect the profession? Yes Yes Yes
Would you choose teaching again? Why?
Why not?
90

Caution and years of experience Yes No No
Levels of activism at different moments in Yes No No

the career
Pedagogical mastery Yes No No
Professional development No No Yes

Define professional development
What sort of professional development is No Yes Yes
useful for you?
List of professional development from No No Yes
Geneva TESOLs for comment
Interview with trainers / administrators No Yes Yes

regarding professional development
Table 3.15 shows the relationship between the research questions and the interview
questions:
91
Table 3.15: Relationship between the research questions and the interview questions
Research questions Geneva interview Sydney interview

questions questions
Professional life-cycles
1 5 1, 4
2-4 1 2
Job satisfaction
5 4 13
6 8 and 9 6 and 7
7 7 10
8 2 3
9 6 14
10 6-9 6, 7, 10 and 14
11 11 16
12 1 and 11 2 and 16
13 12 and 14 27 and 29
14 15 31
15 11, 12, 14, 15 27, 29, 31
Some of the interview questions have been omitted from the table because they sought
background information, definitions of terms or to add detail to the research question in a
way which is non-comparable between studies. These include Geneva interview
questions numbers 3, 10 and 13 and Sydney questions numbers 5, 8, 9, 11, 12, 15, 17-
26, 28, 30 and 32. The responses to these questions have been included in appendices
as indicated in the relevant chapters.
The following section describes the methods and procedures employed to carry out the
interviews.
92
Interview methods
The interview methods evolved as the study progressed (see Tables 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3).
The Geneva study interviews were fragmented for several reasons; firstly a selection of
Geneva teachers undertook interview 1 before the researcher returned to Sydney to further
clarify the aims of the study and to identify additional questions of interest. On returning to
the research site, further respondents had interview 1, and interview 2 questions were
added to explore aspects of satisfaction and dissatisfaction with the career.
As the study in Geneva progressed, further questions of interest or clarification were

added to the study and the respondents were re-interviewed where possible. Most
Geneva respondents fitted only the category of teacher and were interviewed twice, but
some fitted both categories of teacher and trainer/administrator and were interviewed
three times. This is because few people held full-time trainer/administrator positions in
Geneva, most tending to be teachers with almost a full-time teaching load plus some
other duties, or they were freelance teachers / trainers. Others were interviewed only once
if the time set aside was sufficient. Some were interviewed only once because they left
TESOL or Geneva after the first interview. As the interviewing progressed and the
researcher became more efficient at planning the time needed, the two interviews were
sometimes combined into one session, particularly for respondents who were available
only on one occasion. Most of the interviews were conducted face-to-face and taped, but
some respondents were interviewed at a later date by telephone for additional questions
to ensure the data were complete. Telephone interviews were not taped but detailed
short-hand notes were taken.
In the Sydney study, as the interviews had been fully refined, teachers were interviewed in
one session and teachers / administrators had a different interview in one session. Each
interview typically lasted two hours.
93
Interview procedure
In Huberman’s study, the duration of each interview was typically about three hours.
These were long, in-depth conversations, close in format to the clinical interview,
conducted by trained interviewers. The interviews in Huberman’s study were all taped,
only the pilot interviews being fully transcribed, the later ones being coded and condensed
into a protocol of 30 pages.
The potential TESOL interviewees were contacted and a time and place organised to
interview them, varying from their classroom, to a coffee shop, their house, or another
available room in the school.
Interviewees were told a little about the project: that TESOL careers were the topic of the
project, and that the interview was confidential. Permission was asked to tape it, and the
procedures were explained; namely that a transcript would be written up from the detailed
notes taken during the interview. Interviewees would then be asked to correct, amend,
delete or otherwise change any incorrect information in the transcript. Usually the
interviewees were not given time to consider their response before the interview, so
almost all interviews were entirely spontaneous. Sometimes respondents were given a
general indication of the topic of the interview by other respondents, but the exact wording
of the questions was retained by the interviewer, and not included in the transcripts.
In the case of the Sydney interviews, lists of responses given by Geneva TESOLs were
included for comment after the initial response to some of the questions.
Probing
One of the keys to successful interviewing is knowing when and how to probe (Taylor and
Bogdan, 1984, p. 96). This involves asking informants to clarify their answer (Taylor and
Bogdan, 1984, p. 97; Lofland and Lofland, 1984, p. 56). Because of time constraints, the
researcher tried to keep the interviewees focused on the topic. However, at times the
researcher probed to elicit how respondents may have reached a new phase and omitted
to name the previous one. In addition, the interviewer intervened when the opinion
expressed needed
94
further clarification, or when the informants needed time to clarify their thoughts on topics
they had not previously considered.
Recording the interview
The interview was taped and detailed notes taken. In Geneva, the first interview usually
lasted 45-60 minutes, the second 30-45 minutes and the third about 30 minutes. In
Sydney, the teachers’ interview lasted between 90 minutes to two hours, and the
trainers’/administrators’ interview 30 minutes to two hours, depending on the detail given
in answer to the first question, which sought background information. The relationship the
researcher had with the informants also influenced the time, as some were at ease and
others less so. Those more at ease tended to say more.
Respondents were handed the questions, one at a time, on a sheet of paper or card.
They answered and were interrupted only to clarify a point, or to name and identify phases
if they had omitted to do so. Most of the time the interview approximated a monologue,
and there was little dialogue.
Numerous studies have shown that people's memories and their reconstructions of what
was said may alter radically with time (Cicourel, 1964, p. 124). Background assumptions
about events, the identity of participants or the content and purpose of the interview can
alter perceptions and errors may occur (Schwartz and Jacobs, 1979, p. 44). The data
should therefore be analysed as soon as possible following the interview(s). In the
present study, the researcher had an in-depth knowledge of the interviewees’ working
situation, and there was less possibility of misunderstandings than if the interviewer had
had no knowledge of the field or of the participants.
As the respondents were aware that the purpose was to conduct research, most were not
disturbed by the presence of the cassette recorder. In only two cases in Geneva the
interview was not taped, at the request of the respondent. Occasionally, the recorder did
not work properly and some taped data were lost. As detailed shorthand notes were taken
on all occasions, the information was recoverable.
95
The transcript used for data analysis was primarily from the shorthand notes with the
taped version mainly for checking. The transcript was verified by the respondent.
Role relationships during the interview
Some methodologists believe that the interviewer should be supportive and

sympathetically understanding towards the respondent, a style known as “socio-
emotional”. Others recommend that the interviewer should act in a strictly task-oriented
manner, which is called the “formal” style of interviewing (Brenner, Brown and Canter,
1985, p. 38). The stance adopted in the present study was generally socio-emotional
because the respondents were colleagues. Hyman et al. state “You can't remain blank -
that's impossible...” (Hyman et al., 1954, p. 40; Cicourel, 1964, p. 83). But nevertheless,
Benny and Hughes (1970) feel it is important to remain nonjudgemental, stating:
the interview is an understanding between two parties that, in return for allowing the
interviewer to direct their communication, the informant is assured that he (sic) will
not meet with denial, contradiction, competition, or other harassment.
It is important that the interviewer does not demonstrate any negative reaction when
something personal, embarrassing or negatively critical is revealed. The present
researcher attempted to communicate empathy, but sought to remain non-judgemental at
all times. The researcher avoided eye contact with the respondent and concentrated on
taking notes throughout the interview. Most informants talked uninterruptedly, seemed
relaxed and did not appear to “look for approval”.
Occasionally the participant appeared to be trying to formulate an answer to the question

when it appeared to the researcher he or she had never considered the issue. On other
occasions the question would elicit a different issue and the information provided was
tangential. With those with whom the researcher had a closer relationship, the tone of the
interview was lighter and more relaxed, while
96
with others the tone was more formal. The researcher let the interviewee set the tone. At
times it appeared that a respondent was withholding feelings and conceptions about the
topics covered, and some respondents appeared to be biased in the direction of the
interviewer's perceived sentiments. These are problems inherent in interviewing and the
researcher was vigilant in searching for conflicting or corroborating evidence in all other
parts of the interview responses.
Post-interview feedback
At the end of the interview, when the cassette recorder was turned off, some respondents
clarified some of the points or revealed more sensitive or personal issues, while others
left immediately without debriefing.
Interviewees often commented on how honest they had been, and that they had enjoyed
the experience. Many said it was the first time they had thought about their career and
recommended the experience to colleagues for its value as a reflection on their lives and
careers.
Transcriptions of the interviews
As soon as possible after the interview, mostly within hours, the transcript was typed from
the notes. The interviewees were asked to make comments, additions, deletions or any
changes to the draft. Of a total of 61 interviews, 32 of the Geneva interviews returned the
draft (52%), and 29 did not (48%). Of a total of 43 Sydney interviews, 28 returned the draft
(65%) and 15 did not (35%). From informal feedback from interviewees, there appeared to
be several reasons for not returning the interviews, for example, lack of time and aversion
to reading their words in print. The transcripts which were not returned were used after
checking with the taped material to ensure accuracy.
Most made few, if any, changes and many commented on the accuracy of the draft of the
interview. Many found it disturbing to see their words in print and were sometimes
amused as linguists to see the features of their spoken discourse, such as rephrasings,
fragmented and hanging sentences, and the punctuation of spoken discourse. A few
attempted to make the draft into a formal
97
written discourse by adding traditional punctuation and rewriting fragmented sentences.
Categorisation of respondents
Respondents’ interviews were organised into four categories according to years of

experience. For categories of responses over the three studies, see Table 3.16, which
demonstrates that Huberman did not examine teachers with less than five years'
experience, and the TESOL studies did not examine respondents with over 30 years'
experience. In the case of TESOL studies, this was because of a lack of respondents in
that category. Huberman does not state why he did not examine teachers in category one,
but indicated that he was more interested in the teachers with 11-29 years’ experience.
Table 3.16: Category of responses by years of experience across the three studies
Teacher respondents
Category Years of Huberman’s Geneva Sydney
experience study (1993) TESOL study TESOL study
1 0-4 9 9
2 5-10 39 8 12
3 11-19 61 6 9
4 20-29 34 5 2
5 30-39 25
Trainer / administrator respondents
2 5-10 2 2
3 11-19 3 8
4 20-29 5 1
Total responses 159 30* 43

* Some respondents performed the role of teacher and trainer / administrator and w ere interview ed in
both capacities.
As indicated earlier, in the TESOL studies the respondents were initially categorised by
years of experience for the purposes of analysis, but the results have been presented as a
whole or in categories as appropriate for each section of the study. For most purposes it
was not thought to be useful to report the
98
respondents in the various categories as the numbers were small; in these cases the
responses are reported in an aggregated form.
The interview transcripts were then grouped in computer document files according to
categories, and the responses to each interview question recorded in a different file for
further analysis as indicated below.
Analysis and presentation of data

Some authors (for example, Lofland and Lofland, 1984, pp. 131-132 and Minichiello et al,
1990, p. 285) recommend not leaving the data analysis until the end but doing it during the
study. Owing to time constraints, however, although all interviews were transcribed
promptly, the analysis of the initial interviews was not started until mid-way through the
data gathering.
Analytical procedures fall into five modes: organising the data; generating categories,
themes and patterns; testing the emergent hypotheses or conclusions against the data;
searching for alternative explanations of the data; and writing the report (Marshall and
Rossman, 1989, p. 114). Each phase involved data reduction as the voluminous raw data
were allotted to manageable components and an appreciation emerged of the meanings
of the words used by the participants in the study. With focused interviewing, some
aspects of organisation and categorisation are predetermined by the focus of the
questions, and the format of Huberman’s study provided guidelines in some cases.
Categories are the key to content analysis and, according to Berelson (1971), “Content
Analysis stands or falls by its categories.” Various techniques were utilised in the
analysis stage to find patterns in the data. It is important both to be able to see evidence
of a pattern and to remain open to discordant evidence when it appears (Miles and
Huberman, 1984, p. 216). The interviews were scrutinised for repetition and to
corroborate a pattern using a coding system. In some cases, the responses were
summarised and some exact quotations included in the report to preserve the language of
the respondents. A matrix was also useful on occasions, particularly in categorising
quotations from respondents.
99
Analysing the responses: career phases
For the question about the phases and itineraries in the career cycle, in Huberman’s study
(1993) the transcriptions were condensed to register themes associated with successive
phases. The responses were then subjected to simultaneous qualitative and quantitative
analyses. In the qualitative analysis, the themes as well as the examples were regrouped
using socio-linguistic procedures derived from conventional content analysis (for example,
Miles and Huberman, 1984). Numbers of respondents undergoing each phase were then
grouped and represented in tables and figures.
In the current study, similar procedures were employed with interviewees’ transcripts
being analysed and categorised for each interview question. The respondents were
divided into four groups according to their years of experience; less than five years’
experience; 5-10 years’ experience; 11-19 years’ experience and 20-29 years’ experience.
The transcripts were submitted to five main steps of analysis before arriving at a final
version of the figure for each category of experience, as is demonstrated below. The first
and second steps allowed the data to be viewed in chronological order by year of
experience with each respondent’s main theme identified, and with supporting
information. In the third step, the main themes of respondents were grouped on a table
with positive, negative or neutral experiences grouped in different parts of the table. The
fourth and fifth steps gradually condensed the information and identified key phases with
overarching themes. In the sixth step, the itinerary of each respondent was analysed and
typical themes were grouped together. Finally, in the seventh step the four categories of
experience were drawn together, and respondents’ main itineraries traced in a model for
TESOL respondents from each study. These steps are discussed in more detail with
examples, as follows.
Phases summary sheet (step 1)
On a summary sheet, the major events were noted chronologically, with phases or
thematic names used. Interviews were condensed onto one to three sheets. Each
number refers to a respondent, with his/her major phase words noted, and
100
key phrases and thematic words highlighted in bold. Exact quotes from respondents were
used. For each respondent, a year appears first, illustrating the exact date of their first year
of TESOL.
Example:
Year 1
1. (1992) CTEFLA Hell and rediscovery. 1st year: Continual rediscovery.

2. (1992) CTEFLA An excellent learning experience, positive time professionally and
personally. 1st year: Having a ball. I love my job.
3. (1992) CTEFLA Rediscovery of myself - very positive. 1st year: Fantastic - my friends
were right.
4. (1993) CTEFLA: It was good, but incomplete. The year of getting to know me. I like
teaching, but it’s not the only career I’d like to try during my life. I have my eyes open for
other jobs at the moment. I’ve applied to Swiss Air and I’m onto the final selection
stage.
5. (1991) CTEFLA International House, Paris. The course was dynamic
6. (1991-92) CTEFLA Approaching my goal. My first year’s real work
7. (1992) CTEFLA Realization that I could work intellectually again and challenge of
wanting to do more. First year - very intensive and very draining
8. (1991) I thoroughly enjoyed the CTEFLA.
9. (1990) Doing the course at School B (CTEFLA) was a break.
Figure 3.2: Geneva respondents with less than five years’ experience (sample)
Phases summary sheet (step 2)
The second step allows the same information to be viewed in a linear fashion on a matrix
with respondents side by side, three at a time (see Table 3.17). This step was used only
for the Geneva TESOL respondents as grouping the themes and then transferring them
directly to the phases summary table described in step 3 was found to be reliable for the
Sydney respondents.
101
Table 3.17: Geneva TES OL respondents with less than five years’ experience (sample)
Respondent 1 Respondent 2 Respondent 3
1990- TESOL ENTRY 90 - got married and TESOL ENTRY

1995 Sep 92 CTEFLA moved back to London. 92 - did CTEFLA. I
Hell and Refreshing change thought I might go back
rediscovery 91 - back home and job in to uni, but I thought I
Rediscovery of my DHSS didn’t want to sit doing
old insecurity and May-Dec 91 - back to research, I wanted a
positive recruitment. (job in City of more active job. Then I
rediscovery. It London) very aggressive thought my new job
was wonderful period - v. arrogant and must be compatible
from the egocentric - real with family life - I have a
friendships I character-building stuff - crazy pattern of life and
made and the sink or swim want flexibility and want
doors it’s opened Feb 92 to GE. Tearful and time for myself. Then I
Continual traumatic period - met Respondent 1.
rediscovery extremely difficult to She was having lunch
integrate. I’d lost at my mothers and
everything familiar, I was talked about this
in an alien culture. wonderful course,
TESOL ENTRY which sounded like it
would answer all my
needs.
102
Nomenclature of phases: definition of terms used
Nomenclature of major phases and themes identified by Huberman was retained where
the key themes and leitmotives coincided with those of Huberman’s study (for example,
Huberman, 1993b, Figure 3.2, p. 40). Many of Huberman’s main themes included direct
quotations from respondents (for example, “Finally, the upper grades!” (p. 83) or “Ripe for
a change” (p. 62)) which were not deemed appropriate for the TESOL studies. Those
retained in this study included the themes in the first column in Table 3.18 (see literature
review for a complete list of Huberman’s main phases), while the middle and right hand
columns list the additional themes appearing in the TESOL studies.
103
Table 3.18: Themes used for TES OL studies from Huberman’s study and additional theme names
HUBERMAN’S THEMES * GENEVA TESOL STUDY SYDNEY TESOL STUDY
Career entry Career entry / Experimentation
Easy beginnings Developing / growing Survival

Painful beginnings More mature experimentation Further experimentation
(Relatively easy or relatively painful Positive experimentation Stressful
beginnings Initial commitment Harmonious beginnings
Resolved or unresolved problems Relatively harmonious beginnings
Experimentation Problematic beginnings
Self-doubt Uncommitted
Dissatisfaction
Teacher training Positive experimentation / learning Themes of experimentation and learning
Disappointed and discouraged
Exit
Initial training later on
Further training
Back to teaching
104

Stabilisation Further experimentation /gaining Learning / experimentation
confidence /consolidation /learning /new
Stabilisation / commitment Maturing /new challenges /mastery More confident

Self-doubt
Diversification Stabilisation Maturing /consolidation /growing /mastery
New challenges/ second wind Stocktaking /watershed New challenges
Stocktaking Exit TESOL temporarily Effects of in-service training
Balance Training Themes of stabilisation

Disenchantment/ disillusion
Positive and negative themes Stabilisation /commitment /permanency
Stabilisation Training
New challenges Stabilisation following training
Training Stabilisation followed by training
Disenchantment /stagnant Balance
Dissatisfaction
Reassessment / transition
*Only those used for TESOL studies are shown

105
Phases summary table (step 3)
The themes were categorised in phases, as in the Huberman study. Phases of all
respondents for each category were tabulated in chronological order and categorised as
positive, negative or neutral according to the tone of the theme (see Table 3.19 for an
example). Huberman was not always consistent in classifying responses in this way but it
was felt that by making this consistent in the TESOL studies, it would better illustrate
positive and negative trends in the career paths.
106
Table 3.19: Geneva respondents with less than five years’ experience (sample)
Positive experience Neutral experience Negative experience
Entry CTEFLA
CTEFLA • at School A.
• (London) Really Impressive and
enjoyed the course annoying
• (Ireland) My learning • at School A
phase - quite intensive • at School A
and well run • TESOL Certificate
• (School A) I was quite (University Language
confident. Learning to Centre)
do it the TESOL way
• First 3 mths
FIRST PHASE (first year) nightmare:
entertaining and
frustrating (London)
• A learning time (London; Sydney;
Japan)
• Very compatible situation (Ireland). • It was a total nightmare (School,
V. helpful and understanding Sydney). This was a pretty
insecure period and basically
made me wonder if I’d made the
right decision. Disillusioning
couple of months.
Phases summary (step 4) - detailed version
The phases were further identified, categorised and tabulated, noting at which time of the
career they occurred (see Table 3.20 for an example). Key phrases from each respondent
were retained for checking purposes.
107
Table 3.20: S ydney TES OLs with 11-19 years of experience (n=9) (sample)
Year Positive Negative Personal factors
Entry Cert. level training: (3) Teacher training: (5)

Berlitz training (1) Untrained in TESOL: (6)
1 Learning: (6) No guidance (1) Exit and travel (2)
Interesting(1) Making money (1)
Yrs 1-2 Disillusioned,
boring (1) Floundering (1)
2 Commitment (1)
2 Training: DTEFLA (3)
2-4 Getting more experience Burnt out (1) Exit (1)

(4) Uncommitted (1) Consolidation at
school level in
Malaysia
2-5 Passive re-entry to Exit yr 5 (1) for 5
TESOL. Enjoyed it (1) years; travelled,
odd jobs
3-6 Stability (5) Exit (1) one year
other activity
6 Active re-entry to TESOL.
Hard work but enjoyable
Gaining experience (1)
4 -7 Training: Grad Dip (1);
CTEFLA (1); DTEFLA (5);
MA App Ling (1)
4 -7 New challenges (5) Year 6: Fed up with

ELICOS (1)
Bewildered with industry
(1)
7-14 Maturing (1)
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Phases model (step 5) - condensed version
The themes were then grouped into overarching phases, and presented in a model for
each of the four categories of experience (see Figure 3.3).
Entry: Other teaching; other career (3); other career (5); direct entry (1)
Yr and phase Positive Negative Personal
problems
Yrs 0-1 CTEFLA course
(9 - positive)↓→
Yrs 1-2 Easy beginnings Painful Settling in
Phase 1: (6)↓ beginnings (3)↓ (1)
Beginnings
Phase 2: Positive Wishing to
Experimentat experimentation (3) Doubts (6) travel with
on ←↓ ↓ husband (1
(yrs 2-4) Stressful
with family
(1)
(yrs 2-3) Resolution of doubts (3) Unresolved (3)
↓ ↓ →↓
Training (1) Balance with private Searching for Exit into
life (2) balance (1)↑ other
career (2)
Figure 3.3: Phases model for Geneva TES OL respondents with less than five years’
experience (n=9)
Phases model (step 6) - overall condensed model from all four categories of
experience
The four models from the different categories of experience were then grouped together in
one table (see Table 3.21).
109
Table 3.21: Geneva adult TES OL professional life-cycles (n=28) (sample)
Year Phases Positive phases Negative phases Personal factors
0-1 1: Beginnings Training (16) Training (1)
0-3 Easy beginnings (17) Painful beginnings (11) Settling into a new
country (1)
2 Training Training (1)
2-4 1-2: Positive experimentation (16) Doubts (14)

2-11 Experimentation
2-3 2: Unresolved doubts (3) - Exit (2) Exit to other career (2)
Experimentation /
3 doubts / Balance with private life (2) Searching for balance (1) Wish to travel (1)
developing /
growing
2-7 Developing / growing (5) Doubts (4) Family concerns (3)
2-11 2-3: More mature experimentation (4)
3-6 Training Training (8)
6-10 Acceptance / Acceptance (1) Frustration (1) - Exit (1) Exit to other career (1)
frustration
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Phases model (step 7) - overall model
Finally, both phases models from the Sydney and Geneva TESOL studies were combined
to produce an overall TESOL phases model as in Table 3.22a, which has been
reorganised in Table 7.2b in the conclusion of the study (shown here as Table 3.22b).
Table 3.22a: TES OL phases model
Geneva and Sydney TESOL career phases (1993-1996)
Survival and discovery (1-2 years’ experience)

Training (1-2 yrs)
Exit and re-entry (1-6 yrs)
Experimentation (2-7 yrs)
Doubts (2-11 yrs)
Uncommitted (2-6 yrs)
Back to teaching (5-8 yrs)
Further experimentation / more confidence (2-6 yrs)
Training (3-8 yrs)
Stocktaking / reassessment (3-6 yrs)
Stabilisation (3-9 yrs)
Experimentation / new challenges (2-16 yrs)
Further training (3-16 yrs)
Disillusioned (1-9 yrs)
New challenges (4-15 yrs)
Stocktaking/ reassessment (7-18 yrs)
Second wind / New challenges (11-24 yrs)
Reassessment (7-25 yrs)
Acceptance / balance (6-28 yrs)
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Table 3.22b: Preliminary model of career cycles for Geneva and S ydney TES OLs combined
Career cycles of Geneva and Sydney TESOLs (1993-1996)
• Positive phases • Training / reassessment • Negative phases
Discovery and experimentation Training Doubts (2-11 yrs)

Survival and discovery (1-2 years’ experience) Training (1-2 yrs; 3-8 yrs) Disillusioned (1-9 yrs)
Experimentation (2-7 yrs) Further training (3-16 yrs; 8-19 yrs) Lack of commitment
Further experimentation / more confidence Exiting and re-entry Uncommitted (2-6 yrs)
(2-6 yrs) Exit and re-entry (1-6 yrs)
Experimentation / new challenges Reflective phases
(2-16 yrs; 4-15 yrs) Back to teaching (5-8 yrs)
Second wind / New challenges Stocktaking / reassessment
(11-24 yrs) (3-6 yrs; 7-18 yrs; 7-25 yrs)
Stability
Stabilisation (3-9 yrs; 11-19 yrs; 8-20 yrs)
Acceptance
⇑ ⇑ ⇑
Contextual factors: professional and personal

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Identification of typical phases (step 8)
Nomenclature of typical itineraries: definition of terms used
As for the previous sections in the phases chapter, Huberman’s nomenclature was
retained where appropriate, and additional terms were added to represent the particular
flavour of the itinerary. Huberman focused on major sections of itineraries for teachers
within the categories of years of experience (for example, those with 5-10 years’
experience; those with 20-29 years’ experience), and the names of typical itineraries were
more reflective of larger sections of their career paths. He did not consider all teachers in
his study, only tendencies within each category of years of experience, then narrowing
down the variations on the theme. For example, the theme of commitment was further
defined to include:
• Commitment: from tentative to definitive

• Commitment: from tentative to definitive by way of promotion to the high school
The theme renewal was further defined to include:

• Renewal : focusing and retreat
• Renewal: stagnation and the loss of enthusiasm
In the TESOL studies typical themes were identified by superimposing the itineraries or
sections of itineraries having the same themes and sequences. Thus, career themes of
the TESOL teachers were brought into focus, where several respondents underwent a
similar itinerary at a point in their career. Huberman did not focus on specific themes in
the career, but instead traced partial recurring itineraries. The TESOL studies considered
all respondents and examined the central themes in more detail with the varying paths
leading to and from them, as well as identifying recurring whole itineraries. However, the
complete career itineraries were not identified until step 8.
Each respondent’s itinerary was then analysed and typical themes grouped together as
Figure 3.4 demonstrates. These itineraries read from left to right
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back to left as positive themes are presented on the left and negative ones on the right.
Positive training and work (yr 1)↓

Easy beginnings (yr 1)↓
Experimentation (yrs 2-4)→ Doubts (yr 4)
Developing / growing (yr 4- now) ←
Respondent 2:
Easy beginnings (yr 1-2)→

Dissatisfaction / doubts (yr 2-4)
Training - positive (yr 6)↓ ←
Developing / growing (yr 7-now)↓
Assuming family responsibilities
Respondent 3:
Positive beginnings training (1

month)→
Painful beginnings (yr 1)
Experimentation (yr 2)↓ ←
Hell, but positive hell (yr 4)↓
Developing / growing 7yr 5 to now)
Figure 3.4: Geneva TES OLs with 5-10 years’ experience: Achieved harmony (3) (sample)
This process was followed by a search for commonalities among the respondents. The
aim was to search for phases or sequences common to most or all TESOL teachers (see
figure 3.5 as an example from the Sydney TESOL study). The numbers in brackets
indicate the number of respondents typified by the particular phase named. This figure is
to be read from left to right.
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DTEFLA (4)→ Stab ilisation (4)

Grad Dip (2)→ First maturing phase Commitment /
(1)→ stab ilisation (2)
Apprenticeship (1)→
Figure 3.5: S tabilisation following training (n=6)
Identification of common itineraries (step 9) (see Figures 3.6a and 3.6b)
The next step was to analyse the common itineraries of all respondents by tracking their
main phases. As in Huberman’s study, the TESOL respondents’ itineraries were grouped
together in an attempt to identify analogous itineraries following to or leading from a theme
or phase. These were given a name using Huberman’s nomenclature where possible,
as Figures 3.6a and 3.6b from the Sydney TESOL study demonstrate:
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Easy → Experimentation (3) Stabilisation New challenges / Balance /

beginnings (4) (4) balance (4) Stabilisation (1) focused (3)
Training(2) Training Training (1)↑
(2)
Figure 3.6a: Harmonious career (4 respondents)
Easy beginnings Training (2) Stabilisation (1) Confident Stabilisation / Taking a

(2)→ (1) → balance breather (1)
Back to teaching (1) (2)
Dissatisfied New challenge Dissatisfied ↑ Sometimes
(1)→ (1)→ (1) stagnating (1)
Figure 3.6b: Relatively harmonious career (2 respondents with 5-19 years’ experience)
116
There were some sequences which did not fit those identified by Huberman. In these
cases, new names were conceived to relay the general mood of the sequence (Table
3.23). For example, in the case of relatively harmonious career: reassessment (Sydney
TESOL study) respondents would have had a harmonious career with a few instances of
doubts, resulting in reassessment at the time of the study.
Table 3.23: Nomenclature of common itineraries grouped in each study
Huberman’s study Geneva TESOL study Sydney TESOL study

No Yes Harmonious
No No Harmonious:
reassessment
No Yes Relatively harmonious
No No Relatively harmonious:
reassessment
No Relatively harmonious: Yes
unresolved problems
Renewal No No
(experimentation) with
positive outcome
Renewal No No
(experimentation) with
negative outcome
No No Achieved harmony:
reassessment
Achieved harmony Yes Yes
No Achieved harmony: partia No

exit
Commitment to the No No
profession
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Promotion and self-doub No No
(resolved)
Promotion and self-doub No No

(unresolved)
Self-doubt or No No
(re)assessment
Problematic career Yes No
No No Problematic
beginnings: resolved
No No Problematic but
challenging career:
reassessment
No No Problematic but
challenging career
Renewal with positive No No
focusing
Renewal with negative No No
results: disenchantment
Coding (step 10)
Table 3.24 illustrates the coding system which was used to scrutinise interviews for
evidence to corroborate findings from interview questions, and the interviews were also
coded for additional areas of interest which emerged during the study. The code was
noted in the margin alongside the interview, then the quotation added to the relevant
document file. Some of the themes have not been pursued in this study, but could provide
interesting information for future studies. For example, the theme of women and personal
relationship or personal situation often provided interesting anecdotal information about
women’s situations concerning their careers. However, the scope of the present study did
not permit this type of analysis.
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Table 3.24: Codes relating to themes in the interview
Code Topic
Personal
BKG Background, upbringing, parents etc
PR Personal relationships
PS Personal situation
CHAR Reflections on personal character,
WOM Reflections on women's situation, family

responsibilities affecting career etc
personality
Historical and social event
HIST/SOC Mention of historical or social events of

the era affecting career or personal
situation
PROF Professionalisation of the industry
Mgt change Change in management of school
Logistical and geographical

change
CC Change of country
CJ Change of job
CX Crisis and change
ADJ Adjusting to new country, settling in
Working conditions
WC Working conditions
QUIT Quitting a job
status Status of TESOL
profm Professionalism
coll relationship with colleagues
FT vs PT Comments regarding full-time or part-

time teaching
119

Teaching and training
TCHR TRNG Teacher training
CTEFLA / CERT Certificate in TEFLA
DTEFLA / DIP Diploma in TEFLA
METH Methods in teaching
Phases
MOT Motive for entry
FUT Future plans
BEG TCHG Beginning teaching
STOCK Stocktaking
DOUBTS Moments of doubt
WISH What I wish I’d done in the past
STAB Stabilisation
SAT Comments regarding job satisfaction
Career
CAR Comment on definition of the term

“career”
Admin Administrative work
Coord Coordinating
Qualifications, training and

professional development
PD Comment regarding professional
development
Mastery Mastery in teaching
Support Support in teaching
TESOL Cert / CTEFLA / DTEFLA / Discussion regarding one of the

MA qualifications listed
Quals Qualifications
Solve Solving problems and gaining a new level

of experience
Tchr trng Teacher training
Meth Methodology
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Other codes, such as b eginning teaching or stocktaking, however, provided additional
information which was categorised alongside the information given when answering the
question directly.
Appendix B gives examples of transcripts with codes in the right hand margin.
Analysing the responses: job motivation and satisfaction
Respondents’ interviews for the remaining questions were then scrutinised individually.
Huberman’s methods of dealing with questions were replicated where possible, and
other means of categorising responses were also used.
In each case, responses were grouped and tabulated with quotations to be used in the
discussion being noted. Examples are given below.
i) Pre-TESOL career
Various methods were used to analyse the Pre-TESOL career data. Figure 3.7 shows a
tabulation of respondents’ quotes, followed by Figure 3.8, which shows a summary of the
Pre-TESOL experience by the researcher.
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Respondent 1 Respondent 2
• Initiation into the world of teaching • Piddling around and having a good
• Finishing off my studies - getting time
out while the going was good - • Difficult, depressing
escape
• Getting out. I was still in Boston, I
hadn’t ejected from the burning
plane
Respondent 3 Respondent 4
• Phase 1 was a prescribed phase • Feeling my way around, sales
which was what I’d been prepared marketing first experience
to do • Gaining more experience
• My domestic maternal • In those years career-wise I was
responsibilities lasted for 8 years still rather unstable, impetuous
and there was a long gap free of a and changing - feeling my way
career around
• Teaching English for children. • Pleasure of learning. Now I was at
Trying to straddle 2 worlds. Feeling a watershed in my life - which way
my way back into the world without to turn? International Sales or
leaving my family education?
Figure 3.7: Pre-TES OL experience: sample of respondents’ quotes
ii) Motivations for entering the career
An example is given below of typical means of categorising the data on motivations

(Figure 3.8). In the example, quotations have been taken directly from the interviews and
grouped under a heading (in bold). Each bullet point indicates a new respondent. The
question asked was “why did you enter the career?”
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• I fell / sank / drifted into it
• As I said before, I'd always thought I'd be a teacher because my parents were teachers
although I didn't know I'd be a TESOL, I didn't dream of that or even know it existed.
When I went to school there were no jobs in teaching and I studied Business
Administration and went back to school to get closer to teaching and finally in Europe I
had the possibility of doing a Certificate in TESOL, and thought I'd stay for one year, but
here I am still 16 years later.
• and the second reason was that I was in love with a German and realised that if I
wanted to go to Germany I could do that ... with that type of lifestyle moving around,
there’s not a lot else you can do really.
• I had been a French teacher, so it seemed right to be an English teacher
• I came to be a TESOL because I had to transfer from one country to another and
considered it easier to find work as an English language teacher than in a primary or
secondary school where they gave fixed contracts. This was when I came to GE. That’s
when I started TESOL, before that I was not in EFL.
• I was here in GE, I needed something to do, so it took into account my teaching
background, it was a convenient choice at the time, I have no regrets at all - the choice
came out of the situation I found myself in as much as anything else. Maybe that’s more
to do with the other question.
Figure 3.8: Motivations for entering the career: sample of respondents’ quotes
Responses were then tabulated under headings with the identification of respondents
and the total number and percentage. Table 3.25 gives one example, on passive
motivations.
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Table 3.25: Geneva TES OLs: Passive motivations (18% of responses)
Responses Cases
Motivation * Number % %
• Sank / drifted / fell into it 14 13 50

• “Sinking into it”; tentative commitment, then the
inab ility to change
• Unable to think of anything else / by process of 5 5 18
elimination
• For lack of something b etter or b y process of
elimination
Total responses 19** 18
* Huberman’s equivalent motivation has also been listed in italics for comparative purposes
** 19 out of a total of 107 responses overall related to passive motivations for entering TESOL
iii) Hesitations
First the raw data were analysed into categories of responses. Figure 3.9 gives an
example of initial categorisation of raw data:
Respondent 1:
• Hesitations? No, when I decided to do CTEFLA that was it, I enjoyed it.
• I had hesitations after I’d done it because a lot of teachers work very hard and get
frustrated, and,
• as the career path is limited you get to a certain point and can’t get past it
• in admin you get more money for less work - although money is not one of the prime
reasons for me.
• My hesitations were of a practical nature and whether I’ve got what it takes to be a good
teacher.
Respondent 2:
• My hesitation was I knew the Dip Ed was to prepare for high school although I really
wanted to teach adults, but I felt it was a way in - I felt I’d get more of a grounding with a
Dip Ed and more theory and practice than a quick one month
124
course. I baulked at the fact of committing one year to something I was not sure about
and I was so far in it that I thought I might as well go ahead - it was a funny year (=
strange).
Respondent 3:
• Hesitations - none, it came fairly naturally. I had no hesitations, it just happened.
Figure 3.9: Responses about hesitations for entering the career (sample)
Table 3.26: is one example of the tables which emerged from this process.
Table 3.26: S ydney TES OL reasons for hesitating or doubts (sample)
Reasons Responses
I had other career / dreamt of other career 5
Hesitant because I lacked confidence in my ability to teach 5

English
Hesitant because of working conditions or salary 2
I hadn’t wanted to be a teacher in the past 2
I should have done it earlier 2
Similar processes to those described above were used for the analysis of responses on
beginning teaching, future aspirations, professionalism in TESOL and stocktaking.
Analysing the responses: professional development

Responses regarding what professional development is useful for teacher respondents
were categorised as in the examples below (Figure 3.10) and tabulated as in Tables 3.27
and 3.28.
• Workshops / seminars
• Now - immediately now the thing I would love to do most is not a course, but to have the
opportunity to do shorter workshops run by experienced teachers themselves
• For me it’s a bit of input, which is very refreshing for me, because you don’t get it very
often. .
125
• And we’re allowed to go to the School A series every third Tuesday.
• Or something completely new. The part I enjoy most is usually a workshop and it’s
exciting and you get ideas and it’s frantic and busy and we throw ideas together and it’s
rewarding.
• What’s useful to me now having done all the academic work I want, I would enjoy
certain kinds of workshops given by people who’ve thought out clever ways of teaching
things, and who give me information I didn’t know - two-hour workshops
• Doing further studies: the Dip or a further TESOL course (e.g. MA)
• Actually a lot are doing the Dip course at the moment and that’s professional
development too on a much grander scale.
• and the professional development that is useful at the moment is getting my MA
finished.
• Now I’m finding the MA most useful - it’s taking up most of my mental energy and I’m
thinking a lot about teaching adults, it’s very practical and useful.
Figure 3.10: S ample of responses on professional development useful for S ydney TES OLs
The responses were then tabulated (Table 3.35):
Table 3.27: Professional development mentioned as useful by S ydney TES OL respondents
(sample only)
Professional Development area Responses

Diversify /try new areas / experience 14
Workshops / seminars 11
To keep evolving / new ideas / keeping up to date 8
Specific course / seminar 7
Doing further studies: the Dip or MA 7
The responses were further grouped under headings (in bold) as in Table 3.28. The
current phase respondents were in was also analysed alongside the professional
development mentioned to give an indication of the type of professional development
preferred at different phases in the career:
126
Table 3.28: Professional development related to the phases of stabilisation, doubt and
experimentation: S ydney TES OLs (n=32) (sample)
Responses
PD mentioned Stabilisation * Doubt * n=33 Experimentation *

n=23 n=29
Inservices 8 10 4
Workshops 5 4 3
Specific courses 3 6 1
Diversification 3 6 5
Other duties - 1 1
Writing books - - 1
Reflection 2 2 7
Observation 1 2 2
Reading books 1 - 4
Reflection - - 1
Interaction with 1 4 4
colleagues
Interaction with 1 2 3
colleagues
Liaison with other - 2 1

schools
* Stabilisation: n. respondents = 9; Doubt: n. respondents = 13; Experimentation: n.

respondents = 10
127
Professional development - trainers’ / administrators’* responses
Responses were categorised as below (Figure 3.11) and then presented in a table under
subcategories (see Table 3.29 as an example).
Less than five years’ experience

Formalised training after 2-4 years n=5
• At some point there’s a need for formalised training. It’s invaluable for all these
teachers to have observation - it can be peer or self observation from a video.
Observation and reflection is the most powerful developmental tool we have as
teachers.
• 0-3 years: They probably need continued classroom-based development, things that
work well, developing their understanding of grammar, developing better classroom
management skills, good lessons that work - the sorts of things they do on the
Certificate program, but consolidating their teaching skills.
• 3-4 year as something more theoretical - not before three years. The Diploma says they
need two years and I think that’s about right. They need about three years before doing
a linguistics type degree or it clouds their development in the basic areas.
Figure 3.11: Professional development mentioned as needed for S ydney TES OLs with less
than five years’ experience (sample)

128
Table 3.29: Type of professional development needed for beginner teachers with less than five
years’ experience: S ydney TES OLs
Responses
Less than five years’ experience: type of PD Trainers* Teachers**
Experience / diversification 9 5
Support and guidance 8 4
Inservices 7 8
Reflection 5 5
Further studies 5 2
Everything 1
Understanding and motivating students 2
Conferences 1
Keeping up to date 1
Other / travel 1
Teacher training 1
*Number trainers/ administrators = 11; **number teachers = 9
Summary of data analysis methods
A variety of data analysis approaches were employed to analyse the data depending on
the suitability for the type of data collected. In all cases, the transcribed interviews were
transferred question by question to independent files for further detailed analysis, with
coding of interviews to crosscheck responses and to add relevant points. Where relevant
or suitable, Huberman’s categories and tabulations were used as a reference point, with
new categories created to describe the different data collected. Sometimes Huberman’s
wording and categorisation has been retained for comparative purposes. The data
analysis process spanned five years and was extremely detailed and refined continuously
as the writing up process was undertaken. On many occasions, the Geneva data analysis
was revisited as experience with Sydney data suggested a more efficient approach.
129
Each aspect of each question was painstakingly examined and checked to ensure
reliability of responses and where even slight discrepancies were identified or suspected,
the source interview was scrutinised for corroborating evidence throughout the analysis
process.
Chapter summary
This study served three purposes; firstly to test Huberman’s career cycles of secondary
teachers against those of a different group of teachers in order to determine how universal
his framework is; secondly, to identify a preliminary profile of adult TESOL teachers, their
motivations, levels of satisfaction and concerns about the career; and thirdly, to assist
educational administrators and trainers to identify the means of ensuring that TESOLs
develop to their full potential in order to have an enriching career.
The methods used were qualitative, focusing primarily on in-depth interview techniques.
Responses were transcribed, analysed and coded, then categorised and presented
mostly in tabulated form.
The career paths were tracked in both TESOL studies to explore possible patterns and to
test the universality of the career cycles defined by Huberman. Motivational factors for
career entry, satisfaction levels at different points in the career cycle and motivations for
continuing or re-selecting TESOL as a career were analysed. A more detailed analysis of
the perceptions of the term “career” in relation to TESOL was performed.
Teachers were asked which professional development they found useful, and an attempt
was made to match these with the different phases to identify possible trends. The
responses of trainers and/ or administrators were also analysed to ascertain the
perceptions of teachers’ needs in order to develop a profile of professional development
programs including the methods available, and how far these meet the perceived needs
of teachers.
130
Data from the various sections of the research process are analysed, presented and
discussed in Chapters IV to VI below. Conclusions and implications are presented in
Chapter VII.
131
CHAPTER IV
PHASES AND ITINERARIES IN THE PROFESSIONAL LIFE-

CYCLE OF TESOLS IN GENEVA AND SYDNEY
This chapter presents the motivations for career entry and phases and itineraries in the
professional life-cycles of TESOLs in Geneva and Sydney and compares these with
Huberman’s secondary school teacher cycles to determine their robustness when
applied to a group of different teachers working in different circumstances. Data
reported in this chapter relate to research questions 1-4 (see page 9), which address
motivations for career entry and the major phases of the career.
Data for research question number 1 were derived from the following interview question:
Interview question 5 for Geneva and 4 for Sydney TESOLs
Tell me how you came to b e a TESOL teacher? Review your own studies or career and
indicate the moment at which you decided to b ecome an Adult TESOL. State the
reasons and hesitations for that choice.
Data concerning TESOLs’ work and study prior to entry to TESOL is reported in
Appendix C, and concerning hesitations about entering the profession is reported in
Appendix D. Sydney TESOLs were also asked to comment on a list of motivations
derived from the Geneva responses. As these cannot be compared with the Geneva
studies, the questions and responses are presented in Appendix E.
Data for research questions 2-4 were derived from the following interview question:
Interview question 1 for Geneva and 2 for Sydney TESOLs
Survey your career from the very b eginning up to the point of the interview. Reflect on
your career itinerary and try to discern some key themes and
132
leitmotives*. Plot these themes sequentially, if possib le, into a series of step or phases
that would capture the flow of your professional experience.
Note: * leitmotif / leitmotives (derivation from the field of music). This term is used by
Huberman interchangeably with the term theme (for example, Huberman, 1993, pp. 32-
33).
Huberman’s study of secondary school teachers
Motivations for career entry

The main interview question required respondents to list their reasons or motives for
entering the career, which provided an opportunity to deepen and refine their earlier
account.
Huberman interviewed 156 respondents for this question and classified the 413
responses into three categories: active, material and passive motivations.
“Active” motivations, according to Huberman (1993), were those suggesting a deliberate

choice. These motives constituted 63% of the whole set. However, it should be noted
that the classic motives of calling, contact with young people, and desire to share one’s
knowledge comprised only 21% of the responses. Love of the discipline represented
only 11% of responses.
“Material” motivations constituted 28% of responses. The most frequently mentioned

was a way of earning a living, of b ecoming financially independent representing 12% of
responses overall. This was followed by working conditions (6%) exemplified by an
attractive salary (12%), and flexible and unburdensome hours (4%). For some women,
teaching allowed a parallel family life (2%).
“Passive” motives constituted 9% of responses. Among those teachers who admitted

that their motives for teaching were “nil at the start”, some sank into it (1%), and some
did it for lack of something better (8%). But 10 or 20 years later they were still teaching,
unwilling or unable to change jobs.
133
Twenty-eight Geneva TESOLs gave 107 responses, and 32 Sydney TESOLs gave 175
responses. TESOL teachers are therefore compared with Huberman’s teachers at entry
to the profession, recognising that TESOLs seemed generally to have joined the
profession later in their lives and that in Geneva in particular their unusual
circumstances were worthy of closer exploration.
Phases and itineraries in the career
Huberman interviewed 134 respondents for this question, with between five and 39
years of experience. There were 28 Geneva TESOLs and 32 Sydney TESOLs
interviewed for this question, with between 0-29 years of experience.
Firstly, the characteristics of the major phases are identified and discussed. The focus
is on exploring in more detail phases which could be considered archetypal for the
careers of TESOLs. The personal and external factors affecting the respondents are
identified. This is followed by an identification of common itineraries across the whole
career for respondents with more than five years of experience in an attempt to identify
trends common to both studies. From the analysis of phases, an overall career model
is developed for both Geneva and Sydney TESOLs and compared to Huberman’s
model.
The numbers of respondents in the TESOL studies were quite small, however, and the
study essentially exploratory, so, while some emerging patterns are evident, the
conclusions are regarded as provisional upon further confirmation.
GENEVA TESOL STUDY
Motivations for entering TESOL

Only two respondents were already TESOLs before arriving in Geneva. The remainder
were already in Geneva seeking a career change or had come to Geneva to join their
partner.
134
The motivations for Geneva TESOLs were similarly distributed to those of the school
teachers’, the “active” category being the most frequently nominated motivation, followed
by “material”, then “passive”.
Active motivations
“Active” motivations represented 54% of responses for Geneva TESOLs, or 58

responses out of 107 overall (see Table 4.1). However, in contrast to Huberman’s
respondents who mentioned aspects of the profession such as working with young
people, or wishing to influence them, or a desire to share their knowledge, the Geneva
TESOL responses related more to the circumstances in which they found themselves.
Fifty-five percent said that their former teaching experience had given them confidence to
try TESOL, and others found that as teachers in a non-English-speaking environment
they naturally were attracted to TESOL.
135
Table 4.1: Active motivations (Geneva TES OLs: 54% of responses)
Responses Cases
Motivation Number % of %
total
Unhappy with other career/ lifestyle - wanting a 17 16 61

change / actively seeking something to do
Already trained as a teacher before 14 13 50
At some stage had done TESOL before or
something related
Majored in English
External request, suggestion 11 10 39
Meeting people 3 3 11
Enjoyment 3 3 11
Helping people 2 2 7
Preferred TESOL to teaching children 2 2 7
Success with substitute teaching 2 2 7
Love of English / language 2 2 7
Modelling; influence of former teacher or 1 1 4

parents who were teachers
Compensate for a perceived educational 1 1 4
deficit; desire to “do better than one's own
teachers”.
Total responses 58* 54
* 58 out of 107 responses overall w ere active motivations for entering TESOL
The largest number of Geneva TESOL responses were those seeking a change. In
many cases the teachers were already abroad, or were simply wanting to change
careers. This may be because of being unhappy with their other job, seeking something
to do, seeking initial employment, or because of a mid-life crisis:
Then I looked at the calendar, and decided I was not a young lady anymore. I
looked on my passport and then I looked in the mirror
136
(laughs). And I knew that having an interesting job had always been important to
me and the job was getting worse and worse, and I knew if I took another one, it'd
be the same in six months ... and I had saved up for a long time for the (CTEFLA)
course.
Often they were approached with the suggestion by someone recognising the value of
their English skills. They then actively pursued it as a profession. Some examples
follow:
Then it was through a German speaking contact who couldn't see why I didn't
become an English teacher here, because he perceived English native speakers
could automatically teach English.
I was looking for a job... and was being told that people needed English mother
tongue speakers to teach, and a friend told me about the course and I did it.
I was very happy to be asked to teach young adults who were highly motivated
from the Far East who had graduated from universities in the region. I jumped at
the opportunity. It was great.
The other major reason mentioned by half of Geneva TESOL respondents was that they
had trained as a teacher before, had majored in English or had some experience of
TESOL.
Examples of these motivations follow:
One of the reasons I had for choosing that career (TESOL) was that I would be
using my past experience, not as an English teacher, which I'd never been, but in
the teaching profession.
I had been a French teacher, so it seemed right to be an English teacher .

137
In the back of my mind I had the memory of enjoying my teaching experience in
Greece.
Another respondent had been working in a supermarket in Geneva when he was asked
to teach English for the same company:
and I was an English major and thought it would be better than putting cans on
shelves
None of these motivations is surprising. TESOL was not typically a subject studied at
university so that people are unlikely to come across it early in their lives through free
choice. It was only later when they were abroad that they started looking for employment
and either drifted into teaching, or went into it by a process of elimination.
Huberman’s secondary teachers had different active motivations, mainly relating to

contact with youth and love of the sub ject matter.
The principal active motivations of Geneva TESOLs related not to intrinsic motives for
teaching TESOL, but to more personal motives, such as wishing to have a change of
lifestyle, or to the logic of progression, from having been a teacher before.
Material motivations
“Material” motivations represented 28% of total responses or 30 responses out of 107

overall, (see Table 4.2), the most highly rated in both Huberman and Geneva TESOL
studies being the need to earn a living (36% of Geneva TESOL respondents; 31% of
Huberman respondents). Some reasons follow:
I was strapped for cash, we needed it ... Switzerland was shocking at the
beginning, everything was so expensive.
if I was going to be able to pay the mortgage I needed a regular income.
I needed a job - I’d just separated from my husband.

138
Table 4.2: Material motivations (Geneva TES OLs: 28% of responses)
Responses Case
s
total
Need for a job / money 10 9 36
Job freedom; flexibility in one’s work 7 6 25
For travel / it’s portable 7 6 25
To enable me to get a work permit / stay in 2 2 7

Switzerland
Feminine profession: the possibility of a family 2 2 7
life in parallel
Access to a higher status 1 1 4
Better conditions than in the school system 1 1 4

* 30 out of 107 responses overall w ere material motivations for entering TESOL
Favourab le working conditions, which were important for secondary teachers (6%), were
not mentioned by Geneva TESOLs. However, the flexibility and freedom offered by the
field was important to 25% of the TESOLs. This is not surprising, as many Geneva
TESOL respondents did not need to earn a living, but worked for pleasure, and wished
to have time for other activities.
Essentially all the way through the one thing I relish is my freedom and I was lucky
enough to always be in a position to do what I wanted to do.
I think there’s one thing about this job - you can do as much or as little as you
want a lot of the time.
On the practical side it’s a wonderfully flexible job and you can teach anywhere in
the world.
139
A large number (36%) of respondents taught casually. This allowed Geneva TESOLs to
have experiences complementary to teaching, unlike Huberman’s teachers. These
people liked the flexibility of TESOL as they could select convenient timetables and be
available for their personal activity.
Travel was another feature for Geneva TESOLs, but not for Huberman’s sample. The
portability of the profession made it initially attractive, particularly to those accompanying
their spouses (25%). On the other hand, obtaining job security and tenure was a feature
for Huberman’s respondents, but not for Geneva TESOLs.
Passive motivations
“Passive” motivations represented 18% of Geneva TESOL responses, or 19 out of 107

overall, including having a lack of something b etter to do or selecting teaching b y
process of elimination (see Table 4.3).
Table 4.3: Passive motivations (Geneva TES OLs: 18% of responses)
Responses Cases
total
Sank / drifted / fell into it 14 13 50
Unable to think of anything else / by process 5 5 18

of elimination
* 19 out of 107 responses overall w ere passive motivations for entering TESOL
Half of Geneva TESOL respondents attributed their entry to “falling, drifting or sinking”
into TESOL, while only 3% of Huberman’s respondents gave this as a reason. Some
felt they had no choice:
Here there is no other choice, and since I live here it’s the only way to answer the
question ... since I drifted into it.
140
They remained involved in the same activity years later without any conscious decision to
adopt it as a career. This was especially true for the older respondents who had started
before they needed to be qualified. Currently it is more usual for people to make a
conscious decision to acquire the CTEFLA qualification first. Only one respondent did
the CTEFLA out of interest being unable to work, and then found:
I got swept into it - not against my will - but you do get pulled along by the
enthusiasm of it all.
The motivations for the secondary teachers for entering the career were substantially
different from those of Geneva TESOLs. The school teachers mentioned factors
associated with teaching as a full-time position offering security, and the attraction of
teaching young people, while for Geneva TESOLs the most frequently mentioned
motivations included wanting a change, drifting into it or because they had already
trained as a teacher before.
Characteristics of major phases

The major phases and themes during the career are identified with the itineraries
leading to and from these. The terms used were discussed in Chapter III.
Phase 1: Beginning phases
A total of 17 Geneva respondents had easy b eginnings while 11 had painful ones (see
Table 4.6). The theme in Huberman’s study of easy b eginnings resembled the Geneva
TESOL study in many ways, with those having easy beginnings reporting positive contact
with students, a manageable ambience in the classroom and ease with the curriculum.
Painful b eginnings were associated with factors such as stress, exhaustion, over-
investment and difficult pupils in the Huberman study. In the Geneva TESOL study,
however, many beginning teachers were keen to discover whether the career would fit
with their private lives, or whether they felt comfortable with their new career, particularly
as many had started it later in
141
life. There was less concern with difficult students and curriculum matters, although
many of the Geneva TESOLs referred to the stress, exhaustion and over-investment in
their specific responses on the difficulties of beginning teaching (see Chapter V).
Respondents who had more than 10 years’ TESOL experience were more likely to have
had painful beginnings because of a lack of available TESOL training leading to feelings
of insecurity. One male respondent undertook a training course but was unhappy
because of the working conditions.
One respondent, who was untrained in TESOL, had a painful start and said: ‘It took me
seven years to know what teaching was about.’ The first phase she described as
bumbling along. I prefer to forget about that phase. I was all on my own, I had no
guidance, no help, I had to find everything out for myself. I had no books.
Her training to be a French teacher did not help as she felt TESOL was ‘completely
different to teaching French to secondary students ...’.
Another respondent, who was untrained in TESOL but had trained as a high school
teacher, also had a painful start;
I was filling in time. I wasn’t thinking of it as a career. I couldn’t imagine doing it

full-time. ... I had no idea what I was doing and I wasn’t very happy.
Two-thirds of respondents with less than five years’ experience underwent problematic
beginnings, half resolving their problems and the other half with their problems still
unresolved. The unresolved doubts could be attributed to their move from other careers
later in life, not necessarily because of a need to earn a living. Some of these
respondents appeared to find working life too restricting in spite of their wish to continue
in the career. Some had
142
experienced professional life in other fields and were able to compare working
conditions, which may have made them more discerning and critical.
From easy or painful beginnings, respondents then went on to other themes, with partial
itineraries which have been further categorised as harmonious, relatively harmonious or
problematic beginning phases. Four of the 17 respondents with easy b eginnings went
on to experience doub ts, thereby having prob lematic b eginnings.
Typical beginning itineraries for Geneva TESOLS
Harmonious beginning phase (13 respondents: 46%)
Thirteen respondents underwent a harmonious beginning to their career (see Figure

4.1). From easy b eginnings, 13 respondents from all categories went on to
experimentation. This was an archetypal phase for TESOLs, crossing all categories of
experience.
Easy beginnings → Experimentation (13)
Figure 4.1 : Harmonious early itinerary (n=13)
Relatively harmonious early itinerary (3 respondents: 11%)
As Figure 4.2 shows, three respondents had a relatively harmonious b eginning phase,
starting off with difficulties then gaining confidence through experience or training.
Painful beginnings (3) → Experimentation (2)

→ Training (1) - positive
Figure 4.2 : Relatively harmonious early itinerary (n=3)
Problematic early itinerary (12 respondents: 43%)
There was a typical prob lematic b eginnings phase, which crossed all Geneva TESOL
categories but was particularly prominent for respondents with less than five years’
experience.
143
As Figure 4.3 shows, twelve respondents underwent this itinerary. Respondents with
more than five years’ experience tended to go through a longer phase of
experimentation before reaching a phase of doub ts. However, three respondents with
11-19 years’ experience had painful b eginnings leading to doub ts, then to exiting the
career, and a further two with more than 20 years’ experience had painful b eginnings
leading to doub ts.
Easy beginnings (4) Resolved (5) (with

training)
Dissatisfaction/
doub ts (11)
Painful beginnings (8) Unresolve →Exit (6)
d (7)
Figure 4.3 : Problematic early itinerary (n=12)
This was also a theme in Huberman’s study for 19 (14%) of the younger teachers (11-29
years’ experience). Whilst for some it ended badly, it was not definitive for the majority
as they were still early in their lives. Four of the older Geneva TESOLs re-entered the
career, while the two from the beginning category may have re-entered later.
In total, 57% (16/28) of respondents underwent harmonious beginnings to their careers,

while 43% had problematic beginnings.
The respondents with less than five years’ experience seemed to enter a phase of self-
doub ts somewhat faster than the more experienced respondents thinking back to their
early years. This could be because, as they were currently at the beginning phase they
were focusing on their beginning pangs, which more experienced respondents mostly
seemed to “gloss over” in light of later experience and to summarise into a mainly
positive phase. Alternatively it could be because many were more mature entrants who
had already come from other careers, and were more quickly critical of the working
conditions which then brought them dissatisfaction. Or they may have had other
priorities and viewed TESOL as a distraction.
144
One of the respondents left the field during the study and another changed direction.
One can assume that a percentage would train for the field, start in it, and then decide it
was not for them. Others who had had doubts were going through a desire for more
training or for change, and one respondent then decided to go on to the next level of
training.
Phase 2: Experimentation / self-doubts / developing / growing
Theme of experimentation
Sixteen respondents went on to positive experimentation, gathering confidence in their

choice of profession, and being on a “learning curve”.
Themes relating to experimentation included the comment of one respondent who

mentioned she had ‘spread her wings’ and undertaken some training, as well as
becoming a trainer. Another mentioned changing to more formal teaching at the
international organisation. She also exited several times when she had children.
Another mentioned independence, and several mentioned the themes of ‘exciting’,
‘stimulating’ and ‘stressful’.
Theme of doubts
There were 18 references to doubt in phase 2. The doubts were mainly due to a feeling
of stress and overload with lesson preparation and of disillusionment with working
conditions. Some resolved the situation, one deciding to do a DTEFLA to further her
knowledge of the field:
I’ve thought of doing other things with it, I would use the word ‘doubt’ but I’m very
surprised at myself using the word ‘doubt’ because I’m only in my second year of
teaching. I was so pleased with what I’d found that I thought ‘Oh no, not again - I
want to be settled - I want to like what I’m doing’
145
Of the three respondents, all with less than five years’ experience, who had not resolved
their problems, one exited from TESOL by changing direction into another career
teaching children:
I really prefer teaching children to teaching adults ... with teaching children I have
my own method I’ve introduced, I’ve selected the books and I have more
autonomy.
Another respondent exited completely from the profession into the airline industry,
although she did not discount the idea of returning later in life to teaching:
I enjoy teaching, but it’s not the only job I’d like to try during my life.
Many of those who started with doubts therefore exited TESOL to try something else.
Some spent many years in and out of the profession before stabilising. Two male
respondents decided that the profession had inadequate conditions, one trying to be a
writer and the other deciding early in his career that the profession was ‘too precarious’:
I can’t have a child or buy my bread with this profession.
He left TESOL to go full time into editing and translating, but was forced to return to
TESOL when work in that field dried up. Both had returned to TESOL. These two male
respondents resemble, in some ways, Huberman’s male teachers from the high school
with 5-10 years’ experience, ‘exploring’ or being ‘like a tourist’ (Huberman, 1993, p. 73).
A female respondent was never very happy with TESOL and throughout her career had
periods when she would exit to study, have a break or take up another profession. She
eventually returned to TESOL full-time because she needed the income.
146
Theme of developing / growing
In the Geneva TESOL study, the stab ilisation phase seemed to be missing in the early
phases, with respondents going to a phase with themes such as developing / growing,
processing what I’d learned, an influential period, a more professional period. This could
be attributed to the follow-on period from the DTEFLA - the late training many
respondents underwent, and the fact that this often provided new challenges and a new
burst of enthusiasm.
Huberman mentioned the theme of stab ilisation more frequently in this phase, while
TESOL respondents mentioned the themes of experimentation and growing /
developing more frequently. These themes still denote commitment to the profession
even though they contain elements of restlessness and change.
Partial itinerary leading to developing / growing / new challenge
As Figure 4.4 shows, the prime theme appearing for respondents with five to ten years’
experience was developing / growing (years 2-7), which typically followed a period of
training (DTEFLA) between years 3-6.
Easy beginnings Experimentatio Training New challenge

(5) n (6) (4) (2)/
developing/
growing (5)
Painful Doubts
beginnings (2) (3)
Figure 4.4 : Partial itinerary leading to new challenge (n=7)
Another typical itinerary for respondents with more than five years’ experience
demonstrated in Figure 4.4 was that of experimentation followed by doub ts, then a new
challenge to renew the enthusiasm. The new challenge usually followed a training
experience. This could be a recurrent theme before respondents finally stab ilised.
147
Phase 3: Stabilisation
The majority of respondents in the Huberman study achieved stab ilisation following
experimentation and promotion to the high school or training for middle school teachers
(between years 4-14). In the Geneva TESOL study stabilisation commonly followed the
Diploma training course.
All 13 respondents with more than 10 years’ experience mentioned themes relating to
stab ilisation. Three of the respondents mentioned stab ilisation as early as year three;
three of them mentioned this theme from year six; another at year nine said she had
‘found my niche’; and a further one at year 13-14 described it as ‘solid development.’
Stabilisation, however, had a different flavour from that in the Huberman study, largely
because of the unstable nature of the working conditions of TESOL. Therefore, while
TESOLs may stabilise for a certain period of time, they were more likely to encounter
some form of turbulence which would lead to other themes or change.
Many of the Huberman sample were concerned with finding a balance with family life,
which was generally not an issue for Geneva TESOLs at this point in their career and
was not necessarily linked to stabilisation. However, one female respondent had felt
under great pressure because of the stress of having young children, and while she had
a very successful TESOL career, she had always put her family as her priority. She had
achieved this by remaining independent and freelance, seeking contracts that fitted her
family obligations.
Those more experienced TESOLs with permanent contracts had achieved stabilisation
in the international organisation, even though none had formal TESOL qualifications.
Partial itineraries leading to and from stabilisation
In the itinerary set out in Figure 4.5a, seven respondents with more than 10 years’
experience went through an experimentation phase leading to stab ilisation. In that set
out in Figure 4.5b, five went from painful b eginnings to doub t and one from easy
b eginnings to doub t. Five of these exited to other careers before taking up TESOL again
and stabilising.
148
Only three of those following this itinerary were trained to international standards and
many received little training through their career. This may have contributed to their
problematic itinerary.
Easy beginnings (6) → Experiment Stab ilisation (7)

-ation (7) → New challenge
(1)
Painful beginnings (1)
Figure 4.5a : Positive itinerary leading to stabilisation (n=7)
Painful Stab ilisation (6)

beginnings (5) Doubts (6) Exit (5) Doubts
Easy beginnings (1)
(1) Exit (1)
Figure 4.5b : Problematic itinerary leading to stabilisation (n=6)
Somewhat surprisingly perhaps, stab ilisation was achieved by respondents with all
types of working conditions, suggesting that permanency is not a necessary condition
for stabilisation to take place. Of those reaching stab ilisation with this itinerary, five were
permanent employees in the international organisation. Four of those started with
painful b eginnings, but achieved stabilisation assisted by permanency. Four were
freelance, three of them trainers. Three were long term employees of private school A,
and one had recently commenced employment there after transferring from Paris.
Phase 4: New challenges / stabilisation / doubts
The major themes for Geneva TESOLs in this phase were new challenges, stab ilisation
and acceptance. Other respondents had doub ts.
Themes of new challenges / new concerns
New challenges represented the strongest theme, with eight references. One female
respondent was given new responsibilities as a coordinator which made
149
her more positive towards the profession even though she had previously considered it
merely as a way of earning a living. Another female respondent had taken up a masters
course in TEFL, which was very significant to her.
The three male respondents with 11-19 years’ experience indicated that career
challenges and a full-time job were important factors for them, even causing one to
leave the field. Two of them had been moved into other training areas in the
international organisation; one into computers, and one into management training.
Another respondent, who was fully trained in TESOL, and who was also a writer of
TESOL articles and a teacher trainer, had had a fairly smooth path. At the time of the
study, she considered she was involved in ‘growth and development upwards’.
Partial itineraries leading to new challenge
Two Geneva TESOL respondents with more than 20 years’ experience, who were both
trainers and had had varied careers, seemed to need new challenges to keep their
motivation and interest levels high (see Figure 4.6):
Doubt / New Stab ilisation Doubts → New

dissatisfaction challenge → → challenge
→
Figure 4.6 : Itinerary leading to new challenge (n=2)
Both respondents had a healthy career, and the periods of doubt were seen as positive
moments, rather than negative. In these and many other cases, these periods of doubt
were due to working conditions, but also to a need to explore other fields and other
options; thus undergoing a reassessment of their career generally.
They therefore underwent, to various degrees, periods of doubt followed by new

challenges.
150
Theme of stabilisation
Three female respondents with permanent contracts at the international organisation

mentioned themes of stab ilisation. One had achieved stabilisation through ‘combining
career and children’. Permanency clearly brought feelings of stabilisation and security.
Another, who was untrained in TESOL, had a fairly painful start. She continued on a
shaky path, being dismissed from one school and finally obtaining a part-time
permanent contract in the international organisation. This led to stab ilisation and a
sense of peace and balance.
Another respondent, who was untrained in TESOL but had trained as a high school
teacher, went on to a full-time permanent position in the international organisation after
her separation, as she needed to support herself and her daughter. She went through
periods of stimulation, followed by a period of decline in enthusiasm, accompanied by
tension with colleagues. She had a personal tragedy and ‘surviving after the accident’
entailed a new burst of enthusiasm, as she undertook training in Neuro Linguistic
Programming over five years, which helped her to feel at peace with her colleagues.
One respondent, who was untrained in TESOL, had a problematic itinerary for many
years, frequently leaving TESOL to try her hand at clerical and secretarial work,
journalism and writing. She continually had the feeling of ‘underselling myself’, both in
TESOL and other jobs. Finally, she reached a phase of stab ilisation, while retaining her
independence, stating she was
thriving. I like the freedom to do whatever I want with my students and no one ever
checks up on me. I wouldn’t want a contract here (at the private school).
Theme of doubts
There were four mentions of doubt in this phase. One respondent entered a period of
concern due to the recession. He was unsure which way to take, as he wanted more
stabilisation and a full-time job, which he couldn’t find in
151
TESOL. He currently worked casually at the international organisation and was keen to
stay in the field, providing he got a fixed-term contract.
After several years in EFL I realize I can’t exist on a part-time basis - no way. ... So,
a career is having a contract, I couldn’t survive without it, whether you’re a man or
woman you need a contract, particularly in Switzerland, security, health care.
He perceived himself as suffering due to the recession:
Now I’m 47, there’s a recession with a lot of people unemployed, companies are
reticent to take on full-time staff and I’m seriously wondering which way to take.
He ended up exiting the profession as he managed to get a full-time job in the hospitality
industry.
Theme of doubts / dissatisfaction
Two-thirds of respondents went through one or several periods of doubt in their careers.
This phase could occur at any time, and may be a passing questioning or a whole
reassessment of the career leading to change. Change may take several forms as
indicated below: either leading to exiting the career, to training, to a change in positions
or to a reduced assignment, to balance with one’s private life.
Partial itineraries leading to and from doubt
Doubts leading to exit
Ten respondents from across the categories of experience experienced doubts leading
them to exit the career, in some cases on several occasions. The reasons for exiting
included working conditions (7), dissatisfaction with the stresses of the profession (1) or
dissatisfaction and attempting another career (9).
152
Three respondents exited just once before returning, and four others had exited several
times. Three respondents had exited for the first time and had not rejoined yet. Four
were currently out of the profession, having exited during or directly after the study.
Three respondents branched out occasionally into another field, while retaining some
TESOL experience as a source of income.
Doubts leading to training
In some cases, doub ts could be caused by boredom or disillusionment with methods,

or a need to develop. Training could help to renew confidence and inspiration, which five
respondents experienced.
Doubts leading to change in positions in TES OL
Changing positions was quite difficult for many Geneva TESOLs as there were not many
openings. Five, however, managed to do so, including one who had doubts and
changed worksite; another who had doubts and changed position to a promotion ;
another who had several phases of doubt and was continually seeking new challenges.
Yet another reduced her hours and changed worksite, and another changed her
worksite and position many times during her career, and had recently moved from Paris
to Geneva.
Doubts leading to reduced assignment
In three cases doub ts were caused by personal factors such as settling in or family
priorities or other priorities. These respondents attempted to rationalise their teaching
load, or find a balance.
Doubts leading to balance with private life
One of the older respondents established early on that TESOL would take second place
and maintained that balance throughout her career. As a consequence she did not
mention periods of doub t. Similarly, one respondent with less than five years’
experience actively chose TESOL to accommodate her family obligations, so she did not
have problems or doubts.
153
Figure 4.7 shows that three others, however, were enthusiastic initially, but then
experienced problems, reaching a balance or maintaining their enthusiasm. Two
resolved their doubts by reducing their load or stabilising the settling-in process, and
another was still searching for a solution.
Doub ts (3) → Resolved (2) → Balance (2)
→ Unresolved (1) → Still searching for

balance (1)
Figure 4.7: Doubts leading to balance or not with private life following doubts (n=3)
Personal and external factors affecting Geneva TESOLs
The external factors affecting Geneva TESOLs included the world recession occurring at
the time and working conditions and personal factors, for example, family concerns,
which resulted in some respondents exiting the career. For others it brought on a phase
of doubts and reflection.
Personal factors affected Geneva TESOLs in the earlier phases more than at any other
time (see Table 4.4). Some were able to resolve the problems, while others were still
attempting to find a solution. Many exited the career during the experimentation phase,
some because of being disillusioned with the working conditions or being unable to
earn enough to live, while others exited the career then re-entered later.
154
Table 4.4: Personal factors affecting Geneva TES OLs
Phase Personal factors Reason for exit
Phase 1: Beginning Settling in (1)

teaching Completing training (2)
Family concerns (5)
Relationship concerns
(2)
Phase 2: Exit (11) Other career (11)
Experimentation Wish to travel (1)
Family concerns (3)
Phase 3 Exit (1) Other career (1)
Phase 4 Exit (2) Other career (2)
Current phase
Table 4.5 shows the current phase of respondents. Three respondents felt committed
to TESOL at the time of the study. One of the respondents currently in a phase of
stab ilisation was permanently employed at the international organisation; another was
full-time long-term employed at private school A, and the third was freelance but
committed to the profession.
155
Table 4.5 : S ummary of phase Geneva TES OL respondents were in at the time of the study
Responses
Current phase 0-10 years of 11-29 years of Total

experience experience
New challenge (within - 6 6
stabilisation)
Acceptance / at peace 1 3 4
Positive experimentation 3 - 3
Developing / growing 3 - 3
Commitment / stabilisation - 3 3
Doubts resolved 3 - 3
Positive 10 12 22
Doubts (unresolved or partially 5 1 6

resolved)
Negative 5 1 6
TOTAL RESPONSES 15 13 28
As may be expected, the types of themes encountered by respondents with less than 10
years’ experience related more to experimentation, developing and growing as well as
trying to resolve doub ts, while those relating to respondents with more than 10 years’
experience related to commitment, new challenge or acceptance.
As for respondents in the Huberman study, respondents with more than 20 years’
experience had multiple phases, three of the sample starting with painful b eginnings
and ending with acceptance of their situation and two with relatively harmonious careers
currently being in a phase of new challenge. Unlike the Huberman study, historical
factors were not a factor in the Geneva study, except to the extent that two of the
respondents had permanent contracts at the international organisation. All Geneva
TESOL respondents were relatively positive about the career at the time of the study,
either describing it in terms of
156
acceptance or stab ilisation, or indicating that they were taking on new challenges or
resolving perceived difficulties.
Positive and negative phases in the professional life-cycle
As in Huberman’s study of secondary school teachers, the Geneva TESOLs displayed

some typical sequences or maxi-cycles. Table 4.6 identifies the main phases that the
Geneva TESOL respondents underwent. On the left is the number of years’ experience
they had when they nominated each phase; the next column identifies the name of the
phase; the following column identifies the positive phases with the number of
respondents nominating it in brackets; the following column the negative phases, and
the final column the personal factors to which respondents referred.
At the time of the study, 22 respondents (79%) were in a positive or stable phase, while
6 (21%) were in a somewhat less positive phase with unresolved doubts (see Table
4.5). The large majority were, therefore, currently satisfied with their career despite
difficult working conditions for many.
Personal factors
The personal factors explicitly mentioned during this part of the interview included
settling into a new country, family concerns, a desire to travel, and exiting to another
career.
Further analyses of the interviews reported in Chapter VI revealed additional

professional and personal factors, which are discussed more fully in Chapters VI and
VII.
This table represents the end-product of the analysis of responses by Geneva

respondents to the question on career phases. It arose from the detailed discussion
above.
157
Table 4.6: Geneva adult TES OL professional life-cycles (n=28)
Year Phases Positive phases Negative phases Personal factors
0-1 1: Beginnings Training (16) Training (1)
0-3 Easy beginnings (17) Painful beginnings (11) Settling into a new
country (1)
2 Training Training (1)
2-4 1-2: Positive experimentation (16) Doubts (14)

2-11 Experimentation
2-3 2: Unresolved doubts (3) - Exit (2) Exit to other career (2)
Experimentation /
3 doubts / Balance with private life (2) Searching for balance (1) Wish to travel (1)
developing /
growing
2-7 Developing / growing (5) Doubts (4) Family concerns (3)
2-11 2-3: More mature experimentation (4)
6-10 Acceptance / Acceptance (1) Frustration (1) - Exit (1) Exit to other career (1)
frustration
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4-15 3: Stabilisation New challenges / stabilisation (2)
2-19 Stabilisation (8)
8-20 Phase 3-4: New New challenges / stabilisation Doubts (3) - Exit (2) Exit to other career (2)
challenges / (6)
8-25 stabilisation / Stabilisation (4) Doubts (1)
23-24 doubts Second wind / new challenges

(2)
21-25 Acceptance (3)
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Each phase has a thematic label, as in Huberman’s study. The procedure for
establishing a theme within the phases in the TESOL studies was similar to that of
Huberman. The theme, for example, of stab ilisation was retained when the term itself or
one of its constituent elements was stated explicitly by one or several respondents. On
the other hand, the respondent may have used words like ‘commitment’, ‘confident’,
‘settled’ or ‘permanent’ when evoking stab ilisation. In order for a theme to be included in
Huberman’s analyses, it had to be mentioned by at least two persons of a sub-group,
whereas all responses were included in the TESOL studies as the number of
respondents overall was smaller. From these themes a smaller number of global
themes was specified, having been identified by a number of respondents. However,
the patterns were never so clear-cut as those reported by Huberman.
Where possible, terminology from the Huberman study was retained, but in many cases
this terminology did not fit the TESOL study, so new terms were conceived. This matter
was discussed in more detail in Chapter III.
In Table 4.6 the phases traversed by Geneva TESOLs have been presented
chronologically in a linear sequence as far as possible. However, as is demonstrated in
the left hand column representing years of experience of respondents undergoing such
phases, there was no strict chronological order, as there are several instances in which
phases overlapped.
Common itineraries across the whole career for respondents with

more than five years’ experience
This section analyses and explores the itineraries of 19 Geneva TESOL respondents
using Huberman’s criterion of more than five years’ experience in an effort to establish
common tendencies between Geneva secondary teachers and TESOLs. This was
performed to test further the universality of Huberman’s framework, by identifying
common elements and noting differences. The life-cycles divided into overarching
themes of harmony or doubt.
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Huberman required that a minimum of 15% of the total number in each case had
followed a typical path in order to consider it for analysis. As the numbers were smaller,
all TESOL itineraries for respondents with more than five years’ experience were
identified and traced.
The respondents with less than five years’ experience in the TESOL studies were
excluded from this part of the study and analysed separately because they were early in
their careers and unlikely to have passed through phases other than beginnings. The
last two scenarios in Huberman’s study were not repeated in the TESOL studies as they
included teachers from the 30-39 year group, which were not represented in the TESOL
studies.
Generally harmonious itineraries
Sixteen respondents with more than five years’ experience underwent generally
harmonious itineraries including the following patterns discussed below: harmonious;
achieved harmony: developing / growing; and achieved harmony: commitment.
Harmonious itinerary
Four respondents followed this itinerary (see Figure 4.8). From easy b eginnings,
respondents went on to experimentation, then to stab ilisation with one having a new
challenge. This was a positive harmonious itinerary, with new challenge being equated
with Huberman’s third phase of renewal / experimentation.
Easy beginnings Experimentation Stabilisation (4) New challenge

(4) → (4) → → (1)
Figure 4.8: Harmonious itinerary (n=4)
Achieved harmony - developing / growing
Three respondents fell into this category (see Figure 4.9). From easy or painful
beginnings they went on to experimentation. Two then entertained doubts which they
resolved by developing / growing, and one went directly from
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experimentation to developing / growing. They had not yet reached stab ilisation.
Easy beginnings Experimentation (3) Developing /

(2) growing (3)
Doubts (2)
Painful
beginnings
(1)
Figure 4.9: Achieved harmony - developing / growing (n=3)
Achieved harmony - commitment
Nine respondents followed this itinerary (see Figure 4.10). These respondents reached
stab ilisation before going on to a new challenge, which could equate with diversification
or experimentation in Huberman’s study. Those with a final theme of acceptance/at
peace could be equated with Huberman’s positive focusing.
162
Painful Experimen New Developing New challenge

beginnings t challenge (1) (partial exit) (2)
(7) -ation (4) (2)
Doubt Training Doubts (2) Stabilisation New challenge

Easy s (1) (5) Doubt (3) (3)
beginnings (5)
(2)
Exit (4) Acceptance / at
peace (4)
Figure 4.10: Achieved harmony - commitment (n=9)

163
Problematic itineraries
Problematic career
Three respondents underwent a problematic itinerary, going from easy b eginnings and
experimentation to problems later on due to working conditions, which caused two
respondents to exit TESOL (see Figure 4.11). This could be equated with Huberman’s
archetypal itinerary of self-doub t or assessment.
Easy Experimentation Frustration (1) Exit (2)

beginnings (3) Stabilisation
(3) (1)
Developing / Doubts (2) Searching
growing (1) for balance
(1)
Figure 4.11: Problematic career (n=3)
Section summary
Sixteen respondents underwent itineraries relating generally to harmony, while only

three underwent itineraries relating generally to themes of doubt. Overall then, Geneva
TESOLs perceived their careers positively, despite difficult working conditions.
Overall model of itineraries for Geneva TESOLs

Figure 4.12 shows an overall model of itineraries for all Geneva TESOLs. At all phases
there were more incidences of positive phases than negative. Training at the beginning
of the career often meant that respondents had easier beginnings to their career.
Despite the generally positive responses there was evidence that respondents across
the range of years of experience had some periods of doubt. Respondents either
resolved these doubts while continuing teaching or exited. In some cases those who
exited returned and resolved their doubts later.
164
Easy Experimenta- Training Developing / Stabilisation New Stabilisation New
beginnings tion (16) (8) growing / (10) challenges / (4) challenge (2)
(17) new stabilisation
challenge(9 (6)
)
Resolved - Training (4) Doubts (3) Doubts(1)
balance
(3)
Painful Doubts (14) Doubts (4) Resolved Exit (2) Acceptance
beginnings (3) (3)
(11)
Unresolve Exit (6) Acceptance
d (7) (1)
Figure 4.12: Overall model of itineraries for Geneva TES OLs

165
Most TESOLs reached phases of stab ilisation, but then had new challenges which
tended to spur them on to further periods of stab ilisation. There was a fairly high
incidence of respondents exiting the career once or repeatedly, often because of working
conditions (four respondents), or to try something different (six respondents). Of those,
three exited the profession long-term after the study started. Three respondents had
combined EFL with other activities to achieve satisfaction. Since the study began, three
new positions were created at a more senior level, offering further challenges to some
within the field. This could indicate the beginnings of change in the profession, with
more recognition of senior positions. However, two respondents were still performing
additional duties as well as having substantial teaching duties, but with no official
recognition.
Comparison between Geneva secondary school teachers and

Geneva TESOLs
As Table 4.7 shows, while the beginnings are similar in the two studies and some of the
Huberman phases can be identified in the Geneva TESOL career cycle, the phases are
more overlapping, recurring and varied for TESOLs, and interspersed with instances of
training, often leading to a new lease of life.
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Table 4.7: Overall summary of positive and negative phases - Geneva TES OLs compared to Huberman
Year Phases Geneva phases Huberman Year
0-1 Phase 1: Training: positive (16) negative Survival and discovery 1-3
(1)
0-3 Beginnings Easy beginnings (17)
Painful beginnings (11)
2 Training Training: positive (1)
2-4 Phase 1-2: Positive experimentation (16)

2-11 Experimentation Doubts (14)
2-3 Phase 2: Unresolved doubts (3) - Exit (2) Stabilisation 4-6
3 Experimentation Balance with private life (2)

/ Searching for balance (1)
2-7 doubts Developing / growing (5)
/developing / Doubts (4)
growing
2-11 Phase 2-3: More mature experimentation (4) Experimentation and 7-18
diversification
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6-10 Acceptance / Acceptance (1) Self-doubt and reassessment

frustration Frustration (1) - Exit (1)
4-15 Phase 3: New challenges / stabilisation
(2)
12-16 Stabilisation Training (2) Focusing down
2-19 Training Stabilisation (8) • Positive focusing 19+
8-19 Training Training (2) • Defensive focusing
8-20 Phase 3-4: New New challenges / stabilisation • Disenchantment

challenges / (6) Doubts (3) - Exit (2)
8-25 stabilisation / Stabilisation (4) Serenity and affective distance 19-33
doubts Doubts (1)
23-24 Second wind / new challenges Greater caution
(2)
21-25 Acceptance (3)
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The similarities include evidences in both studies of phases of discovery,
experimentation and diversification. The phase of stab ilisation in the Huberman study
was not as established for Geneva TESOLs, with stab ilisation occurring later and being
more sporadically interspersed with phases of new challenges. The latter phases of
Huberman’s study were not found, with the exception of acceptance, which could be
likened to positive focusing. This is perhaps because there were no respondents with
more than 30 years’ experience among the TESOL respondents, but it is also possible
to speculate that Geneva TESOLs may not pass through such phases because of the
greater variety in their career patterns. This can only be ascertained from further
research.
This final identification of typical itineraries is particularly revealing. On the one hand
there is some evidence to suggest that the Huberman model does have some efficacy
even for such a different sample of teachers at the beginning of the career. However,
following the first phases of b eginning and experimentation, the Geneva TESOL sample
overall demonstrated many instances of new challenges and changes in direction to
keep interest levels high. While several of them exited, many returned to the career and
achieved a contented state of commitment and stab ilisation in spite of (or perhaps
because of) the working conditions. Respondents often experienced “mini-cycles”
following change.
Huberman’s sample, on the other hand, showed more instances of negative outcomes,
or non-resolution of doubts, of reassessment and of disenchantment overall.
The relative positiveness of TESOL teachers when compared to secondary school

teachers, in the context of what are generally regarded as inferior working conditions,
deserves further discussion. It is an important matter which will be returned to in
Chapter VII.
Section summary
Geneva TESOLs had little security in their working conditions. However, in spite of this,
they had relatively positive career cycles, with many instances of
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new challenge and further experimentation. Respondents often stabilised at various
times during the career, sometimes only briefly before a period of reassessment
followed sometimes by exit then further challenges on re-entry. Even those with more
experience had entered a phase of acceptance and had stabilised, but did not mention
the negative themes associated with focusing down for Huberman’s teachers. Overall,
respondents seemed to have more positive career trajectories in spite of the working
conditions. This is a surprising finding, as one might have expected more negative
career trajectories in view of the degree of insecurity in the TESOL profession.
The mobility and frequent instances of change experienced by respondents resulted in a

more complex career phase model, with repetition of phases and “mini-cycles”. It
appears that people in a more insecure working environment may have different career
phases from those in a secure life-long working environment, and that their career cycle
may be no less positive than that of people with life-long tenure, especially towards
career maturity. Indeed there is a suggestion here that the challenges associated with
insecurity could lead to greater resilience and acceptance later in the career.
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CHAPTER V
SATISFACTION AND DISSATISFACTION WITH TESOL

This chapter explores satisfaction levels of TESOLs by asking them a range of scenarios about the past
and the future. It addresses research questions numbers 5-10 (see p. 9-10). Data are derived from the
following interview questions:
Interview questions 3 & 4 for Geneva study; 12 & 13 for Sydney study
Define the word “career”.
What is its relationship to TESOL?
Interview question 8 for Geneva study; 6 for Sydney study
Reflect back on the initial period of your teaching career; describe the year, the setting, the
circumstances, your personal situation, your difficulties and emotions.
Describe two situations that caused problems during the initial months of classroom work.

Both TESOL groups were asked to comment on a list of concerns affecting secondary school teachers
and Geneva TESOLs mentioned some additional concerns, all of which are reported in Appendix I.
Have you ever thought seriously of leaving teaching? If yes, at what time in your career did these
doubts occur? What would be the reasons for leaving this career?
Interview questions 9 and 11 for Sydney study
Sydney TESOLs were again asked to comment on lists of responses from the Geneva TESOL study
concerning beginners’ concerns and moments of doubt.

245
As these cannot be compared with the Geneva studies, the questions and responses are presented in
Appendices I and J.
Looking to the future?
Very honestly, if you had your professional life to live over again, would you choose TESOL and why or
why not?
Beginning teachers’ concerns
Huberman’s respondents were asked about their personal situation, difficulties and emotions at the
beginning of the career. Huberman divided the teachers’ responses into the categories of personal,
pedagogical and affective themes:
Personal themes were those in which respondents talked about their personal and professional lives at
the time of entry. They appeared in 49% of responses and were largely those common to people
starting out in life, including studies (33% of respondents), financial problems (22%), teacher training
college (22%), marriage or family (9%), difficulties in adapting locally (6%), an important investment
outside (3%) and divorce or death of spouse (3%).
Pedagogical themes, which deal with the instructional setting, but also with relationships with
colleagues, students and administrators comprised 20% of the responses. These included attitudes
towards professional roles and status and were mainly classified as relating to the students (including
24% relating to discipline), the relationship with subject matter knowledge and its transmission (9%
negative and 7% positive responses), relationship with colleagues (7% positive and 4% negative),
attitudes towards professional roles and status, sufficient or inadequate preparation. Overload was an
issue for about 63% of Huberman’s secondary teachers.

246
Affective themes which might have played a positive or negative role at that time were grouped under
the headings of quality of experience, and self-perceptions. Fifty-three percent mentioned initial
difficulties and/or negative self-perceptions, and 47% talked of pleasure and of positive self-
perceptions. Perceptions ranged from feelings of panic to feelings of pleasure and doubts.
Huberman’s respondents were given a list of 11 “preoccupations” of beginners compiled from empirical
research dealing with the chronic difficulties of beginning secondary school teachers (Bush, 1980;
Fuller and Brown, 1975; MacDonald and Elias, 1983 and Veenman, 1984). The same list was shown
to TESOL respondents for comment. As it was a pre-determined list, the responses Huberman’s
respondents and TESOL respondents gave did not vary substantially except that TESOLs did not
experience discipline problems in the same way as secondary school teachers. The findings are
reported in Appendix I.
Stocktaking : moments of doubt

Stocktaking is something people in all professions do at various stages in their lives, particularly in mid-
career, when they question what they are doing and where they are heading, and teachers are no
exception as many studies have shown (for example, Adams, 1982; Hamon and Rotman, 1984;
MacDonald and Walker, 1974; Newman, 1979; Prick, 1986 and Sikes, 1985). In teaching, this
introspection comes early in the career, with Huberman’s school teachers recording their most serious
doubts just after the stabilisation phase, between years 11-15 of the career. Other crucial moments
were the adaptation crisis in the first 18 months and after year 15.
Fifty-eight percent of Huberman’s secondary school teachers said that they had never thought of
leaving teaching and 42% said that they had. Therefore, although the majority said “no”, a fairly
strong minority (42%) had seriously wavered between staying or leaving the teaching profession.
Twenty-five percent of respondents were tempted by another more attractive career path, and an equal
proportion of responses referred to personal and

247
institutional complaints. Personal concerns (fatigue, frustration) were more important than institutional
concerns (changing locations, scheduling).
Re-select the career?

Respondents were questioned about their willingness to re-select teaching. Huberman felt this
interview question was “an unequivocal way” of measuring satisfaction (Huberman, 1993, p.127). In
Huberman’s study, 50% said “yes”, without qualification. Eighty-four percent would “actively” choose
teaching again, but some only on certain conditions, while only 12% of the sample were certain they
would not re-select teaching. Three percent were uncertain.
Among the 18 teachers who said firmly that they would not re-select teaching, 60% regretted having
considered, then abandoned, other career paths in professions considered to be more socially
prestigious than teaching, such as the medical profession and research-related and artistic careers.
The reasons for re-selecting the profession were numerous. Huberman created two categories of
responses; intrinsic responses dealing with the internal feelings arising from being a teacher (66% of
responses), and extrinsic responses, related to external working conditions (34% of responses).
Huberman noted that when a respondent offered a single answer, it tended to be intrinsic. Two such
responses predominated; the feeling of being “made” for teaching (25%), and the pleasure of contact
with young people (20%). However, when the respondent offered two responses, the second was often
of an extrinsic nature.
A considerable number of respondents said they would choose teaching again, but only conditionally.
Variety of work was the key component of the conditional choice of teaching, with the idea of setting
boundaries between the commitment of work and the pleasures of the outside world. There was also
an element of fear of routine and of a one-dimensional type of life.

248
TESOL studies
What is a career?
It is important to define key terms such as “profession” and “career”. The question of whether TESOL is
a career was included later in the Geneva TESOL study as, during the initial interviews, many
respondents had reacted to the word “career” in a negative way. Could TESOL, with its unstable
working conditions and largely unqualified personnel, really be considered a “career”? Was TESOL
changing as some indicated during the course of the interviews? What was the definition of the word
“career” and what interpretation did the respondents give to this word? Was it the nature of teaching
generally that it did not fit into the classic business world career structure or hierarchy, and was this
structure an appropriate one for teaching anyway?
Johnston (1997) challenged the use of the terms profession and career in relation to TESOL and
concluded that the possibility of careers in this field are highly questionable. The Centre for British
Teachers’ study (1989) and McKnight’s study (1992) both found that TESOL lacks an institutionalised
career structure and that TESOLs lack career ambitions and consequently have a high attrition rate.
These findings are echoed elsewhere in the literature, for example in Maley’s (1992) description of
EFL/ESL as permeable, meaning that it is an easy occupation to enter and leave. Clayton (1989)
called EFL teachers “unreal” (p. 56), as they were mainly young, unqualified native speakers looking to
spend a couple of years in English teaching to make money, gain overseas working experience and so
on.
Asking respondents to define the concept of career and its relationship with TESOL provided another
way for them to indicate levels of satisfaction in the “career”. A general definition of career has been
given in Appendix F. The majority of the responses of groups of TESOLs centred around intrinsic
rewards (Geneva TESOLs: 55%; Sydney TESOLs: 58%) including professional rewards such as
development / expansion and advancement / progression; and extrinsic rewards (Geneva TESOLs:
45%; Sydney TESOLs: 42%) such as commitment and material rewards.

249
The responses from the TESOL studies have been divided into the following categories: extrinsic
rewards, including material rewards; commitment; and other; and intrinsic rewards, including personal
rewards and professional rewards (advancement / progression and development / expansion).
GENEVA TESOL STUDY
Is TESOL a career?
These are the responses to interview questions 3 and 4. Twenty-two Geneva TESOL respondents
commented on this question. Forty-six percent felt TESOL was a career, while 41% felt it was not.
(Table 5.1). Sixty percent felt TESOL was in some way a career, but 86% had some type of doubt over
whether it was or not. Most respondents were therefore not convinced that the term “career” related
naturally to TESOL.
Table 5.1: Is TESOL a career?: Geneva TESOLs
Responses
Is TESOL a career? Number %
TESOL is definitely a career 3 14
TESOL is a career, but ..... 7 32
TESOL is definitely not a career 6 27
TESOL is not a career, but .... 3 14
TESOL is a career of sorts 3 14
TESOL was often perceived not to have typical career components, but, as one respondent stated:
it goes back to do you want a career? Do you want money? Or purely job satisfaction?
Many respondents explained why TESOL was often considered by others not to be a career, but
excluded themselves from that view. They mentioned poor

250
salaries and part-time work in support of the common view. Many respondents felt teaching in general
was not considered a career. They felt a career was linked with financial power “which of course
doesn’t happen with teachers.” One respondent said:
If you think of a career woman, it’s not associated with teaching - why not? I am developing
with new approaches, there probably is some career development there but it’s the relationship
with teaching which sounds funny.
The following section explores the reasons given for TESOL being or not being considered a career.
Positive responses relating to TESOL being a career

The reasons for believing TESOL was a career were mostly intrinsic with 77% of responses, while
extrinsic rewards represented 23% of responses. They are set out in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2: Positive responses relating to TESOL being a career: Geneva TESOLs
Responses
TESOL is a career Number %
Intrinsic rewards 20 77
Professional rewards: development / expansion 10 38
Personal rewards 7 27
Professional rewards: advancement / progression 3 12
Extrinsic rewards 6 23
Material rewards 4 15
Commitment 2 8
The largest category of responses related to intrinsic rewards of the profession, including professional
rewards: development / expansion (38%), personal rewards (27%) and advancement / progression
(12%).
251
Four respondents felt that TESOL was becoming more professional. One respondent had attended a
management course in England and commented:
I came away with such an impression of the professionalism of it all. I've never seen that level
of professionalism here in Geneva.
Another respondent felt that more recognition was now given to TESOL as a business:
EFL is going through a great period of transition ... the recession has pushed (the industry)
round here into realising it's a business.
Another respondent also agreed that the situation was changing with increasing numbers of teachers
having qualifications.
Personal rewards included the career having the potential of providing long-term satisfaction, meeting
people and receiving feedback from students.
Extrinsic rewards represented 23% of responses, including material rewards and commitment. Material
rewards were not high on the list, but included being able to travel and work anywhere in the world,
and TESOL being relatively well paid. Some felt it was the individual’s responsibility to make a career
of it:
it’s up to you to make it one - you have to train and keep up to date.
Negative responses relating to TESOL being a career

Negative responses included a lack of extrinsic rewards (73%) and a lack of intrinsic rewards (27%)
(Table 5.3).
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Table 5.3: Negative responses relating to TESOL being a career: Geneva TESOLs
Responses
Lack of Number %
Commitment 15 52
Total negativ e responses 29 100
Lack of extrinsic rewards

Fifty-two percent of the negative responses asserted that TESOL was not a career because of lack of
commitment and the abundance of part-time or casual work. One respondent expressed the view that
there were three levels of commitment within the TESOL occupation; professionalism - a group that
regard it as a profession and were committed; one “camp” which thinks of it as charitable work: “just like
doing the shopping for the neighbour”; and perhaps a third that teach a few hours a week and have
other priorities “just filling in a few hours of teaching EFL.” The group who “do it like the shopping for
the neighbour” were usually not trained.
The high incidence of part-time teachers and of women in the field made many question the status
and seriousness of the profession. As one respondent commented:
too many people here do it part-time, and have separate incomes and are just dabbling in it,
they are amateurs and not bothered about work conditions or professional development as a
way to having a career structure.

253
I am very disappointed about the whole status of EFL in Geneva.... There’s a lack of continuity,
lack of security... There is low esteem within the private sector.
Poor working conditions and pay were themes that arose here and elsewhere in the study:
it’s certainly one of the more traditional areas where women are exploited.
The way the system is organised you’re always chasing hours. There are many unprofessional
aspects.
One respondent commented on “working ridiculous hours, funny timetables”. Teachers had to travel
between companies to deliver classes carrying “loads of books” and had no base classroom. Many
working in private schools had no contract. One respondent said:
A career is having a contract, I can’t survive without it, whether you’re a man or a woman..
Lack of intrinsic rewards

Many respondents felt that the lack of opportunities for progression or movement upwards meant that
TESOL could not be considered a career:
One respondent expressed the general feeling of many:
For me a career is ... evolution and you can gain responsibility and be promoted. It’s always
moving forward.
She compared this general definition with TESOL as follows:

254
The problem with TESOL is that if I spend another five years here nothing would change -
responsibility-wise, the salary wouldn’t increase much, and I wouldn’t be doing anything more.
Teaching in the State secondary school system, whether in Geneva or elsewhere, however, was seen
by some respondents to have more possibilities of movement:
In the school system you have junior teacher, senior teacher, deputy headmaster, headmaster
etc and you end up not doing the job you started doing.
In summary, although 60% of Geneva TESOL respondents held the view that TESOL contained some
significant elements of a career, in general poor working conditions precluded it from full career status.
The intrinsic rewards were the most frequently mentioned positive aspect of the career, while the
largest number of responses concerning the negative aspects of TESOL as a career related to the lack
of commitment to the profession and the lack of material rewards. This was often perceived to be due to
the inadequate working conditions resulting from the high levels of casual employment in the field.
Personal situation, emotions and difficulties
Twenty-three people responded to interview question 8. In the general responses to the first part of the
question, 55% related to negative memories and 45% related to positive memories.
Negative memories
Sixty-seven percent of negative responses related to affective themes, and 33% to pedagogical
themes.
Negative affective themes included feelings of stress or anguish and not liking the atmosphere. Many
balanced the difficulties with a feeling of excitement.

255
My emotions; frustration, frustration, frustration. Before I had training - the frustration of trying
to get over something which seems so obvious to me now ... I found it very exciting too. I
would come out of a class on a high and it would take some time to come back down again.
(Tentatively) I suppose I felt a certain anxiety, a feeling of discovery of being able to try out
something quite new, the newness was quite exciting.
Pedagogical themes included time spent on preparing lessons, timetable problems, problems of
motivation of students and the frustration of trying to please students.
Positive memories
Affective themes mainly addressed the attitudes of respondents to entering the profession. The
positive memories consisted of affective themes (73% of positive responses) and pedagogical themes
(27% of positive responses).
Many respondents entered the profession with no training and with a happy-go-lucky attitude: they
were young and earning some money. One respondent said “I did it for a lark”:
We didn’t have a clue ... It was horrible but they (the students) didn’t leave. It was the
exuberance of the teacher, I’m sure. I went in happy as a bird, I was young.
I was young and innocent and having a nice time.
One contrasted TESOL with teaching in schools:
It’s a wonderful contrast between secondary school and TESOL - there are groups of adults,
they are mature, motivated, there are no discipline problems, it’s such a joy, there are no
police coming in to arrest the

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students, ... it’s a challenge, a joy of life and I used to work for hours and hours till early in the
morning building up materials.
Several pedagogical themes were mentioned, with three respondents stating they had support and
guidance and one speaking of excellent facilities.
Two situations causing beginner concerns
Twenty-three respondents answered interview question 9. The responses of participants about
situations which caused them problems related to pedagogical, affective and personal concerns.
As Table 5.4 shows, pedagogical concerns were the largest category, with 58% of responses, followed
by affective concerns (17%) and personal concerns (15%). Eight percent of responses mentioned
positive themes unprompted, while two respondents mentioned they had no concerns as beginner
teachers.
Table 5.4: Concerns of beginning teachers: Geneva TESOLs (n=23)
Responses
Category of concern Number %
Pedagogical concerns 66 58
Affective concerns 20 17
Personal concerns 17 15
Positive comments 9 8
No concerns 2 2
* 114 responses w ere given by 23 respondents

Each of these groups of concerns is broken down further in Tables 5.5 to 5.8 below.
Pedagogical concerns
Pedagogical concerns covered a wide range, which have been sub-categorised and set out in Table
5.5.
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Table 5.5: Pedagogical concerns of beginning teachers: Geneva TESOLs (n=23)
Responses
Pedagogical concerns Number % of total
Classroom/ practical concerns 39
Practical things connected to conducting the lesson - 11
timing/ instructions / using equipment
Learning English grammar 8
Student motivation 7
Difference of levels in the class 6
Problems with the method 4
Absenteeism / discipline 2
One on one teaching 1
Lack of support (people and materials) 9

Lack of guidance / support 5
Lack of familiarity with materials / lack of materials 4
Planning 8
Planning / overplanning 8
Relationship w ith students 7

Logistics 3
Space / rooms 2
Logistics / travelling between classes 1
TOTAL PEDAGOGICAL CONCERNS 66 58
Classroom / practical concerns

The largest category related to methods and concerns connected to the classroom. Practical things
connected to conducting the lesson included references to timing, difficulties in judging the level of
the class to match the materials, going too fast, and difficulties with working cassette recorders, videos
or overhead projectors.
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Some schools had developed their own methods, usually with questionable or no sound theoretical
base, designed to train people who had never taught. One respondent found that a “hands-on
practical” method was the best, and criticised the CTEFLA for an over-academic approach. Some of
the recent recipients of the CTEFLA were grappling with aspects of the course which they perceived as
unrealistic or unworkable.
High on the list of concerns for Geneva TESOL respondents was that of learning English grammar.
This could equate with learning the subject matter in the Huberman study. English-speaking teachers
were at a particular disadvantage in that the English teaching systems do not adequately prepare
students at school to analyse their own language in the same way as school systems do in many
countries. Students were frequently better able to analyse the grammar than the teacher was, which
caused much stress, and new teachers often spent hours checking the rules before teaching. It also
made them nervous of teaching more advanced classes.
I remember asking M for a list of the names of tenses in English, and she was horrified - if
you don't know the tenses, how can you teach?
every book had a different explanation and I’d wonder which was right.
Student motivation was another problem affecting teachers at the planning and implementation level.
It was assumed that adults are motivated. However, there were instances in which motivation was
lacking. For example, in company classes, where the company paid for the class and could require
them to attend, students may not come of their own will.
My first experience was when I had to teach in a company and it was very discouraging;
there were problems of motivation, the students weren’t paying, the company was paying,
so they treated it a little like the coffee machine - you go and help yourself when you want
some.
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Beginning teachers also had problems identifying levels of students, and coping with mixed levels in
classes:
you get an exam class and only half of them are motivated to do the exam - the other half
are there because they are more or less the same level. ... It’s all to do with finances and
private schools. They need as many in the group as possible and they put in people who
have different motivations.
Lack of support
The CTEFLA recommends that beginner teachers should have guidance and support. However,
schools were not obliged to provide guidance. Many CTEFLA graduates felt lost and lacking in
guidance, although both private schools had made guidance and support available, one in an
informal way, and the other through a formal appraisal system.
For the last 15 years there has been a plethora of materials available for TESOLs, but teachers rarely
follow coursebooks, preferring to construct their own syllabuses. Previously there was a dearth of
materials. For some starting out in the 1970s or 1980s this was a concern, while some newer recruits
found the choice bewildering.
Planning
In the Huberman study, there was a feeling of insufficient time for planning. Geneva TESOL teachers
were also concerned about the amount of time spent on preparation. One respondent was so stressed
by the home preparation that she decided to change professions. In contrast to school teachers,
TESOLs are encouraged to develop their own courses and individualise each lesson to suit student
needs:
I was approached by a private student ... he wanted to start immediately and my husband
said, “you don’t realise all the work that goes into this - you can’t start just like that” ... and
Rafael was
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impressed with the lesson plan in the plastic folder. He said “Is that just for me?” and I
said “Yes, I do a different one for each student.
One respondent found a solution by taking on a greater number of teaching hours to help control the
amount of preparation time.
I used to do phenomenal lesson planning and I couldn’t switch off from teaching ... In the
end I talked to X about it and she said “take on more hours and you’ll have less time and
get less preoccupied.” So I took on 15-16 hours a week, and had no time to prepare.
Relationship with students

Many beginning and young teachers found they were too emotionally involved with students and that
other personality concerns caused difficulties. Although discipline was not generally a problem for
Geneva TESOLs, some respondents did give examples of difficult students. On the other hand, many
TESOLs who had also worked in the school system stated that with adults there were no discipline
problems because adults were generally motivated.
Logistics
Another area of concern mentioned by respondents was logistics, for example, travelling between
classes and space concerns. In some cases, teachers were given inferior conditions for teaching,
especially in companies where teaching took place in the canteen, rooms without windows or air-
conditioning, or the venue was changed without notice.
Affective concerns
The next most frequently mentioned category of concern for Geneva TESOLs related to affective
concerns. These are set out in Table 5.6.

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Table 5.6: Affective concerns of beginning teachers: Geneva TESOLs
Responses
Affectiv e concerns Number % of total
Lack of confidence / experience / training 15
Stress 4
Fear 1
TOTAL AFFECTIVE CONCERNS 20 17
A general overwhelming feeling of lack of confidence or experience was the major concern facing
beginning teachers. This was further compounded by the fact that 52% of Geneva TESOLs entered
the field untrained.
Personal concerns
As Table 5.7 indicates, of the 15% responses about personal concerns, financial problems were
mentioned by seven Geneva TESOLs.
Table 5.7: Personal concerns of beginning teachers: Geneva TESOLs
Responses
Personal concerns Number % of total
Financial problems 7
Difficulties in adapting locally 5
Marriage or family 4
Divorce or death of a spouse 1
TOTAL PERSONAL CONCERNS 17 15
However, some remembered that although they earned little money, they were young with no family
responsibilities:
the pay was appalling and I had the hours no-one else wanted, early mornings and late
evenings, and I was teaching privately on the side to make up the hours left, but at the same
time I had no family responsibilities.

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Four Geneva TESOL respondents mentioned marriage or family concerns, two because of family
obligations with children:
I was juggling children and hours ... my husband was supposed to get home at that time to take
over the evening shift, but sometimes he was delayed.
Difficulties in adapting locally were mentioned by five Geneva TESOL respondents, as most of the
respondents found themselves transferred overseas, two with no foreign language skills.
Bosses do not think of the psychological aspects of being in a strange place, feelings of
alienation, the culture shock even in Europe.
Positive comments
Eight percent of respondents mentioned positive aspects of the profession they recalled as beginner
teachers (see Table 5.8).
Table 5.8: Positive comments of beginning teachers: Geneva TESOLs
Responses
Positiv e comments Number % of total
I liked the colleagues, the atmosphere in EFL 5
staffroom (pedagogical)
I feel more confident (affective) 2
TESOL is enriching (pedagogical) 2
Total positiv e comments 9 8
These included the pleasure of discovering the atmosphere of the EFL staffroom, and interaction with
colleagues. Some of the respondents had felt relatively isolated until they took up TESOL, having
moved to Geneva to join their husbands:
I found the support from colleagues was terrific.
Another mentioned the relief of feeling more confident due to having a job:
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I felt much more confident personally - if I went to social gatherings or parties, I could say
“I have a job” rather than “I go to exercise classes, have lunch with girlfriends”...
One was realistic about how genuine the interaction with colleagues was:
It’s been enriching from the personal point of view. I’ve loved meeting different people
and I love it ... but I’ve got the impression that if I left tomorrow no one will miss you.
In summary, the salient areas of concern were with practical matters relating to the classroom. The
CTEFLA graduates were particularly concerned about practical things after only a one-month
preparatory course, and a lack of familiarity with materials leading to the need for overplanning. The
CTEFLA encouraged teachers to plan their own syllabuses using many source texts, which for an
inexperienced teacher could be a daunting and time-consuming task, as this study demonstrated.
Beginner teachers, being junior to their colleagues, were often given the most unsocial timetables.
Lack of support and guidance were also a concern.
Stocktaking (moments of doubt)

Twenty-four respondents answered interview question 7. Some TESOL respondents felt that stocktaking
was a natural process regardless of profession, one stating that stocktaking was expected of those
treating any profession seriously:
Some colleagues go through doubts because if they're serious, they stocktake and question and
have doubts. They are my closest training colleagues.
Table 5.9 shows that 54% of the sample had thought at one time or another of leaving TESOL, while
46% had not. More than half had therefore considered leaving the profession, which is considerably
more than in the Huberman study.

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Table 5.9: Have you ever thought of leaving? Geneva TESOLs (n=24)
Responses
Hav e you ev er thought of leav ing? Number %
Firm yes 6 25
Yes with reservations 7 29
Firm no 7 29
No with reservations 4 17
Most of those who answered that they had not seriously considered leaving nevertheless mentioned
moments of doubt. This increased the numbers of sometime doubters to 17 out of 24. That is, 71% of
the Geneva TESOL sample had harboured moments of doubt. The adaptation crisis in the first two
years was the most crucial time for Geneva TESOLs, and between years 7-10. However, there were
also moments of doubts spread over the career cycle.
At the time of the study, nine of the 24 respondents (37.5%) were in a stocktaking phase: four of these
were recent recruits to the profession who resolved their doubts by various means during the study.
Two respondents referred to their working conditions which were causing them constant concerns, while
another three respondents actually left the profession during or after the study due to the working
conditions.
Motives for stocktaking

The motives for considering leaving teaching were varied, but extrinsic reasons represented 70% of
responses. Working conditions and poor pay were the most frequently mentioned negative reason
(Table 5.10). However, several respondents cited positive aspirations outside of TESOL, not related to
any problems in TESOL itself.

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Table 5.10: Motives for leaving teaching: Geneva TESOLs (n=13) *
Responses
Motiv e Number %
Extrinsic reasons 22 70
Because of money and working conditions 11 35
Positive motive: leaving without a crisis 9 29
Institutional reasons: method or student conditions 2 6
Intrinsic reasons 9 29
Stressful, boredom / talents underused / loneliness of 6 19
the job
Lacking confidence 3 10
* These cases include those who said “no, I haven’t thought of leaving but .....”
Thirty-five percent of “yes” responses by Geneva TESOLs concerned leaving because of money and
working conditions, often within the institution, but also attributable to the profession as a whole.
Some found that poor pay was frustrating, but wouldn’t change because of it:
I'm so tempted to take a job with better pay but I wouldn't do it for the money, so I've created a
stalemate for myself.
Poor working conditions for teachers included long and unsociable working hours and lack of security
and paid vacations:
The reasons for leaving this would be the terrible working conditions, there are no social
benefits to speak of, you don't even get coffee breaks, to say nothing of vacation, pension etc.
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Considering leaving without a crisis was significant in the Geneva TESOL study, representing 29% of
responses. The reasons given were consistent with Huberman’s four categories, with additional TESOL
categories as follows:
i) teaching having forsaken other options
One respondent found herself doubting whether she wanted to continue or return to England to teach
in schools
ii) teachers who have other interests / commitments and have no financial need
This reason was typical, particularly of three teachers, whose spouses guaranteed financial security.
They could leave or take part-time work to devote themselves to family life, to return to university, or to
pursue cultural or artistic activities.
iii) change when everything became too easy
One respondent mentioned on several occasions that she was underselling herself by working in
TESOL, then left TESOL to do secretarial duties in a company, where she felt she was underselling
herself, and then returned to TESOL.
iv) leaving for a more attractive option
Four Geneva TESOLs thought of leaving when a more attractive option came their way.
v) TESOL being a stepping stone to other careers
These respondents always intended to move on from TESOL.
Six respondents considered leaving for reasons of frustration or boredom, but this may occur in any
profession, as one TESOL respondent stated:
maybe due to the fact that I’ve been in the profession for 20 years, you have your ups and
downs whether you’re teaching or anything else...Yes, this feeling recurs from time to time. But
I think it would happen to me whatever job I’m in.
Huberman’s respondents often gave reasons of boredom with routine and apathy, while the TESOL
respondents primarily gave reasons related to stress,

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stagnation or even loneliness. One was bored because she had no training and her methods were
limited, while another was “bored with working for love”. One respondent said:
At the beginning of this year in January I really thought about leaving. I felt like a number, I
was teaching 16-17 hours a week and it was monotonous, I was going nowhere.
Another felt the responsibility daunting, finding she was taking her concerns home. She was also
lonely in her professional life:
I would like to have to think less about my job at weekends / evenings etc ... another reason is
that often I feel the job is very much you on your own - there are workshops and things, but it's
very much each man for himself in the sense that you’re left to your own devices.
Three respondents mentioned lack of confidence, or self-esteem. One spoke about:
The panic in front of the class - the room literally rolling beneath my feet - so that was a bad
experience - I thought I couldn't do it for more than a week.
In summary, the Geneva TESOL respondents had more moments of doubt than Huberman’s secondary
school teachers. These were related mostly to inadequate working conditions. This was a recurrent
concern of TESOLs in several sections of the study. Another 29% of responses related to leaving for
positive motives.
Fifty-six percent of Geneva TESOLs intended to continue with TESOL in future, even though many
expressed doubts over whether TESOL can be considered a career. The positive aspects of TESOL
related to intrinsic factors, while a lack of certain extrinsic factors were perceived to be the negative
aspects.
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Fifty-four percent had thought of leaving TESOL, mainly because of extrinsic reasons such as working
conditions or attraction to another job.
Future aspirations
Twenty-eight teachers responded to interview question 2. From the responses to the question about
their future plans, Geneva TESOLs appeared overall to be sufficiently satisfied with the profession to
wish to continue (Table 5.11). The most frequently mentioned plans referred to TESOL-related
activities (50% of responses).
Table 5.11: Future plans: Geneva TESOLs (n=28)
Responses
Future plans Number %
TESOL combined with another activity 18 35
TESOL - status quo 11 21
Uncertain 8 15
Other career 7 13
Would prefer to travel 5 10
Family life priority in short term 3 6
* The 28 respondents gave 52 responses
Combining TESOL with another activity represented 35% of responses. The previous chapter
identified the attraction of the freedom and flexibility of TESOL, as a result of casual and part-time
teaching positions, allowing TESOL to be combined with other activities.
The additional activities were often TESOL-related. For example:
Four respondents wished to continue or move into training or development:
I’m interested in development, there are quite a lot of things on the boil in Switzerland,
certainly two projects after Christmas will take off.

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Four envisaged writing either TESOL-related books or materials or on other subjects:
I thought of being a materials writer - keeping my hand in, but something different.
Two respondents mentioned combining translation and teaching but one commented that “the
profession may disappear because of technology.” For some the idea of teaching full-time long term
was unchallenging:
I have to admit that the thought of full-time teaching and doing the same thing year in year
out till I’m 65 doesn’t seem very challenging.
I'm always interested in doing something other than just teaching. Why? Because I need
variety.
As might be expected, six out of nine respondents with less than five years’ experience were still happy
teaching and envisaged TESOL as a career for the future. Two of these were keen to do the DTEFLA,
the next step in training, and one was also keen to study further than that:
I'd like to do more academically - I'll certainly do the Diploma. Artificial Intelligence gave me
the flavour of linguistics, maybe I'll do something like that.
Those with permanent positions in the international organisation envisaged teaching until retirement.
Eight of the respondents expressed uncertainty about the future, which was attributed to a range of
factors. Three were new recruits to the profession and were going through feelings of doubt and
insecurity. One new recruit wished to travel with her husband and had no financial need for a job:
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I have thought of leaving because with the little teaching I do, I have to give up travel with my
husband ...
Another respondent was unhappy with her working conditions, but had no other solution close to hand:
It's an awfully hard way to earn money. I tell my trainees teaching is like adolescence - there
are highs and lows that you don't get in middle age. The more you get into it the highs get
higher and the lows get lower.
Only one of the respondents sounded dissatisfied with TESOL, the others speculating but not
committing themselves to a future direction.
Travel was mentioned by several respondents, either for professional reasons or for pleasure, with the
main motive of discovering other cultures. Three respondents wanted to give priority to their families
for the short term.
Seven respondents were keen to move into something different, and two of these have moved since
the study.
In summary, most Geneva TESOL respondents wished to continue in the profession in the future.
There was no evidence of general dissatisfaction with the career, even though three respondents left
the field for extrinsic reasons: two because of the working conditions, and one who had taken up
TESOL only as a stepping stone. Many respondents planned to combine TESOL with training or had
already started doing this, while others planned to travel laterally over time.
Re-select TESOL?
Twenty-three teachers responded to interview question 6. Fifty-seven percent of Geneva TESOL
respondents felt they would re-select TESOL, 17% felt they would not, and 26% were uncertain (Table
5.12).
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Table 5.12: Re-select TESOL or not? Geneva TESOLs (n=23)
Responses
Responses Number %
Firm yes 10 44
Yes, but with reservations 3 13
Uncertain, do not know 6 26
No, something completely different 3 13
No, with reservations 1 4
Reasons for re-selecting TESOL

The reasons given by Geneva TESOLs for re-selecting TESOL were mainly intrinsic (83%). Similar
proportions of respondents in Huberman’s study and the Geneva TESOL study said they enjoyed
teaching for a range of reasons: the contact with people, giving and sharing cultures, sharing
knowledge (see Table 5.13). A small number of extrinsic reasons were given, relating to the creativity
and flexibility of TESOL as a career.
Table 5.13: Reasons for re-selecting or possibly re-selecting TESOL: Geneva TESOLs
Responses
Reasons Number %
Enjoyment of teaching adults/ the contact with 7
people / different cultures
Desire to help people / giving 6
Love of language / English 2
Flexibility 2
Creativity 1
* Multiple responses
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Intrinsic reasons related to the advantages of teaching adults. Seven respondents enjoyed teaching
adults from different cultures:
I can't think of a better way to meet people from all over the world, to learn about different
cultures.
Two respondents felt adults were more motivated than children:
Also motivation is important. Everyone wants to learn here, unlike children doing theology at
school, and that makes a difference.
Two respondents felt there was an equality with TESOL that isn’t found in school teaching:
in TESOL the students bring their lives to the classroom and it’s just the language which is
missing - there’s an equality that doesn’t exist in teaching academic subjects.
As the current approach in TESOL was not imparting knowledge, but facilitating learning and sharing,
these responses were categorised as “desire to help people / giving.” (six respondents):
I enjoy learning and giving out what I’ve learned
it's rewarding and enriching. So I'm not only a tool that helps students, they're helping me to
help them too.
Reasons for not re-selecting TESOL

Overall 17% of Geneva TESOLs and 12% of Huberman’s school teachers said they would not re-select
the profession. The reasons for not re-selecting TESOL were multiple for many respondents and
focused on very different areas from Huberman’s study (Table 5.14).

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Table 5.14: Reasons for not re-selecting TESOL: Geneva TESOLs (n=13)
Responses
Reasons Number %
Would not have discovered it 5 38
Why do the same thing again? 2 15.5
Women’s opportunities are changing 2 15.5
No, other career 2 15.5
No other choice 2 15.5
Five respondents acknowledged they probably would not have discovered TESOL if they had stayed in
their home country. Some would re-select teaching:
I was here in Geneva, I needed something to do, so it took into account my teaching
background, it was a convenient choice at the time, I have no regrets at all - the choice came
out of the situation I found myself in as much as anything else.
I wouldn't have chosen TEFLA had I not come to Switzerland - it wouldn't have occurred to me.
Two respondents felt they should try something different, although neither was dissatisfied with
teaching:
Why do it again? I've had that experience, I've met all these people, but I'd try
something else, I'd do something different.
Two older respondents talked about the current opportunities available for women, and the lack of
choice previously available:
it was the obvious thing to do then if you did marry and have children, as it fitted in with the
dual role, but nowadays the structure of society is changing in all professions.
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we were the pioneers and a woman could have a career, but it was still mighty radical.
Two Geneva TESOL respondents preferred other careers; in music and as a writer:
I might end up teaching music as I am not gifted enough to make it to the top.
The choice was the chicken's way of not becoming a writer. I was so scared I wouldn't succeed -
it's like becoming a nurse instead of a doctor, or an art historian instead of a painter.
And two respondents had a more negative tone:
with that type of lifestyle moving around, there’s not a lot else you can do really.
Here there is no other choice, and since I live here it’s the only way to answer the question.
In summary, the major reasons for those wishing to re-select TESOL (57%) were intrinsic, including the
enjoyment factors linked with teaching adults and the desire to help people. Five respondents who
were positive about the profession nevertheless mentioned a wish for better pay or working conditions,
one calling teaching a “Cinderella profession.”
Those not wishing to re-select TESOL (17%) did not directly criticise TESOL as a profession, but
mentioned that more opportunities are now open to women, that they would combine TESOL with
something else, or that they would prefer a complete change in another life; “why do the same thing
again?”.
Overall, therefore, respondents showed high levels of satisfaction with the intrinsic features of TESOL.
The reasons for not re-selecting TESOL were not extrinsic ones related to working conditions, as might
have been expected, but

275
more because of doubts about whether they would have discovered TESOL again or because of other
interesting career opportunities.
SYDNEY TESOL STUDY

Thirty-two teachers were interviewed for all questions in the Sydney TESOL study.
Is TESOL a career?
This section records the responses to interview questions 12 and 13. Overall 81% of Sydney
respondents felt that TESOL has significant elements of a career. Only 18% said it was not, though
half of these had hesitations about their responses (Table 5.15).
Table 5.15: Is TESOL a career? Sydney TESOLs
Responses Number %
It is a career 16 50
It is a career of sorts 10 31
It is not a career 3 9
It is not a career, but ... 3 9
Respondents were asked why or why not and the responses are presented below.
Positive responses relating to TESOL being a career

Positive responses included more intrinsic reasons (62%) than extrinsic ones (38%).
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Table 5.16: Positive responses relating to TESOL being a career: Sydney TESOLs
Responses Number %
Professional rewards: development / expansion 16 32
Total positiv e responses 50 100
Ten respondents felt that TESOL was becoming more professional as an industry. One commented
that those in their late 30s were
from the baby boomer generation with a travel background, very anti the whole work
establishment in terms of going up the ladder and power seeking ... It’s not true now - many do
it as a considered career.
One respondent described how TESOL started out as an opportunity to travel and earn money, then:
“the moment I got a job it was a career doing qualifications”. Another respondent commented on the
way TESOL had changed, with people having a more theoretical background nowadays:
I have noticed in teaching adults that a theoretical background has grown over my career span.
... the theory helps to raise the status and level of proficiency or competence of the people
doing it.
On this note, five respondents commented that TESOL provides opportunities to develop the theory of
teaching in different areas. Alternatively, some respondents felt that a career in teaching meant
moving into other areas, such as administration:

277
people say they love teaching and the moment they’ve got a job in the industry they don’t
teach much and would rather die than go in the classroom. I’ve seen people who only do
token teaching and will do anything but relief - it’s like it’s untouchable.
Other respondents felt that diversification and moving into other areas was a positive aspect of TESOL,
contrary to many respondents who held the view that TESOL did not provide opportunities for
advancement:
someone involved in TEFL with a CTEFLA or DTEFLA or MA etc can move up in qualifications
and branch out into different areas - into teacher development, marketing, materials
development and developing new projects.
One respondent felt that being in the migrant area gave her a career path:
the TESOL field in Australia is a recognised career path because we have the migrant policy -
... nationally it is recognised and has status ... and we have an award and reasonable
conditions.
Twenty-two percent of responses related to personal rewards. Five respondents felt TESOL was a
satisfying career which provides feedback:
what’s important to me in a career is something I gain satisfaction from, and if I stop feeling
satisfaction I would look for something else.
It was also described as “interesting and stimulating” and “socially useful and people-oriented”.
Thirty-eight percent of responses referred to material, extrinsic rewards. Ten respondents mentioned
that TESOL as a career offered possibilities of travel. Five respondents felt TESOL was flexible and
accommodating, and although some felt that working conditions and salary were substandard in
TESOL, three
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respondents felt they were good: “we have an award and reasonable conditions”;
I have a good salary, we’ve just had an increase, I’m getting paid preparation time, I finish at
3.45 and don’t think about work till the next morning when I go to school again.
Negative responses relating to TESOL being a career

As Table 5.17 indicates, the majority of the reasons for TESOLs feeling that it was not a career related
to lack of extrinsic rewards (64% of responses), while 35% of responses related to lack of intrinsic
rewards.
Table 5.17: Negative responses relating to TESOL being a career: Sydney TESOLs
Responses
Lack of Number %
Commitment 10 29
Total negativ e responses 32 100
Lack of extrinsic rewards included lack of material rewards and lack of commitment. Among lack of
adequate material rewards mentioned in 35% of the negative responses, TESOL working conditions
and salary were criticised by one quarter of respondents. One saw the upper echelons as being poorly
paid: “it’s very underpaid compared to other similar jobs in industry.” One respondent referred to her
work in Europe:
teaching is always casual - that was always my career, a few hours here and there and you
gathered it together and that was work.

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Low status was another reservation about the career, mentioned by four respondents. One contrasted
TESOL to being a doctor:
Everyone outside knows what a doctor is, and how hard they work, and what they have to study,
but no one knows what my job is; they think it’s like teaching children with pictures of large
bunches of grapes.
Lack of commitment comprised 29% of responses. One respondent commented that many in TESOL
had other priorities and were not interested in developing a career path:
TESOL is not a standard pathway, there’s a low ceiling, maybe because it’s female dominated,
maybe because of family priorities and many are happy with their work and working part-time
and they give their family priority and stay at a certain level. There are also many travellers
who are not so interested in status.
However, five respondents believed that TESOL was more of a profession now than in the past. One
who had had a series of senior positions overseas said: “my parents thought of me as a backpacker.”
Several of the newer TESOL respondents felt that “there’s no real encouragement to be in it long
term”, and that it may not be interesting as a lifetime career. Another newer respondent felt that this
was a positive aspect of the career:
one good thing about TESOL, it’s a thing you can do at different times in your life, in different
contexts and situations, and you can diversify and it seems capable of that.
Twelve respondents commented on the lack of promotional opportunities in TESOL. One said that
“lots of people observe TESOL as a crablike sideways progression and only a few move up”.
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I feel the career path in this institution is very narrow. ... There are about thirty teachers and
only six coordinators so the majority of teachers don’t go anywhere at all unless they switch
places.
Intrinsic rewards were more valued than extrinsic rewards by Sydney TESOLs. In summary, although
22% of respondents regarded opportunities for advancement and promotion as being integral to the
concept of career, only 8% of respondents believed such opportunities were a feature of TESOL.
Indeed, 35% of negative responses related to TESOL not offering opportunities to move up. On the
other hand, 30% of respondents did refer to good opportunities for development and expansion within
TESOL, which were also perceived to be an important element in the career concept. Therefore,
while TESOL was not seen to offer many opportunities for advancement, in the sense of promotion, it
was seen to offer opportunities for development and expansion.
Material rewards were an area of concern, with one quarter of respondents feeling TESOL did not offer
good working conditions and four respondents feeling its status was low. Opportunities to travel were
perceived to be the most beneficial single aspect of TESOL. These were classified in the study as
material rewards.
Although commitment was regarded as a necessary element in the general career concept, TESOL was
not seen necessarily as a lifetime career and was said to attract many travellers. This situation was
seen to be changing, however, as TESOL became more professional.
Overall the findings indicate considerable optimism about TESOL in Sydney, particularly with intrinsic
factors such as the opportunities for professional development and expansion. Dissatisfaction focused
mainly on working conditions and general commitment to TESOL. There was an optimism about its
future potential, however, with 10 respondents feeling it was becoming more professional.
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This section records the responses to interview questions 6 and 7.
Personal situation, emotions and difficulties
Forty-seven percent of the 93 references made were positive and 53% were negative. More than half
the respondents had mixed emotions regarding their initial TESOL experience and these responses
have been categorised as negative or positive according to the main direction of the response.
Twenty-five percent of respondents had only negative memories, and 19% had only positive
memories.
Negative memories
Negative memories are categorised in Table 5.18 under affective or emotional, personal and
pedagogical themes.
Table 5.18: Negative memories: Sydney TESOLs
Responses
Negativ e memories Number %
Affective or emotional themes 23 47
Personal themes 18 38
Pedagogical themes 8 17
Affective or emotional themes

Lack of confidence affected seven respondents. All except one of these was qualified with the
Certificate course, but needed time to build up confidence. Others felt inadequate and had a lack of
training, while some felt anxious with the preparation needed, and felt stretched and stressed. Stress
affected seven respondents, especially anxieties about preparation.
Personal themes
Personal concerns included family or marriage concerns at the time of initial teaching, and financial
worries.
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Pedagogical themes
Three respondents found themselves in an unprofessional situation, coping with responsibilities
beyond their preparation. Five respondents felt a lack of support and guidance; two of these had no
training, while three were trained at Certificate level.
Positive memories
Positive memories also included affective, emotional personal and pedagogical themes (Table 5.19).
Table 5.19: Positive memories: Sydney TESOLs
Responses
Positiv e memories Number %
Affective and emotional themes 28 64
Personal themes 10 23
Pedagogical themes 6 14
Affective and emotional themes

One third of respondents remembered their initial experience as fun and easy-going; free and easy or
enjoyable. Many were young people overseas meeting people from a different culture and without
responsibility. Four felt stimulated because the lessons went well, which gave them confidence.
Some had enjoyed the training and felt generally positive.
Personal themes
Three respondents had either worked in TESOL overseas with children, or were unqualified in the past,
and felt positive because they made a conscious decision to take TESOL up as a career. Others felt
independent and some were keen to travel through TESOL.
Pedagogical themes
Six respondents felt they had supportive colleagues, which helped them have an easier entry to the
profession.
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Two situations causing concern
Beginner concerns are set out in Table 5.20. When respondents were asked to nominate two specific
concerns during their initial teaching experience, pedagogical concerns were the major category with
35% of responses, as they were for Geneva TESOLs. However, the Sydney TESOLs worked in
established well-equipped schools and, in contrast to the Geneva TESOL study, motivation was not
mentioned, nor were concerns with space or logistics. Positive comments attracted 30% of responses,
and affective concerns attracted 19% of responses. Thirteen percent of responses related to personal
concerns, and four respondents said they had no concerns as beginner teachers.
5.20: Concerns of beginning teachers: Sydney TESOLs
Responses
Category of concern Number %
Positive comments 44 30
Affective concerns 28 19
Personal concerns 19 13
No concerns 4 6
Total concerns 147 100
Each of these groups of concerns is broken down further in Tables 5.21 to 5.24 below.
The pedagogical concerns represented 35% of responses for Sydney TESOLs and are broken down in
Table 5.21. They consisted mainly of intrinsic factors to do with the work itself but included some
extrinsic factors to do with the work environment such as lack of support and pressure from
management.
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Table 5.21: Pedagogical concerns of beginning teachers: Sydney TESOLs
Responses
Pedagogical concerns Number % of total
Classroom/ practical concerns 25 17
Cultural differences and teaching /learning styles / 6
motivation / needs
Practical things associated with the lesson 6
Getting too emotionally involved in class discussions 2
Planning and preparation 15 10

Problems with the syllabus 8
Time spent on preparing lessons - workload 7
Lack of support 7 5
Relationship with coordinator 2
Pressure from management 2 1

Being expected to do a lot for nothing 2
Relationship w ith students 2 1

Student complaint turning point - reflection 1
Interpersonal relationship with the students 1
Personal concerns 1 0.5

Juggling too many things at once 1
TOTAL PEDAGOGICAL RESPONSES 52 35
Frequently mentioned pedagogical concerns were not understanding the grammar, leading to feelings
of inadequacy when unable to answer students’ questions, and cultural differences affecting student
learning styles.
Learning English grammar again seemed to present many problems, particularly as school systems in
other countries focus more on grammar than

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those in Anglo-Saxon countries, with the consequence that students are often more acquainted with
the grammar rules than the beginner teacher:
I was not secure in my own knowledge about grammar and felt the students knew more.
I had such a fear of feeling a fool and I put a lot of time into preparation.
With students from a range of different nationalities, predominantly Asian, there were cultural
differences leading to problems such as differing teaching and learning styles and student
expectations.
Students were expecting one thing and getting something different.
Other concerns mentioned by six respondents were practical things associated with the lesson, such as
using equipment; timing; teacher talk; difficulty with instructions, being too strict, being unable to
relax and dealing with the unexpected. Five respondents mentioned problems with the method,
particularly if they had been teaching before doing training:
(In) the initial period of six months that preceded my teacher training, what I remember
most was the encouragement to adopt the communicative methodology and my
resistance to jettisoning my traditional ways of teaching.
Planning concerns most frequently mentioned were problems with the syllabus / no syllabus / or
inappropriate materials. In recent years there has been a wealth of published materials in general and
specialist areas of TESOL, whereas, in the early 1980s there were few materials, which led to problems
for some respondents.

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I felt like I had no ideas in the first ten weeks in Cairo. I was going from the opposite
book-based course to no book where you have to make everything up yourself.
Another concern relating to materials and syllabus arose from some schools not having set texts but
having a syllabus which seemed complicated and frightening for a new teacher:
Being given one of ... (the) syllabus pages and being overwhelmed with acronyms such
as MM and ILC and the choices, there were not steps on how to teach it ... and I had to
find the books and choose between an enormous variety of materials.
Conflicts with management arose as private schools sometimes expected extra commitment from
teachers:
I remember getting into trouble because I wouldn’t go with the students for sheep-
shearing and it was a weekend away on no pay and I refused to go and they said they
might have to look at my hours.
Positive comments
Table 5.22 shows the positive memories which represented 30% of the responses.
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Table 5.22: Positive features for beginning teachers: Sydney TESOLs
Responses
Positiv e comments Number % of total
Free and easy; fun, easy-going 10
Enjoyable 10
Supportive colleagues 6
Stimulated because lessons went well 4
Decision to make it a career 3
Training enjoyable 2
Excited 2
Independence 2
Finding a job was great 2
Interested in travel 2
Good to be back at work after children 1
Total positiv e comments 44 30
Ten respondents mentioned feelings of freedom and having fun, often while young and abroad.
Some found TESOL enjoyable in spite of the hard work:
Initially I worked long hours and the work load was hard but I never regretted the change,
and despite the hard work it was a positive time in my life and it was all positive and I
liked the people.
Affective concerns
Affective concerns represented 19% of responses (Table 5.23).
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Table 5.23: Concerns of beginning teachers: Sydney TESOLs (n=32)
Responses
Affectiv e concerns Number % of total
Lack of confidence / training 11
Stressed / stretched 6
Lack of support 5
Unprofessional / fiasco 3
All the newness 2
Frustrated 1
Total affectiv e concerns 28 19
One respondent had felt:
there was so much newness, new people, new learning, being very committed and busy
when I had been very uncommitted before, doing odd jobs to save money and go
travelling and I had no sense of commitment to a career path.
One respondent felt very young and felt she looked very young, which was a problem:
particularly if older Korean men were in the class. They didn’t find it easy either.
Cultural things like that make things difficult.
Personal concerns
Personal concerns represented 13% of responses. They related to extrinsic factors such as financial
considerations, problems with marriage or family, and having a difficult time personally (Table 5.24).
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Table 5.24: Personal concerns of beginning teachers: Sydney TESOLs
Responses
Personal concerns Number % of total
Financial considerations 7
Marriage or family 4
Difficult time personally 4
Stressed by studies 1
Death of partner 1
Sickness 1
Insecure about decision to change 1
Total personal concerns 19 13
In one case, having a difficult time personally related to personal relationship problems in a foreign
country:
I had just left a fantastic job in Australia and my family behind, and I’d sold everything to
get to Spain and within three months I had serious emotional problems.
Four respondents could not remember any specific concerns.
In summary, Sydney and Geneva TESOL averaged similar numbers of concerns per respondent (4.5
and 4.9 respectively). In their responses regarding two situations which caused them concern in their
early years, Sydney TESOLs mentioned similar numbers of pedagogical and positive memories, while
Geneva TESOLs mentioned almost double the pedagogical concerns, and only 8% of positive
comments. This suggests that Sydney TESOLs had a more positive feeling towards TESOL in the
formative years.
Where the TESOL studies differed, Geneva TESOLs mentioned lack of familiarity with materials and
relationships with students. Sydney TESOLs mentioned problems with the syllabus and cross-cultural
concerns. This is not

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surprising, as Geneva TESOLs seldom had syllabuses, but worked from textbooks or devised their own
syllabuses on the run. However, many Sydney TESOLs had to work within the confines of syllabuses
devised by the school. Also, Sydney TESOLs tended to teach classes containing many different
nationalities, including Asian, European and South American students.
Stocktaking (moments of doubt)

This section records the responses to interview question 10.
Seventeen Sydney respondents (53%) said they had seriously considered leaving TESOL at some
stage. Only four (13%) had not in any way considered leaving, the remaining 11 (34%) saying
they had not seriously considered leaving, but mentioned doubts. Therefore, altogether 15
respondents (47%) answered that they had not seriously considered leaving TESOL. A total of 28
respondents (or 87%) mentioned giving consideration at some time to leaving TESOL.
Table 5.25: Have you ever thought of leaving? Sydney TESOLs (n=32)
Responses
Hav e you ev er thought of leav ing? Number %
Firm yes 17 53
Firm no 4 13
No with reservations 11 34
The most crucial moments for doubting for Sydney TESOLs were the adaptation crisis, and
between years 7-10. Other critical moments were between years 4-6, years 11-16, but there were
no doubts mentioned after year 16 by Sydney TESOLs.
As Table 5.26 indicates, the most frequently mentioned reasons were extrinsic, representing 70%
of the responses, while 29% of responses represented intrinsic motives.

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Table 5.26: Motives for leaving teaching: Sydney TESOLs
Responses
Motiv e(s) Number %
Positive motive: for a career move 14 30
Because of working conditions: short term contracts / 8 17
money
To move sideways, not out of TESOL / to combine 6 13
TESOL with other related activity
To have a family 2 4
Thought that other field be more fulfilling 1 2
Being away from family and friends 1 2
Positive motive; didn’t want to work 1 2
You can’t do the same job forever 5 11
Because of bad experiences with students 3 6
Disappointed with change of management 3 6
Prefer teaching migrants to ELICOS 2 4
If positive aspects of TESOL disappeared 1 2

* These cases include those who said “No, but ....”
Fourteen respondents (30%) said they might leave for a career move. Only nine of the 14
respondents had a specific plan, including industrial relations, business, musical work, overseas
development work, psychology field, other teaching or administrative work.
Concerns about working conditions (17%) included factors such as not being appreciated by the
employer, poor physical conditions and an inadequate salary, short-term contracts with no security
and lack of staff development opportunities.

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Six respondents (13% of responses) had wished to combine TESOL with other activities including
professional development and training, materials development, developing language software, or
counselling. Five respondents said they would like to move out eventually:
partly because I couldn’t face the same thing for the rest of my life, partly because I
wanted to get out of teaching EFL.
Others stated they would move out of TESOL to take up a new challenge “because full time
teaching is not challenging forever.” One said it was important to take on new experiences in life:
a whole new way of spending time ... it would be like a breath of fresh air.
Appendix J provides a detailed analysis of Sydney TESOL responses after being shown the list of
Geneva TESOL responses.
Future aspirations
This section records the responses to interview question 3. Eighty-two percent of respondents indicated
their intention to stay as they were, to combine TESOL with another activity, or to change but within
TESOL (Table 5.27). Only seven respondents (6%) said they might consider another career in the
future.
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Table 5.27: Future plans: Sydney TESOLs
Responses
Future plans Number %
TESOL combined with other activity 55 50
Status quo / no plans 30 28
Family / personal life priority 7 6
Other career 7 6
No promotion 6 5
Change but still in TESOL 4 4
Fifty percent of the responses related to combining TESOL with another activity. The most frequent
combination was to pursue further studies, mentioned by 11 respondents. Most mentioned masters
level qualifications in TESOL or adding another field to diversify. In Australia, a masters degree was
seen as an essential qualification by some:
With my present situation it’s expected I would do the MA in Applied Linguistics ... The
problem is I don’t like linguistics. ... I’m thinking of doing a MA in Asian Studies.
Oh, and careerwise, I have to do an MA. In Britain people are doing MAs, but they’re going on
to DOS positions. ... The top qualification was DTEFLA, and everyone did it and then there
was a knock on effect as everyone had done one.
Seven respondents mentioned development (in-service training) or pre-service teacher training as an
area for development.
Several of the schools were developing overseas links, so that some respondents could work overseas
without resigning from their current position:

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I could go and work abroad in one of the schools, possibly in the Ukraine. This would involve
leaving Australia temporarily or maybe even permanently. For example, I might be a DOS for
one of the schools being set up.
Other examples of combining TESOL with another activity included:
• TESOL-related activities such as counselling students, training consultancy, administration,
management, opening a school, teaching migrants or publishing materials
• Non-TESOL related activities such as translating, or a musical career.
Thirteen respondents had no clear plans as several were in a phase of stability, or nearing retirement.
One respondent was unclear because her future depended on her husband’s posting:
My future depends totally on my husband’s next job. It could be anywhere.
Two respondents had recently returned from positions of responsibility overseas and were in a phase of
reassessment. Thirteen respondents mentioned that they were happy to continue in the same position,
either as a teacher, a coordinator, or in the same workplace:
I feel I have to put my time in here before moving on or changing what I’m doing.
Six respondents did not aspire to a management position, either through lack of interest in
management, or because of not being ambitious:
I don’t really have ambitions ... if that happens it will be because I’ve not gone out to get it, it
was the next logical step because I’ve been in it long enough.
However, as one respondent said:

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if you avoid management it leaves you thinking what you will do.
Seven respondents said their family or personal life was their priority.
Only seven respondents said they would or might like to change careers, although none had a definite
plan in mind. Reasons for wishing to leave were extrinsic: dissatisfaction with a change of
management, insufficient salary and the unlikelihood of obtaining long term satisfaction from TESOL:
I don’t think I could put up with it - I don’t think I could motivate myself or be interested in it as
a lifetime career and economically it doesn’t meet my needs.
Overall, therefore, the majority of the respondents were happy to continue as they were, or to branch
out or pursue further studies, with only a few wishing to change career. This indicates high levels of
intrinsic satisfaction.
Re-select TESOL?
This section records the responses to interview question 14. None of the respondents in the Sydney
study said they would definitely not re-select TESOL, although 31% said they were unsure. Sixty-eight
percent said they would re-select TESOL, some with reservations (Table 5.28). These responses
appear to demonstrate positive feelings towards the career.
Table 5.28: Re-select TESOL or not? Sydney TESOLs
Responses
Re-select TESOL or not? Number %
Firm yes 11 34
Yes, but with reservations 9 28
“Passive” yes (lack of other opportunities) 2 6
Uncertain, do not know 10 31

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As for the other studies, there was a larger number of intrinsic reasons (68%) than extrinsic ones (32%)
for re-selecting TESOL (Table 5.29).
Table 5.29: Reasons for re-selecting TESOL: Sydney TESOLs
Responses
Reasons Number %
Learned a lot / about other cultures / languages 8
It’s rewarding / satisfying / stimulating / 8
interesting
Like working with people / meeting people / 7
TESOL type people
Enjoy it / like it 6
It suits me 5
It’s good for me personally 4
Like teaching 4
Enjoy languages / English 3
Like to help people 3
Like the variety 2
Ability to travel 8
It’s a comfortable / pleasant life 4
You can have a decent standard of living / 3
lifestyle
Like the flexibility of the work 3
Passive “yes”: I don’t know what else I would 2
have done
Easy to be a parent 1
A boom industry 1
A Clayton’s profession 1

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Three reasons were favoured, each by eight respondents: “Learned a lot about other cultures /
languages”; “it’s enabled me to travel” and “it’s rewarding / stimulating / satisfying / interesting”.
The first of these is classified as intrinsic, because learning about language and culture is an integral
part of TESOL. The second reason is extrinsic, however, because many who wish to travel take up
TESOL in order to facilitate this, while others take up TESOL while travelling as a means of earning a
living.
The first two reasons are connected, as it is through travel that learning about other cultures and
languages occurs:
it got me to try something new, it’s good, it got me to Japan and into Japanese. I love it
because I can travel with it, I thought of going to France or I could go anywhere ...
In Australia, TESOL involves teaching students from a range of nationalities, which also provides a
continuity of this experience.
Eight respondents found that TESOL was interesting and stimulating and provided job satisfaction.
One respondent compared it with office work:
seeing people in their suits at 8 or 8.30 going to offices and banks and looking unhappy and
80-90% of the time I turn up with some degree of excitement, I look forward to my day.
The remainder of the intrinsic reasons were connected to themes of “liking”. Some respondents liked
“working with people and meeting people”:
when I’m with a bunch of TEFL teachers the whole ambience is different than when I’m with
non-TEFL high school teachers. ... high school teachers tend to be political whereas TEFL
teachers ... haven’t followed the straight and narrow, or at least my generation haven’t.
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Three respondents found TESOL enjoyable, but intended to move to another career:
I’ve had a good time and when I look back if ever I find the elusive career and look back on my
TEFL days it will be with fond memories very definitely.
Other reasons were “it’s good for me personally”; “it’s a comfortable / pleasant life”; “I like teaching” or “it
suits me”:
perhaps teaching is something it seems I guess I do, maybe it was not the best thing I could
have done but I seem to fit into it and TESOL is a good branch of teaching.
Although some respondents found that the flexible working conditions and sessional contracts made
them feel insecure, others liked this aspect of TESOL:
I’ve enjoyed the freedom and the flexibility the job has allowed me - I was able to take off extra
time here and there.
Another respondent commented that “it’s a Clayton’s profession” and explained the attraction of
TESOL as he perceived it:
I’ve often joked and called it a Clayton’s profession because it’s a profession you’ve got when
you haven’t got a profession because it’s relatively easy to get in - you can do a four week
course ... you could do that if you were anti-career. ... There’s something different about EFL -
tongue in cheek or something ... generally unconventional people end up in it.
Some respondents gave qualified affirmative answers. Almost one third (31%) said “I might choose
something different” (see Table 5.30). One respondent would probably have stayed in her previous
school teaching career if she had

299
not moved to Australia. Others identified dream professions they might take up instead such as being
an architect, lawyer, psychology, professional sportsman or artist.
Table 5.30: Conditional reasons for re-selecting TESOL: Sydney TESOLs
Responses
Reason (yes, but ... yes, if ...) Number %
Might choose something different 10 31
Yes, but there are aspects I would change 6 19
Would have done it earlier 5 16
Would do it for part of my life 5 16
If I married the same man (influenced my 2 6
career choice)
Combine it with something related 2 6
Wish there were more money 1 3
Wouldn’t have discovered it anyway 1 3
Nineteen percent said “yes, but there are aspects I would change”. Some specified changes they would
make, such as not going straight to university after school, teaching migrants or getting into translation
and interpreting:
Five respondents said “I would have done it earlier”. TESOL is a profession that many come to later in
life. Those who might combine it with something else mentioned teaching languages or interpreting
and translating.
Those who said “if I married the same man” had each accompanied their husband and his career, and
found TESOL fulfilling in that way:
If I married the same person and if I had the same choices I couldn’t do better than TESOL.
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Ten respondents said they didn’t know if they would re-select TESOL or not, and four of these gave
vague reasons for their uncertainty: two said they might choose something different, specifying which
field. Another said it would change so many other things in her life, leading to uncertainty.
In summary, Sydney respondents generally felt favourably inclined towards TESOL as a profession,
even to the point of considering re-selecting it, for all or part of their professional lives. The reasons
given included job satisfaction, travel opportunities and learning about other cultures, as well as its
attraction as a profession. Overall, respondents did not identify many negative aspects of TESOL and
there were favourable responses to this question. This appears to be a clear indication of a high
degree of job satisfaction with the intrinsic rewards of TESOL in spite of their high levels of uncertainty
and reluctance to definitely answer positively.
COMPARISON BETWEEN HUBERMAN’S STUDY AND THE TESOL

STUDIES
Three of the research questions posed related to the three studies: beginner concerns, stocktaking and
re-selecting the profession.

Both the Geneva and Sydney TESOLs expressed feelings of excitement, happiness and joy at being
young and discovering teaching and, in many cases, being overseas. Negative responses related to
anxiety and nervousness due to lack of confidence and experience. Similar numbers of responses
related to positive and negative responses in all studies with marginally more negative than positive
responses. This suggests a good deal of intrinsic satisfaction with TESOL, even in the formative years
of the career. Huberman’s secondary school teachers expressed similar levels of intrinsic satisfaction.
The findings from the three studies serve to confirm that teaching is intrinsically satisfying for most
teachers from the beginning.
Overall, Sydney and Geneva TESOLs averaged similar numbers of concerns per respondent (4.5 and
4.9 respectively). In their responses regarding two

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situations causing them concern in the early period, Sydney TESOLs mentioned similar numbers of
pedagogical and positive memories, while Geneva TESOLs mentioned almost double the
pedagogical concerns, and only 8% of positive comments. This suggests that Sydney TESOLs were
better prepared and had a more positive feeling towards TESOL in the formative years.
Discipline was a major concern for secondary school teachers, but not for TESOLs. The major concern
for respondents from all three studies concerned lack of knowledge, particularly for Geneva TESOLs.
Geneva TESOLs may have indicated more classroom and methodological concerns due to the lack of
formal training. Support systems were more formalised in Sydney, with head teachers and coordinators
appointed with reduced hours of teaching to assist teachers. In Geneva, however, most support systems
were informal, with no reduction in teaching hours. However, regardless of the system, beginner
teachers seemed to undergo similar feelings as they had to familiarise themselves with the materials,
work culture and subject knowledge with or without support. Beginner teachers seemed to feel they
were lacking in support and guidance in both TESOL studies, but particularly Geneva TESOLs.
Respondents in the three studies mentioned lack of preparation and overload or planning difficulties.
Additional concerns mentioned by Geneva TESOLs included extrinsic concerns such as problems of
space, logistics and travelling between classes. These concerns were typical of the situation in
Geneva, but not in Sydney.
When shown a list of concerns of secondary school teachers, TESOLs acknowledged all the items
except for discipline problems. The phrasing was different, but the lack of experience and lack of
confidence was similar for respondents in all three studies. This shows that teachers from very different
backgrounds experience similar types of concerns at the beginning of the career.

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It is interesting that, while the questions focused on negative concerns, positive comments were made
unprompted. Huberman’s teachers made positive comments about similar aspects of the profession to
those made by TESOLs. Positive comments related to positive feelings towards colleagues and
staffroom atmosphere and the enriching nature of the TESOL experience. These complement the
other positive memories of the initial phases of teaching mentioned by both Geneva and Sydney
TESOLs.
Stocktaking
Huberman’s teachers professed to have fewer moments of doubt about the profession than the TESOL
respondents. They had most doubts between years 11-15, while TESOL respondents doubted most
between years 7-10. While they doubted earlier, the doubts lessened as the career progressed for
TESOLs, but doubting continued for some school teachers to the end of their career.
The reasons given for leaving varied among the three studies. In all studies, leaving for a positive
motive such as a career move was a major factor. The other major motives for school teachers related
to intrinsic factors such as schedules or school climate, and stress or boredom. Geneva TESOLs
mentioned stress and boredom and focused more strongly on money and working conditions than
Sydney TESOLs. Sydney TESOLs did not mention stress or boredom but were interested in moving
sideways or in diversifying.
Re-select TESOL
Huberman’s respondents were more inclined towards re-selecting teaching than TESOL respondents,
although it should be noted that greater numbers of TESOLs in both groups were uncertain and similar
percentages of Geneva and school teachers said they definitely would not re-select it, while no Sydney
TESOL gave a totally negative response. One of the reasons which emerged for the greater
uncertainty in the TESOL studies related to the circumstances under which respondents had discovered
TESOL and their uncertainty about whether they would find themselves in those circumstances again,
or whether they would discover TESOL.

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Reasons for re-selecting

In all three studies a greater number of intrinsic reasons was given, including enjoyment and contact
with students. School teachers mentioned more intrinsic motives concerning helping people and
doing something worthwhile, while TESOL reasons concerned personal enrichment gained such as
learning about other cultures and language, or meeting other adults, either students or colleagues.
Sydney TESOLs gave a wide range of reasons for re-selecting including a few respondents relating to
working conditions. Geneva TESOLs gave fewer reasons and none related to working conditions.
Reasons for not re-selecting

Sydney TESOLs gave none as there was no negative response. School teachers mentioned another
career path or other attractive options now available. They also mentioned reasons connected with
boredom and stress. Geneva TESOLs said they would like to try something different, or that other
opportunities were now available. Others mentioned they may never discover it as they only
discovered it after moving to Geneva.
COMPARISON BETWEEN TESOL STUDIES
Future aspirations
On the subject of future aspirations, more Sydney TESOLs planned to continue in the profession than
Geneva TESOLs (78% vs 56%). Future aspirations included further studies which were a significant
factor for Sydney TESOLs and being able to combine TESOL with other activities, which was
important for all TESOLs.
Is TESOL a career?
Only forty-six percent of TESOLs in Geneva felt that TESOL is a genuine career, and most of these
had some reservations. Fifty percent of TESOLs in Sydney believed without reservation that TESOL is
a genuine career. A further 31% of Sydney TESOLs expressed with some reservations that TESOL is a
career. The negative responses from Geneva TESOLs included lack of commitment to the profession,
with high levels of casual employment. They referred to extrinsic aspects such as aspects of the
working conditions, professional and material rewards. For Sydney TESOLs, there were fewer
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negative responses, which referred to lack of opportunities for advancement, lack of material rewards,
and lack of commitment.
Some respondents in both the Geneva and Sydney studies referred to the recent improvement in the
professional level of TESOL. This was particularly evident in the Sydney study.
Sydney and Geneva TESOLs seemed to enjoy the profession, but the insecurity sometimes forced
them to consider alternatives. In Geneva, many TESOLs had to piece together a job for themselves
every year. This insecurity accounted for many of the doubts. Similarly, Sydney TESOLs had
undergone many crises in the profession, threatening their jobs or causing them to leave.
These findings also suggest that TESOLs in Sydney were more satisfied with the profession, at least its
extrinsic features, than those in Geneva.
These findings indicate mixed feelings with expressions of satisfaction with intrinsic aspects of TESOL,
such as professional and personal rewards and concerns over the extrinsic aspects such as material
rewards, with Sydney TESOLs also referring to the professionalisation of the industry offering more
opportunities. It would be of interest to interview the same teachers today to assess if their perceptions
had changed as a consequence of the recent crisis in the industry brought on by the Asian economic
difficulties.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
In the parts of the study which were comparable with the study of school teachers, it would appear that
school teachers had greater satisfaction levels with the intrinsic aspects of the career than Sydney
TESOLs, who had marginally greater intrinsic satisfaction levels than Geneva TESOLs. However,
many of the doubts or uncertainty about re-selecting the profession related to uncertainty about
whether they would discover it again in “another life”.

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Therefore, a larger proportion of secondary school teachers show positive intrinsic satisfaction with their
career than TESOLs, but there was also a larger proportion showing active dissatisfaction than either
group of TESOLs. Both seem to relate to the more structured career available to school teachers,
which can be comforting for some and stifling for others who feared stagnation.
Sydney TESOLs tend to show greater overall intrinsic satisfaction with the career than Geneva TESOLs
largely because of the career structures and opportunities available in Sydney allowing for growth, but
not always in Geneva - structured inservice training, promotion positions and better extrinsic factors
such as working conditions. Sydney TESOLs consistently mentioned a wider range of factors in their
responses than Geneva TESOLs. Nevertheless, general intrinsic satisfaction is quite high, even with
Geneva TESOLs.
Despite these differences which are dependent on career structures, the major positive satisfactions for
all groups of teachers are intrinsic to do with the work itself (teaching / learning, working with people,
exchange of ideas etc) rather than extrinsic. This is particularly true for Geneva TESOLs where career
structures are minimal. This is consistent with the two-factor theory of job satisfaction as described by
Herzberg (1959).
There are doubts whether TESOL can be properly regarded as a career, particularly in Geneva,
because of its largely unstructured and unpredictable nature. The unpredictability has recently again
extended to Sydney also. This suits some but leads to insecurity in others. Nevertheless, in spite of the
frequent references to working conditions and money in the TESOL studies there is a general view that
TESOL is becoming more professional.
Chapter VI, which follows, explores professional development issues in TESOL, both from the
perspective of TESOL teachers and of trainers / administrators entrusted with overseeing teachers’
professional development.
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CHAPTER VI
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION
The TESOL studies aimed to identify the professional development preferences of TESOLs at their
current stage of development, and to compare teachers’ perceptions with those of
trainers/administrators. A further objective was to discern how closely professional development could
be linked to phases and / or years of experience.
The general paucity of data on the practices of TESOL teachers has been commented on by Richards
and Hino (1984, p. 136), who asserted that there was a need for more broadly based empirical studies
of teacher behaviours and teacher needs as a basis for the development and validation of more
relevant models of ESL/EFL teacher training.
Huberman (1995, p. 207) suggested that pedagogical mastery was increased by specific modes of
solitary and communal work. He found that the most popular form of professional development was
the “lone wolf” scenario, with teachers working alone and ‘tinkering’ in their classrooms interspersed with
short readings and consultation with colleagues, rather than with specialists.
Huberman also argued that conventional inservice training was largely unsuccessful, especially when
conducted intermittently by specialists far removed from the classroom. He recommended inservice
training to support teachers’ “craft-like tinkering” as a way of expanding and improving their repertoires
of instruction, suggesting that more productive moves might be made in extending teachers’ networks
and promoting a more collaborative approach, so that they can learn from each other's skills.
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Huberman did not ask his respondents about professional development. In the present study, with its
stronger focus on professional development, TESOL respondents in both Geneva and Sydney were
asked to identify aspects of professional development which they found useful at the time of the
interview. In this way it was hoped to gain a better understanding of the spread of needs across the
TESOL career, with respondents being interviewed at different points in their career.
The term “professional development” was defined by Sydney TESOLs and is reported in Appendix K.
The definition given was in keeping with the categories reported below in Section 1: other duties /
diversification, gaining more experience, inservice training, improvement / advancement, interaction
with colleagues / support, reflection, further studies, keeping up to date and conference attendance.
Section 1 reports the findings of the TESOLs’ interviews, while Section 2 reports the findings of the
trainers’ / administrators’ interviews.
SECTION 1: PERSPECTIVE OF TESOLS

This section relates to research questions 11-15 (see page 10). Data presented in this section are
derived from responses to the following interview questions:
Interview question 15 for Sydney study
Define the word professional development.
What professional development is useful for you now?

Here is a list of professional development activities mentioned by TESOLs overseas. Do you share
these ideas? Any to add?
The findings from question 17 are reported in Appendix L as they are not comparable data.
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GENEVA TESOL STUDY
Professional development related as currently useful

Table 6.1 summarises the responses to the question about professional development regarded as most
useful to respondents.
Table 6.1: Professional development described as currently useful: Geneva TESOLs (n. respondents=21)*
Responses*
Professional dev elopment mentioned Number %
Inserv ice training (positiv e and negativ e 34 46

comments)
Positive: Workshops 15
Positive: Specific courses 8
Negative: Current workshops not useful 11
Keeping up to date 10 14
Interaction w ith colleagues 9 12
Reflection 7 9
Conferences 4 5.5
Nothing 4 5.5
Ev erything 3 4
Further studies (DTEFLA) 2 3
Div ersification 1 1
TOTAL RESPONSES 74 100
• Multiple responses (individual respondents may have made more than one response)
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Inservice training
The majority of responses (46%) related to specific inservice workshops, programs and conferences and
included positive and negative responses.
Positive responses
The newer teachers and those who had not received professional development for many years
preferred practical, hands-on workshops. Several of the newer respondents immediately following
completion of the CTEFLA wanted to know more about the theory behind the practice. Some of these
planned to continue to the DTEFLA. On the other hand, some of the more experienced teachers
wanted to maintain their motivation by discovering new ideas.
Some respondents, especially the less experienced ones, were precise about the areas in which they
wanted to develop:
Frankly I want to develop in two areas - teaching pronunciation area which I’ve overlooked, ...
I’d like to do a little more work with idioms ... I’d like workshops possibly on difficult grammar
points.
Negative responses
Eleven respondents expressed concern over the content of some workshops, particularly those which
were theoretical or philosophical, which they perceived bore little relevance to their needs. Many of
those who found practical sessions useful also critically appraised what was currently available:
Quite frankly, I’m fed up with teacher facilitator workshops. I’m fed up with “bla bla bla”
workshops where not much comes out. I like practical things and realistic things, geared
towards the class situation.
However, some fairly new teachers wanted a more theoretical basis:
I think I don’t like playing games endlessly, I like more of the theory. ... I like the theoretical and
the practical link to be made.

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The more experienced teachers were also becoming more selective about which workshops they
attended:
Also for me, to go to sessions / training which are just strings of good ideas, I find almost self-
defeating, because unless I use them as a basis for development and reflection, they are
exhausted quickly.
Keeping up to date
This was mentioned by 10 respondents, and is linked to attending inservice activities.
Interaction with colleagues
Interaction with colleagues (nine responses) was mentioned above all by the newer teachers to the
profession. This could be expected, as they were still exploring ideas and methods. Several
respondents mentioned that taking part in the present research project was useful in terms of reflection
and talking to colleagues:
Things like this are useful. I’ve spent the whole week thinking as I was going to see you, and
taking part in research, and these types of questions make you think what and why.
Reflection
Seven responses included an activity which involved some form of reflection. Reflection took various
forms for TESOLs: experimenting in the classroom, reading books or journals and self-appraisal.
These are activities which may lead to reflection on personal performance.
One more experienced teacher, who was also a trainer, had read recent literature on “reflection” and
commented on the theory put forward by Wallace (1991) regarding his definition of the reflective
teacher:
311
it’s not a question of imposing ideas from outside but of reflection leading to development,
which is important. Whether it’s guided or happens with others may be potentially richer and
more valuable.
One experienced respondent, who was also a trainer, preferred to read TESOL literature, and then to
monitor her performance in the classroom on areas for improvement. This is a form of self-appraisal.
Conferences
Four responses related to attending conferences, but these were mainly conditional on obtaining
financial support for attendance.
Everything as so long with no professional development
Three respondents from the international organisation, who had been without professional
development for many years, were enthusiastic about the workshops they had been having and were
grateful for any professional development:
The training sessions this term have been very useful, and very positive, because I lack formal
teaching qualifications and there have been a lot of new ideas I can put into practice.
Professional development related to phases

The respondents’ responses were matched against their current career phase, and then grouped to
discover if any pattern of professional development need could be established at the different phases.
Of the respondents interviewed for this question (n=21), 10 Geneva TESOLs were in a phase of
stabilisation at the time of the study, eight were in a phase of doubt and three in a phase of
experimentation.. Table 4.5 in Chapter IV illustrates the phase respondents were in at the time of the
study. Table 6.2 shows the professional development respondents mentioned for these phases.
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Table 6.2: Professional development related to the phases of stabilisation, doubt and experimentation: Geneva
TESOLs (n. respondents=21)*
Phase and number of Stabilis- Doubt Experiment-

respondents ation n=3
ation n=10 n=8
Professional dev elopment Responses*
Inserv ice training (positiv e Pos: 11 Pos: 10 Pos: 2

and negativ e comments)
Neg: 2 Neg: 6 Neg: 3
Positive: Workshops 6 8 1
Positive: Specific courses 5 2 1
Negative: Current workshops not 2 6 3
useful
Keeping up to date 4 4 2
Interaction w ith colleagues 2 5 2
Reflection 4 2 1
Conferences 1 2 1
Nothing 1 3 -
Ev erything 2 1 -
Further studies - 2 -
Div ersification 1 - -
Total number responses 29 35 11
* Multiple responses (individual respondents may have made more than one response)
Stabilisation
Ten respondents were in phases related to the theme of stabilisation, including stabilisation,
acceptance and new challenges (within stabilisation), experienced

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between years 3-25. As Table 6.2 shows, they mentioned a range of professional development
activities with inservice training being the most frequently mentioned. A need for reflection and
keeping up to date was also mentioned as important, but with far fewer references.
Reflection was valued by some of the more experienced respondents:
You need to constantly assess and not get too complacent. You need to assess yourself and
your students... - I’m constantly trying out new things, to see whether they work or not, gauging
the student response.
Doubt
Themes of doubt accounted for eight respondents’ current phases at the time of interview, including
resolved doubts, partially resolved doubts and continuing doubts, experienced between years 2-14.
Table 6.2 indicates the broad range of professional development mentioned by these respondents.
Eight respondents mentioned that workshops were useful, while six respondents found the current
workshops not useful, indicating some dissatisfaction. Keeping up to date and interaction with
colleagues were other popular responses. Interaction with colleagues was a more common response
by those in a phase of doubt than by those in phases of stabilisation and experimentation. For
example, one respondent said:
I'm very into working with colleagues because for many years I worked totally in isolation and it
makes the greatest difference.
Experimentation
Three respondents were in phases related to experimentation, including positive experimentation and
developing / growing, experienced between years 3-9. Table 6.2 shows that they expressed a range of
professional development activities, with workshops again the most frequently mentioned. However,
most of the references were negative, not positive. Two respondents referred to the need for
interaction with colleagues, and two saw the need for keeping up to date.
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Section summary
There were no obvious patterns when comparing the current phase of respondents with the professional
development they mentioned as useful, except that those in a phase of doubt and stabilisation
seemed keen to engage in inservice training and workshops. Those in a phase of doubt and of
experimentation were more critical of the workshops.
Those in a phase of experimentation, however, did not find the workshops currently on offer useful.
Inservice training and keeping up to date could both be construed as similar and both rated highly.
Keeping up to date rated highly with respondents in all phases. Interaction with colleagues rated
more highly for those in a phase of doubt or experimentation than for those in a phase of stabilisation.
Reflection rated quite low for all except those in a phase of stabilisation. Despite these minor
differences, there is little evidence here that perceived professional development needs varied
systematically with career phases.
It should be noted that the general analysis of the overall interview transcripts reported later, does
reveal a wider range of professional development needs than did the responses to the specific
professional development questions.
Professional development related to years of experience

Anecdotally, respondents believed that TESOLs would require different types of professional
development according to their years of experience. This section therefore attempts to identify
whether the professional development mentioned by Geneva TESOL respondents at their current level
of experience could provide any patterns or consistency in responses.
Geneva TESOLs with less than five years’ experience

Table 6.3 indicates the areas of professional development mentioned by Geneva TESOL respondents
according to their length of experience. The two most popular forms of professional development for
respondents with less than five years’ experience were inservice training and interaction with
colleagues. This is consistent with Chapter VI, where respondents mentioned concerns as
315
beginner teachers including practical classroom concerns and lack of support and guidance. Keeping
up to date was also mentioned by three respondents and three decided they were not interested.
Table 6.3: Professional development preferences for respondents with less than five years’ experience (Geneva
TESOLs n. respondents=8)*
Responses*
Professional dev elopment Number %
Inserv ice training Positiv e: 14 47
Negativ e: 1

Keeping up to date 3 9.5
Not interested (priorities hav e changed) 3 9.5
Conferences 2 6
Further studies 2 6
Reflection 1 3
Geneva TESOLs with more than five years’ experience

Table 6.4 shows that respondents with more than five years’ experience rated inservice training as the
most useful. However, it is important to mention that four of these rated the current workshops as not
useful. Keeping up to date was also important for seven respondents and reflection became more
important. Interaction with colleagues was only mentioned by three respondents.

316
Table 6.4: Professional development preferences for respondents with more than five years’ experience
(Geneva TESOLs n. respondents=13)*
Responses*
Inserv ice training Positiv e: 15 45
Negativ e: 4
Reflection 6 14
Ev erything 3 7
Conferences 2 5
Nothing 1 3
In summary, all respondents favoured inservice training, although both groups were critical of the
current workshops. Those with less experience also mentioned interaction with colleagues, and those
with more experience placed reflection higher.
Analysis of all interviews to identify areas of professional

development
An analysis of all respondents’ interviews was carried out to identify further evidence of professional
development preferences across the whole professional life-cycle. Any type of experience that was
mentioned with enthusiasm, or which appeared to take the respondent to a further level or challenge
was identified. Table 6.5 shows the categories of responses which

317
emerged from the analysis of all interviews. These are discussed in detail in the next section.
Table 6.5: Categories of professional development mentioned throughout the interviews: Geneva TESOLs (n.
respondents=28)*
Responses*
Category of professional dev elopment Number %
Change 49
Other duties 22
Diversification in teaching 13
Further studies 21 16
Personal life 11 9
Gaining experience/confidence 9 7
Support structures 1 1
Conferences 1 1
This analysis was quite revealing, as a different profile of professional development can be deduced
from that derived from the specific professional development questions. When professional
development is specifically mentioned in a question it may constrain teachers to think in terms of
traditional, more formal professional development activities, rather than exploring more widely other
opportunities for development such as career diversification. In the freer responses, diversification,
including change, other duties, higher duties and diversification in teaching was the most frequently
mentioned type of professional development with 66% of all free responses, further studies received
16%, followed by responses relating to aspects of their personal life being a catalyst for change (9%)
and gaining experience (7%).
The following analysis examines in more detail these categories of responses identified freely in the
interviews.
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Diversification
As Table 6.5 indicates, the professional development category of diversification included change of
circumstances in the career, such as change of field, country and school, and external factors, as well
as assuming other duties and diversification in teaching.
Change
The most frequently mentioned activity throughout all stages of their careers was change, resulting
from stocktaking or reassessment. Change could open up opportunities, and at the very least offered
the possibility of teaching in different areas. In many cases there could be possibilities for promotion,
but in adverse economic times, change could also represent a change of field due to lack of
opportunities in TESOL. Many returned later to TESOL with new skills derived from the fields they
went into, which included journalism, management training, secretarial work, translation and writing,
court stenographer, teaching children, computer training and the airline industry. This may be a
special characteristic of TESOL, which, although disturbing at the time, could lead ultimately to
renewal and increased satisfaction.
Other duties
The next most frequently mentioned form of diversification was other duties, including teacher
training, which was the most popular form of diversification, followed by management training. Only
one respondent mentioned writing courses or syllabi, which is surprising, because writing courses is a
daily task for a TESOL teacher as courses have to be specially designed to meet different groups’
needs. Time was obviously not given for this as a separate activity, it being considered part of a
teacher’s job.
Diversification in teaching
Seven respondents referred to teaching different levels, courses and experimenting. Whilst there were
not many opportunities for promotion, five respondents had taken positions as senior teacher or DOS.
Four respondents mentioned that they relished their freedom as freelance teachers to engage in
different activities.
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Further studies
The next most frequently mentioned form of professional development was further studies, which had
been omitted from the list of specific professional development responses. Table 6.5 indicates that
further studies were mentioned by nine respondents who had taken the Diploma in TESOL, and a
further two who had plans to take it. Two respondents had studied to masters level overseas, and one
had studied but abandoned a Ph.D. in the field. It is clear from these responses that there was little
opportunity for further study in Geneva itself.
Personal life
Time for one’s personal life was valued by some respondents, particularly those who had no monetary
need to work. Some had families, while others had other activities they wished to pursue. For many,
having a balanced life was an important part of feeling happy in their job. Even marital problems or
divorce could be the catalyst for professional development as in many cases it brought economic
pressure to earn. This often entailed further studies or seeking a more permanent position.
Section summary
The types of professional development referred to spontaneously in the interviews by respondents bore
little relation to their responses to the direct professional development questions. This indicates that
respondents did not consciously consider as professional development those experiences gained while
working, such as diversification of teaching, diversification in their non-teaching duties, temporary
change of career, and, surprisingly, further studies.
TESOL is a field which often involves change - change of country, change of field, change of school -
all of which can provide fertile ground for professional development. New experiences, both personal
and professional, often provide opportunities and challenges rarely found in stable long-term positions.
In the responses to specific professional development questions, inservice training was the most
frequently mentioned, while there was no mention of inservice training or workshops in the general
interviews. Further studies were

320
mentioned 21 times in the general interviews but were not specifically singled out as professional
development.
These results indicate that respondents had a fixed and fairly limited view of what might be classified
as professional development. Perhaps the perception of what constitutes professional development
needs further clarification. (To this end, respondents in Sydney were asked to define professional
development before being asked to nominate what type of professional development was useful for
them. )
SYDNEY TESOL STUDY

Respondents in the Sydney study were firstly asked to define the concept “professional development”.
This had not been asked in the Geneva TESOL study, but was added to the Sydney study in order to
clarify what respondents perceived professional development to be after there seemed to be some
confusion over this matter among Geneva respondents. The findings are reported in Appendix K.
Sydney TESOL teachers and trainers / administrators were shown lists of responses given by Geneva
TESOLs for comment. This was an attempt to see if their responses might become more imaginative if
they had a stimulus. Because there is no point of comparison between the two groups, these findings
are reported in Appendices L and O. The intention was to discover the aspects of professional
development that TESOL teachers found most useful at various phases in the career cycle, and to
indicate those aspects which may need further attention by trainers and administrators.
Definition of “professional development”.

Sydney TESOLs were asked to define the term “Professional Development”. The findings are reported
in Appendix K, Table K.1. In summary, professional development was perceived to include
diversification (20% of responses), gaining more experience (15%), inservice training (14%),
advancement (13%), interaction with colleagues (10%), reflection (10%), further studies (8%) and
keeping up to date (6%).

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Table 6.6 summarises the responses to the question “What professional development do you find
useful now?” As can be seen from the table, respondents nominated similar professional development
activities to those mentioned when they defined “professional development”, but inservice training was
emphasised more in relation to TESOL.
Table 6.6: Professional development described as useful currently: Sydney TESOLs (n. respondents=32)*
Responses*
Inserv ice training (all positiv e) 22 29
Workshops 11
Specific courses 10
Other duties 2
Writing books 1
Reflection 11 13
Observation 5
Reading books 5
Reflection 1
Interaction with colleagues 6
Liaison with other schools 3
Further studies 7 8
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Conferences 5 6
Training other teachers 4 5
Understanding and motiv ating students 2 2
Goal setting 1 1
Ongoing professional dev elopment 1 1
Trav elling 1 1
Inservice training
As Table 6.6 indicates, inservice training was also the most frequently mentioned type of professional
development by Sydney TESOLs overall. However, some were somewhat sceptical about the
usefulness of inservice training:
Inservice training is extremely variable, and if you’re busy and sitting in an inservice which is not
relevant it can be excruciating, or if you know more about the topic than the presenter, but I’ve
learned a lot and the most useful ones were by people who work here, rather than “experts”.
Diversification / other duties

Diversification received 14 responses, including other duties, which was mentioned by two
respondents:
I’d much rather be part of the whole running of the organisation than the teaching of it and I feel
our school really could exploit the skills of teachers here.
One respondent felt writing courses was useful:
my job writing courses is professional development because I’ve developed strategies and ways of
teaching a lesson.
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Reflection
Reflective professional development included reflection, observation and reading books. Five
respondents felt being observed or observing others was useful. Most disliked being observed, but felt
that it was useful:
on a day to day level, observing other teachers and horrors - others observing me and it would be
useful if it were more regular and not the make or break ones where you shake in your shoes.
Five respondents, mainly from years 0-10, felt reading books, journals, or textbooks was useful for them:
I find reading useful - ... it doesn’t take huge amounts of time and I can fit it in my day.
Interaction with colleagues

Six respondents said interaction with colleagues was important. One respondent felt that it had
helped to make him feel less isolated:
when you talk to others it doesn’t take long for them to admit they’ve had problems too.
Three respondents also mentioned liaison with teachers from other schools:
It’s interesting to see outside the microcosm of the classroom - we’re often locked in our own room
and don’t meet others in other areas - college liaison is good.
Keeping up to date
Eight respondents mentioned keeping up to date:
It probably happens in every field, but in all language learning, not just TESOL, there’s a new
theory or methodology, even if it overlaps and is a refinement of what happened before, it’s silly to
think the developments in the 1970s are the end of the line and nothing can go further.
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Further studies
Doing further studies was mentioned by seven respondents. They referred to studying at diploma,
graduate diploma level, or masters level, the latter being the most popular.
Conferences
Five respondents said conferences were useful for them at present. This was linked to finding out
about current developments and to exchanging ideas:
Conferences, exchanging ideas at a higher level or ideas from far and wide rather than being
isolated.
On the other hand, two respondents specifically indicated that conferences were not useful:
I don’t like the ELICOS conferences ... I found it too much to take in...
Training other teachers

Four respondents said that training other teachers was or would be useful.
Training other teachers helps with your own professional development and that’s good

Thirteen Sydney TESOLs were in a phase of doubt at the time of the study, 10 were in a phase of
experimentation and 9 were in a phase of stabilisation. Chapter IV Table 4.11 has a detailed analysis
of the current phases of Sydney TESOLs. Table 6.7 relates their current phases to the professional
development they mentioned.

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Table 6.7: Professional development related to the phases of stabilisation, doubt and experimentation: Sydney
TESOLs (n. respondents=32)*
Phase and number of Stabilisation Doubt Experimentation

respondents n=9 n=13
n=10
Professional dev elopment Responses*

mentioned
Inserv ice training 8 10 4
Workshops 5 4 3
Specific courses 3 6 1
Div ersification 3 6 5
Other duties - 1 1
Writing books - - 1
Reflection 2 2 7
Observation 1 2 2
Reading books 1 - 4
Reflection - - 1
Interaction w ith colleagues 1 4 4
Interaction with colleagues 1 2 3
Liaison with other schools - 2 1
Keeping up to date 4 3 1
Further studies 2 2 3
326

Conferences - 3 2
Training other teachers 1 2 1
Understanding and - 1 1
motiv ating students
Goal setting 1 - -
Ongoing professional 1 - -
dev elopment
Trav elling - - 1
Total number responses 23 33 29
Stabilisation
Nine respondents were in a phase of stabilisation or balance, with some being ready to branch out.
Balance included two who wished to balance family life with teaching and one with outside interests.
These phases came during years 1-13. The professional development mentioned included inservice
training (7 respondents), keeping up to date (4) and diversification (3) (see Table 6.7). This is partly
consistent with the professional development mentioned by those in a phase of doubt.
Doubt
Sydney respondents mentioned themes relating to stocktaking, unresolved doubts, being uncommitted
to the profession, transition, taking a breather and stagnation, all of which seemed to indicate degrees
of current dissatisfaction with the career or reassessment of options. These themes were experienced
between years 2-17. Those in a phase of doubt mentioned inservice training as the most useful at this
phase (10 respondents). This was followed by diversification (6), then interaction with colleagues (4).
Keeping up to date and conferences were also rated as important by three respondents each. This is
327
partly consistent with those in a phase of stabilisation, except that more were interested in conferences
and interaction with colleagues.
Experimentation
Ten respondents mentioned themes related to further experimentation, new challenge and being
ready to branch out, between years 2-18 of the career. Contrary to the respondents in a phase of doubt
or stabilisation, reflection was the most frequently mentioned form of professional development for
those in a phase of experimentation (7). Diversification came next (5), followed by interaction with
colleagues and inservice training (four each). Those in a phase of experimentation were less
interested in inservice training than those in a phase of doubt or stabilisation. Further studies were
also rated as useful in this phase.
Section summary
Unlike the Geneva TESOL study, Sydney TESOLs did appear to find certain types of professional
development more useful at different phases. Respondents in a stage of experimentation were more
interested in reflection and diversification than workshops, but the remainder mentioned inservice
training as most important and a range of other types of professional development.
The wider range of professional development types referred to by Sydney TESOLs than those by
Geneva TESOLs is probably a simple reflection of the greater variety of opportunities actually
available there.

Tables 8.8 and 8.9 show that Sydney respondents from the beginning to the later years of the career
all favoured inservice training first followed by diversification.
Respondents with less than five years’ experience preferred reflective means of professional
development, including observation and reading. Those with more

328
than five years’ experience found interacting with colleagues more useful followed by keeping up to
date, reflection and further studies.
Table 6.8: Professional development preferences for respondents with less than five years’ experience (Sydney
TESOLs n. respondents=9)*
Responses*
Inserv ice training 8 30
Workshops 4
Specific courses 4
Reflection 5 18
Further studies 2 7
Understanding and motiv ating students 2 7
Conferences 1 4
Trav elling 1 4
329
Table 6.9: Professional development preferences for respondents with more than five years’ experience
(Sydney TESOLs n. respondents=23)*
Responses*
Workshops 8
Specific courses 6
Reflection 6 10
Further studies 5 7
Conferences 4 7
Goal setting 1 2
Ongoing professional dev elopment 1 2
There was no obvious discrepancy between those with more or less experience. However, the numbers
of respondents were small. Reflection was the only surprise, as it might be expected that respondents
with more experience would be more attracted to reflective types of professional development. This
was not the case.

development
An overall picture of professional development responses in the general interview questions is
presented in Table 6.10 below, followed by a detailed analysis of each component. The analysis of
the interviews revealed a greater

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number of incidental comments about professional development than in the Geneva study.
Table 6.10: Categories of professional development mentioned throughout all interviews: Sydney TESOLs
(n. respondents=32)*
Responses*
Category of professional dev elopment Number %
Change 61
Other duties 59
Higher duties 33
Further studies 49 14
Gaining practical experience / confidence 33 10
Support structures 27 8
Hav ing space for personal life 15 4
Reflection 11 3
Workshops 6 2
Conferences 3 1
Contrary to the findings from the specific professional development question, diversification was the
single most incidentally mentioned aspect of professional development. This was followed by further
studies (14% of responses), and gaining practical experience (10% of responses).
Diversification (n=200)
Diversification represented 58% of responses and included change, diversification in teaching,
diversification in duties, and higher duties.

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Change
Having a change of country, and / or a change of school could open up new opportunities. For those
with positions of higher responsibility, making a decision to return to their home country could also
signal a change back to full-time teaching initially. In some cases, the change might be due to the
closure of the school, or to a school offering more challenging promotional opportunities. Most of the
change was discussed with optimism, even by those returning to full-time teaching.
Change of country offered new opportunities to many respondents:
I was going out to factories teaching English for Specific Purposes, and teaching very advanced
students, all of which I’d never done before, and teaching monolingual classes, and the variety and
range added to the beginning helped me develop my working life.
Eight respondents mentioned a desire to do something more challenging, indicating a readiness for
the next stage of development:
I’ve done a lot of thinking about my future. The last five years have been stimulating and
challenging but I’m at the point that I’d like another challenge.
Another had recently returned to Australia:
Professionally at the moment I feel I’ve just come back, this is my sixth month and I feel unsettled
with no clear direction. ... I want to get out of full time teaching and on to something more
challenging for which my qualifications and experience stand me in good stead. Where and how
time will tell.
Nine respondents had gone back to full time teaching from a management position, or because of
changing country.
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The TESOL industry, like other industries, went through depressions and boom times, largely
connected to issues such as visa restrictions or lifting of restrictions, the Gulf War and the economic
recession in the early 1990s. In the late 1980s, the economic climate was good and many new schools
opened, particularly in Sydney:
Fortunately while I was away, the TESOL boom started and I found I could get any job when I got
back.
When I came back to Sydney there were very few jobs in French or Italian but there were many
openings in TESOL and I felt I should focus on TESOL.
The number of schools went from a handful to more than 30. This meant increased employment
opportunities for TESOL teachers, but was followed in 1989 by the events of Tiananmen Square and
the subsequent crash of the Chinese ELICOS market. Schools closed and teachers had to find
alternative employment. Subsequently, in the early 1990s the industry became more highly regulated
with restrictions on all schools regarding quality of premises and services and qualifications of teachers.
Five respondents also referred to TESOL being a changing field:
since I’ve been back many people in different schools have been saying how much is happening
since the early 1990s and that the profession has identity and is growing and diversifying and may
have possibilities.
Some were worried about the changes:

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Language teaching has a lot of different strands and in those days the world seemed simpler. I was
fired up about it as a profession, but I’d hesitate to use that word now.
Reassessment or stocktaking was mentioned by four respondents; one considered leaving the
profession, then decided to stay in it, qualified to a higher level and has since found it very satisfying,
another was “healing” after resigning from a management position:
I’m here to heal, get my act together, make money and decide what I’m going to do.
Four respondents mentioned an interest in going overseas:
I am interested in working overseas and I found out that this school has ventures in Asia - that was
heartening and I like the variety of different programs.
Other duties
Doing duties in addition to teaching (management, marketing, administration and translation) were
mentioned by five respondents in the direct question about professional development. In the overall
analysis of interviews, however, there were 59 such responses, 17 respondents mentioning writing
courses or syllabuses, while only one respondent mentioned this in the professional development
interviews.
Teacher training was mentioned by only four respondents in the professional development question.
In the overall analysis of the interviews, however, 16 respondents mentioned this as being a useful
developmental tool.
Teachers can train to be external examiners for internationally recognised examinations. Testing was
therefore another area which 10 respondents

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mentioned in the overall interviews, although none mentioned this in the professional development
question.
Higher duties
In the specific professional development question, no respondents mentioned experience in higher
level positions. However, in the general interviews there were 33 responses relating to higher duties
including 13 with experience in Director of Studies positions, and 20 as senior teacher or coordinator.
Some respondents felt that Australia offered more promotional positions such as coordinator, which
generally did not exist in some countries:
we don’t have that system in Britain and there’s been more texture and variety to my career since
I’ve come here.
Diversification in teaching
Diversifying or trying new areas of teaching was mentioned 47 times in the responses to the general
career question, but by only seven respondents in the specific professional development question.
This was linked to the themes of experimentation, further experimentation and new challenges.
Variety in teaching included being able to teach at more advanced levels as teachers gained
experience, and in different areas of specialisation. Some teachers marked their progress through
different stages by the areas of teaching they had undertaken:
(I underwent a) developmental phase teaching all the levels, and after six months I was made
coordinator where I developed materials and syllabus documents where required. It was a great
challenge because I worked on every level and every class and had a fast learning curve.
Further studies
Undertaking further studies during the career cycle represented 15% of responses, but was mentioned
only by seven respondents in the specific professional development question. These ranged from
certificate level qualifications, taken by six respondents after 1-2 years’ teaching; diploma level
qualifications taken by 15 respondents between 2-11 years’ experience; nine

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respondents undertaking masters level qualifications, the majority during 5-10 years’ experience. A
further seven respondents planned to take a masters degree; three were respondents undertaking a
graduate diploma in TESOL, and nine respondents were undertaking other courses in languages,
TESOL, counselling and other fields.
Almost all reported beneficial feelings arising from undertaking further studies:
It was taking everything I’d been doing for two and a half years in Spain and putting it into a neat
framework. (Certificate)
I’m very glad I did it and I learnt time management skills and now I find the work more interesting
and have a much deeper understanding of language and how it works. (Masters degree)
Gaining practical experience / confidence

Gaining experience / confidence received 33 responses. This aspect of development was mentioned
above all at the beginning of the career, with 26 of the responses concerning the first four years of
experience and the remaining seven responses during the 5-10 year part of the career.
Support structures
Support or guidance was mentioned 27 times. Thirteen responses were from respondents with less
than five years’ experience and only one response from those with 5-10 years’ experience. Some of
the respondents who were lacking in initial training particularly noted the lack of support or guidance:
I learned a huge amount because I was working with someone who was more experienced, and
who gave me guidance, and pointed me in the right direction, and said what was useful and what
was not useful.
Another who had just completed an initial Certificate-level training course, was left to his own devices:
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we were left to our own devices - I remember I took a couple of days off because I couldn’t cope.
The DOS was interested in writing books and couldn’t give a damn - she had a younger assistant
kind of person and she tried to help but there were 20 people straight off courses.
The following respondent was untrained, as apparently were her colleagues:
I think at the very beginning it was not evident to me what a teacher had to do to get ready to go in
and teach ... I didn’t realise you sat down and thought about what the class might need and what
you might do with them. There was no photocopier and no materials. When I asked for guidance I
was told: “oh, it’s easy you can do all sorts of things, for example, do 20 questions, they love that.” I
had no direction, no idea.
The importance of good relationships with colleagues was mentioned mainly in the early stages of
the career (12 responses were by respondents with less than five years’ experience.):
I was networking and went through a huge learning curve and was learning from the people I was
working with ... and it proved to be the base of the valuable networking I’ve done over the years.
Having space for a personal life

Table 6.10 shows that 15 responses related to having time for a personal life. One respondent wanted
to have time for the family, while the others had outside interests they wished to pursue, such as
learning a language, a career in music or having more spare time. Four respondents were clear that
they preferred to remain teachers, and not climb the ladder to give space for their personal lives. The
greatest number of responses for this type of professional development was for respondents with more
than 11 years’ experience. This is akin to Huberman’s respondents, who seemed to detach themselves
more as they became more experienced, finding outside interests.

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Reflection
Reflection was an aspect of professional development which had variations in the response rate. When
respondents were specifically asked what professional development was useful for them at their present
stage of development, only one mentioned reflection. However, in the overall analysis of the
interviews, eight respondents felt reflection was of positive benefit to their development. Perhaps the
difficulty lay with the definition of reflection. The types of reflective activities mentioned were
developing the ability to become more self-critical and self-evaluative; reflection on performance in
the classroom and how to improve; reflection on methods and the effect they had on students’
motivation; and delving more deeply into teaching issues, with research and experimentation in the
classroom.
The other day I ... sat on a bench and went blank and had the space to reflect and jotted ideas for
my class ... it’s hard getting the time and space to reflect, your mind gets full of things.
Workshops
In the previous question about professional development preferences, respondents rated workshops as
very high in usefulness. In fact, respondents mentioned specific courses, theoretical and practical
workshops as well as learning about computers. This is contrasted with evidence from the interviews,
where only four respondents mentioned workshops. There is evidence from some of the interviews that
some colleges held workshops only infrequently, which may explain the scant mention of this as a
professional development option. On the other hand, many respondents were also quite critical of
many of the workshops which were offered.
Conferences
Only three respondents mentioned conferences they had attended, which is not surprising given
evidence from some of the interviews that some colleges did not send many to conferences.
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SUMMARY OF PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT PREFERENCES IN THE

TESOL STUDIES

The general definition of professional development given by Sydney TESOLs (in Appendix K)
included a broader range of professional development activities than those mentioned in response to
the specific question on professional development. It included gaining more experience by
developing new skills and developing practical classroom skills (15%) and improvement (13%).
Inservice training only received 14% of responses, while diversification received 20%.

Respondents from the Geneva TESOL study were particularly interested in inservice training.
However, many of the responses were negative regarding the usefulness of workshops currently
available. Those in a phase of experimentation were equally interested in inservice training as in
other aspects of professional development. This is consistent with the Sydney TESOL study, where
inservice training was the most common form of professional development preference for those in a
phase of doubt and stabilisation, but not for those in a phase of experimentation.
Experimentation
Those in a phase of experimentation therefore searched for something more than the comfortable
inservice format. In fact, Geneva TESOLs had more negative comments regarding inservice training
than positive. Geneva TESOLs were equally interested in inservice training and keeping up to date
(which could include inservice training, but also other forms of professional development such as
reading, or going to conferences etc), and interaction with colleagues. Sydney TESOLs favoured
reflection and diversification.
Doubt
One might expect those in a phase of doubt to be attracted to one of two directions; either to withdraw
from professional development totally and search for other options or to seek out inspirational forms of
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Inservice training was the most common form desired in both studies. However, there were many
negative responses from Geneva TESOLs. This was followed by diversification for Sydney TESOLs,
interaction with colleagues and keeping up to date for respondents in both studies. Sydney TESOLs
showed more imagination in naming diversification as the second most favoured professional
development including diversification in teaching and other duties. This shows a desire to branch out.
Geneva TESOLs had fewer opportunities and many had not experienced professional development for
many years, which may explain why three Geneva TESOL respondents said they were not interested in
professional development, while Sydney TESOLs did not indicate a lack of interest.
Stabilisation
Both studies named inservice training as the most common form of professional development;
however, Geneva TESOLs had almost double the number of respondents, with only two of these
offering negative responses. Again, this is probably due to lack of opportunities for more diverse forms
of professional development.
Both studies named keeping up to date next, which could include inservice training, but also a range
of other activities. Diversification was next for Sydney TESOLs, while Geneva TESOLs mentioned
reflection in equal numbers to keeping up to date. Many Geneva TESOLs worked in isolation or were
frustrated with inservice training which was frequently the only form of professional development
available. Therefore, Geneva TESOLs probably mentioned reflective forms of professional
development as other forms were not available.
In summary, TESOLs in both studies showed a keen interest in inservice training while in a phase of
doubt and stabilisation, although Geneva TESOLs were very critical of these while in a phase of
doubt.
The difference noted was that TESOLs in a phase of experimentation were less interested in inservice
training and searched for other types of professional

340
development. Sydney TESOLs preferred diversification and reflection, and nominated inservice
training as equal third in ranking along with interaction with colleagues. Only three Geneva TESOLs
were in a phase of experimentation; however, responses for inservice training were far lower than in
other parts of the study on professional development and other forms of professional development were
considered as important in this phase.
Respondents with less than five years’ experience
The most popular form of professional development for both groups of inexperienced teachers was
inservice training, but Geneva TESOLs gave a far higher response rate. Geneva TESOLs had a
smaller range of professional development than Sydney TESOLs. Inservice training was mentioned
by greater numbers, probably due to a lack of other possibilities. Interaction with colleagues and
keeping up to date were popular, while some respondents were not interested in professional
development. Sydney TESOLs had more opportunities for diversification, which may account for the
higher number of responses in this category, while diversification was not mentioned by Geneva
TESOLs. Sydney TESOLs were interested in reflection, while only one Geneva TESOL was. Sydney
TESOLs with less experience showed more inclination towards reading books, observations, teacher
training and understanding and motivating students, none of which was mentioned by Geneva
TESOLs. This indicated that Sydney TESOLs were more mature in their professional development
than Geneva TESOLs, who showed less variety in their responses.
It is surprising that more references were not made to diversification and expanding one’s repertoire.
Getting a broad experience was important for beginner teachers, but this was mentioned only by
Sydney TESOLs, possibly because the opportunities were not available in Geneva, or perhaps
because they did not recognise these as professional development.

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Respondents with more than five years’ experience
Again, Geneva TESOLs mentioned a more limited range of professional development types than
Sydney TESOLs. Inservice training was the most frequent response by both Sydney and Geneva
TESOLs with more than five years’ experience. Geneva TESOLs also indicated that they did not find
the current workshops useful. There seemed to be a negative under-current among Geneva TESOLs,
probably due to their inferior working conditions and expectations of their attending professional
development at their own expense.
Keeping up to date was mentioned by both Sydney and Geneva TESOLs. Reflection was important
for respondents in both studies.
Sydney TESOLs mentioned diversification as a strong preference as well as further studies and training
other teachers, none of which featured in the Geneva TESOL study, except for one reference to
diversification. This is probably because of the many opportunities for further study as well as for
diversifying which were available in Sydney but not in Geneva.
In summary, neither Geneva nor Sydney TESOLs indicated any consistent pattern of professional
development which could relate to years of experience. Both groups favoured inservice training
regardless of years of experience; however, Geneva TESOLs mentioned inservice training twice as
frequently as Sydney TESOLs. Following this, the preferences varied between the two studies, with
Sydney respondents mentioning diversification, which was only mentioned by one Geneva TESOL
with more than five years’ experience. As might be expected, Sydney TESOLs with more experience
valued diversification, but Geneva TESOLs did not, probably due to lack of opportunities.
Reflection was valued by Geneva TESOLs with more than five years’ experience, and by Sydney
TESOLs across the board. There were no other consistent patterns which could be identified, except
that all valued interaction with colleagues, and keeping up to date. Further studies were mentioned
by all
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Sydney TESOLs and by Geneva TESOLs early on in the career, but not later, probably due to lack of
opportunities.
Sydney TESOLs mentioned a greater range of professional development. However, this did not seem
to relate to the years of experience, but to their greater maturity (perhaps because many were trained
to masters level) and to the greater opportunities available.

development
The analysis of the general interviews in both studies revealed a far greater range of professional
development than that mentioned in the professional development question, in particular, by Geneva
TESOLs. The number of references to professional development in the general interviews was 344 by
Sydney TESOLs and 128 by Geneva TESOLs, indicating far more opportunities and / or interest by
Sydney TESOLs. In both studies, diversification, including change, diversification in teaching and
other duties was the most frequently mentioned. Sydney TESOLs also referred to higher duties and
were more imaginative overall, again reflecting their far greater opportunities.
In summary, Sydney TESOLs mentioned a greater variety of professional development activities than
Geneva TESOLs, and their responses were more mature. They were more interested in reflective
forms of professional development, and mentioned observations, reading and other more independent
types of professional development more frequently than Geneva TESOLs. This was almost certainly
due to the greater opportunities available in Sydney.
Geneva TESOLs were critical of the professional development available and some mentioned a lack
of interest in professional development. This could probably be attributed to the fact that Geneva
TESOLs were more likely to have to self-fund their professional development. However, Sydney
TESOLs were
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keener on further studies, which involved self-funding, but the employing institution often assisted with
paid release from teaching to attend lectures.
Section summary
The results reveal that the types of professional development teachers found useful varied according to
their background, training, years of experience and exposure, and knowledge of what training was
available.
In the analyses of the phases respondents were currently in and the corresponding professional
development they found useful, respondents in a phase of experimentation diverged from those in a
phase of doubt and stabilisation, nominating more diverse forms of professional development than
inservice training.
Despite some reservations expressed by Geneva TESOLs, respondents across all categories seemed to
find inservice training the most valuable in both studies, followed by keeping up to date and
interaction with colleagues. Sydney TESOLs were more interested in diversification, because of the
range of opportunities available in terms of promotion, other duties, different types of teaching, course
writing and other activities. These did not seem to be available in Geneva. However, some of the
diversification opportunities which respondents undertook were not in TESOL itself, for example, if they
decided to have a change of career before returning.
A greater variety of responses was recorded in the interviews than in the response to the specific
professional development interview question, particularly aspects of diversification and further study.
This suggests that the TESOL respondents may not be fully aware of the range of professional
development activities they undergo, and that they may limit their perception of what constitutes
professional development to the types of activities to be found on the lists they produced. In contrast,
their general interviews suggest a range of circumstances activities which seem to spur them on to
further development,
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such as change. Inservice training, which was the most frequently mentioned professional
development in both TESOL studies, was rarely mentioned in other parts of the interviews. Finally,
Sydney TESOL respondents (and, to a lesser extent Geneva respondents) seemed to have
opportunities for ongoing formal training throughout their careers, while this was not reported in
Huberman’s study.
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SECTION 2: PERSPECTIVE OF TRAINERS AND ADMINISTRATORS
INTRODUCTION
Trainers and / or administrators were interviewed because they were responsible for the
organisation and / or delivery of professional development. Aspects of professional
development were budget-linked and trainers and / or administrators were normally in
control of the budget or influenced how it should be spent. Background information
about their roles and responsibilities is discussed in Appendix M, and a profile of
institutions and professional development programs is given in Appendix N.
Huberman did not explore this perspective. In the Sydney and Geneva TESOL studies,
however, this topic was the subject of a separate interview for teachers and / or
administrators. Few positions existed for full time trainers / administrators in Geneva,
but in Sydney the roles were more clearly defined, and the eleven respondents
interviewed were not interviewed as teachers.
In Geneva, eight of the 10 trainers / administrators interviewed were also interviewed as

teachers and this may have brought the trainers / administrators and teachers’
responses in Geneva closer together.
The aims of the interview with trainers / administrators were to identify the aspects of
professional development that were useful or desirable and to enable them to convey
their perception of teachers’ professional development requirements. In this way it was
hoped to gain a deeper understanding of professional development, which is treated
very sparsely in the literature on TESOLs, and to identify areas that might need more
attention by educational administrators in the field.
Once again, an attempt was made to gauge professional development needs at

different stages of the career. In the Geneva TESOL study this was more difficult as,
because the question, do they (teachers) need different sorts (of professional
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development) at different times in their career? was asked in a general fashion, the
answers were quite general. Consequently, in the Sydney study, the question was
modified to ask trainers / administrators to identify what sorts of professional
development teachers needed with particular years of experience. In this way,
respondents were expected to be more specific in their answers.
This section deals with data relevant to research questions 12-15 (see pages 9-10).
Trainers’ / administrators’ interview
Interview questions 18-23 for Sydney study
18 What experience /qualifications did you have b efore taking up adult TESOL? (job titles,
dates and qualification details)
19 What TESOL-related qualifications do you have; where and when did you do them?
20 How many years’ adult TESOL experience do you have, when and where?
21 What teacher training and / or administrative positions have you held, when and where?
22 How long have you b een in your current position, and what is your title? (if less than
three years how long were you in your previous position?)
23 Describ e your current role as trainer and/or administrator

13 What professional development programs have you b een involved in, and how
successful were they?
25 What professional development programs have you b een involved in in your current or
most recent positions, and how successful were they? Why were they successful or why
not?
Interview question 12 for Geneva study
What sort of professional development do teachers need, and do they need different sorts
at different times of their career?
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Interview questions 27 & 28 for Sydney study
27. What sort of professional development do teachers need, and do they need different
sorts at different times of their career? What sort of professional development do they
need at:
0-4 years’ experience
11 + years’ experience

What do teachers want as professional development?

What would you do ideally for teacher development, taking away constraints, like money?
Sydney TESOLs were also asked to comment on a number of lists of responses from the
Geneva study. These were interview questions numbers 24, 26, 28, 30 and 32 in the
Sydney study. As these cannot be compared with the Geneva study, the questions and
responses are presented in Appendices M, N and O.
GENEVA TESOL STUDY

Ten Geneva trainers and / or administrators were interviewed. From the responses to
interview question 13, a preliminary profile could be painted of the role of trainers /
administrators and training in TESOL, the professional development available and the
issues and concerns of trainers / administrators.
A definition of the term “professional development” has been reported in Appendix K.

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Teachers’ professional development needs

The following findings refer to interview question number 27.
Professional development needs of employees in the international organisation
One important issue raised in the context of the international organisation was that of the
effect of permanency on teachers’ desires for professional development:
half the teaching staff are (international organisation) staff members and half are
not, and the half that are not are much more interested in gaining training and
cooperating. They have everything to gain and nothing to lose by cooperating and
participating. ... Some desire training, while some don’t - the ones that need it
most don’t desire it.
The inference is that as teachers became more secure in their employment, they lost
their enthusiasm for development. Many perceived that they did not need training.
Professional development needs of employees in private schools
Another respondent acknowledged the difficulties involved in unpaid professional

development for the casually employed. The teachers felt they should be paid for
professional development, while the trainer viewed it as the teachers’ own obligation:
I see it as investing my time in people who aren't necessarily going to work for the
school. I've dealt with part-timers who come in on the angle that it's to my credit
I'm here and you should be grateful to have me and should be paying me to be
better. You're getting the profit etc and should be grateful.
According to two respondents, there was a discrepancy between training and

development, as many people were untrained at the basic level:
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There were so many unqualified people five or six years ago, it reached a peak
point, development becomes increasingly difficult and the career stumps, the next
stage of development management is to look at what the individual needs -
there's a discrepancy between training and development. It's the “icing and no
cake to put it on” analogy (people with no basic training). If you can't relate it to
anything, it's not exploited to its full potential.
One of these respondents stated that the key of professional development was that
teachers’ needs had to be respected and met, or there would be no growth. He felt a lot
of goodwill went into professional development:
I’m conscious people do it because they want to be better teachers, a lot of will
goes into it, you have to take them from where they are, even if you feel they need it
at a different level, because otherwise you're asking people what they want and
not giving it to them or saying that they don't need it.
Some mentioned that those who need professional development most often fail to
recognise their need:
Half the people there were interested in cultural awareness and were culturally
aware already, and it was a waste of time finding out if we were culturally aware,
because we were and it was sad because all those who needed it weren't there.
On the other hand, there were those who undertook professional development, but who
didn’t change as they were set in their ways:
But you can't force people to go, they won't reflect and be motivated. Lots of
people with five years experience teaching are so set in their ways and annoyed
because you've told them to reflect.
350
In summary, the main issue for those in private schools was that of funding the
attendance of teachers, most of whom were expected to attend professional
development in their own time. The other issue was that of providing different types of
professional development to suit the different needs with the budgetary constraints.
Professional development needed at different times in the career
In response to interview question 12, many Geneva TESOL respondents agreed that
teachers needed different types of professional development depending on the stage
they were at, but many also believed it was not directly related to years of experience, but
varied from individual to individual, whether or not they continued to develop. Many
trainers / administrators repeatedly mentioned that development was individual.
One respondent agreed that teachers needed to be grouped according to the number of
years’ experience; however, the director wouldn’t agree:
They need different sorts, because often we group people with 20 years’
experience with someone after one year, and needs are obviously different. ... We
have tried to suggest to the Director that we need different sorts, but she won’t
hear of it.
Another respondent agreed that different kinds of professional development were

needed according to their career aims. He felt that part-time teachers needed a different
approach from those who considered TESOL more of a career:
If it's a part time teacher as a lot of them are - a part-time teacher wants to teach
part-time and doesn't want to do more than teaching - so they need to feel
challenged, to have fresh ways in for their teaching, they want that class of
professional development, because they don't want to go further.
However, those that wanted to branch out into different areas such as “materials
development, or test writing” needed another type of professional development.
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This respondent felt that professional development was linked to their career and which
direction they wanted to take.
Some respondents emphasised the individual nature of professional development

needs:
it's very individual - ... some people are far into their career and need very basic
training, and others after two years are very advanced. So it depends on how
advanced or reflective they are.
Needs were seen to depend on many factors, including the amount of prior training in
their background, the type of initial training and whether it fostered development. For
example, those with a DTEFLA qualification were thought to be more likely to be
reflective than those with only a CTEFLA qualification, because of the different nature of
these two programs.
Other factors affecting rates of development or stagnation included the working

environment they were in, whether it fostered interaction with colleagues and growth or
whether they worked in isolation or in a stagnant atmosphere with a fixed curriculum.
Many TESOLs working in private schools spontaneously described the joys of the
TESOL staffroom, “cutting bits of paper, the colleagues, the atmosphere”. Constantly
talking about new ideas and lessons, with colleagues who were equally enthusiastic
was likely to foster a sense of moving forward and encourage teachers to keep up to
date and to discuss new ideas. Although there were some beginners’ concerns about
lack of sufficient guidance and support, the school A staffroom was mentioned as being
one such place, contrasted with the international organisation staffroom, where teachers
had been exposed to no professional development in the last few years.
One teacher from the international organisation described the frustration of trying to
discuss professional issues with colleagues over lunch:
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I feel like the big bad wolf and a black cloud talking about teaching, when teacher
x wants to eat her lunch.
In the international organisation, teachers had a coffee room for a central meeting place
but did their lesson preparation in their classrooms, while in school A the teachers’
preparation room also served as a coffee room, and they had no fixed classroom. In
school B there was a preparation area, but it was also part of the office with the Directors
in it, and one teacher respondent felt the only useful interaction with colleagues she
might have would be over the photocopying machine.
These considerations suggest that educational administrators should give greater

consideration to the quality of the space devoted to teachers’ staffrooms and the amount
of interaction and exchange of ideas the atmosphere creates. If teachers’ resources
were more centralised rather than being in individual classrooms, this would also seem
to encourage greater interaction.
In Tables 6.11 and 6.12, the teachers’ responses to what professional development
was useful for them have been placed alongside the trainers’ / administrators’
responses for comparison.
Geneva TESOLs with less than five years’ experience
Table 6.11 relates to the beginner teachers with less than five years of experience.
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Table 6.11: Type of professional development needed for teachers with less than five years’
experience: Geneva TES OL study
Responses***
Type of professional development needed for Trnrs / Teachers**

beginning teachers admrs*
Inservice training / workshops 5 Positive: 15

Negative: 1
Guidance and support / interaction with 4 6
colleagues
Reflection 2 1
Other 1 -
Keeping up to date - 3
Not interested - 3
Conferences - 2
Further studies - 2
* Number trainers / administrators = 10; **number teachers = 8

*** Multiple responses (individual respondents may have made more than one
response)
Inservice training / workshops
As might be expected, inservice training / workshops was the most frequently mentioned
aspect of professional development, receiving five responses by trainers /
administrators and 15 positive responses by teachers:
At the beginning they are really interested in very practical things, like what they
can do in the classroom, and they need to learn more about the grammar, how to
teach it... (comment by trainer)
Teachers, therefore, appeared to value this aspect of professional development more

than trainers / administrators. Trainers / administrators clearly underestimated how
attached to inservice training teachers in the beginning phases were.
354
Guidance and support
Both teachers and trainers / administrators rated the next most important professional
development for beginning teachers as guidance and support including interaction with
colleagues and support with materials. The latter is not surprising as beginning
teachers often feel bewildered with the range of teaching materials in the field:
After CTEFLA, they need guidance, a DOS or someone they can go to.
Reflection
Reflective forms of professional development were mentioned by two trainers /

administrators while one teacher mentioned reading books and journals. One trainer
felt the DTEFLA practical experience did not lead to reflection:
As a trainee, not in EFL, I had to follow each teaching session with comments, it
was a type of confessional -feedback on why it had worked well or not, it was
sound and did lead to reflection. In DTEFLA, the idea is teach a session and
thank god it’s over. We need to inspire teachers not to forget but to reflect .
Conferences, keeping up to date and further studies were mentioned by teachers, but
not trainers / administrators.
Three beginning teachers were not interested in professional development at all.
Beginning Geneva teachers, therefore, generally shared the trainers’ / administrators’

beliefs, nominating hands-on inservice experiences as being the most important
followed by support and guidance and reflection. The teachers, however, were
somewhat stronger in support of specific workshops than trainers / administrators
appeared to be. And teachers mentioned a greater range of professional development
than trainers / administrators did.
355
Later / generally
Table 6.12 shows the responses of trainers / administrators to professional

development needed for teachers later in the career or generally. This has been
contrasted with the teachers’ responses with more than five years’ experience.
Table 6.12: Type of professional development needed for teachers with more than five years’
experience: Geneva TES OL study
Responses***
Type of professional development needed Trnrs / Teachers**
for teachers with 5-29 years’ experience admrs*
Interaction with colleagues 5 3
Diversification 3 1
Reflection 3 6
Inservice training / workshops - Positive:15
Negative: 4
Everything - 3
Conferences - 2
Nothing - 1
Other: linguistic basis; linguistic angle 3
*Number trainers / administrators = 10; **Number teachers = 13
response)
The most surprising aspect of the responses was that, while teachers gave 15 positive
responses relating to workshops these were not mentioned by trainers / administrators.
Reflection and keeping up to date were the next most important aspect for teachers, but
trainers / administrators rated these less highly. Trainers / administrators seemed to
undervalue their importance later in their careers.
Interacting with colleagues
Trainers / administrators regarded contact between colleagues and exchanging

information as more important for later on in the teachers’ career than did
356
teachers. One trainer felt teachers should become more independent, contribute to
professional development themselves, network with colleagues from other schools, and
go to meetings:
Remember teaching’s very public, the more you develop and the more strings you
have to your bow, the better you’re seen by the public, you’re an asset to the
school and there is mutually good treatment on both sides... Having your own
network and taking advantage of the school’s ... The school should encourage
independence.
In return, the administrator felt teachers’ work should be acknowledged in a newsletter.
Diversification
Another professional development method mentioned by more trainers / administrators

than teachers was acquiring different types of teaching experience, or experience in
course design.
Reflection
This was valued somewhat more by teachers than by trainers / administrators.

However, some trainers / administrators felt that teachers could learn from the
classroom, either from observing others teach, or by analysing what works with their
students:
Teachers often put the responsibility for whether a lesson worked or not on the
materials or the students, but there is more to it. They need a program of teacher
development that encourages teachers to self-develop - to encourage reflection -
to think through their own process.
Another respondent felt that teachers could learn from feedback on evaluation forms:
How to be responsive to feedback on evaluation, and how to evaluate student

needs.
357
Section summary
In summary, trainers / administrators and teachers agreed that, early in the teacher’s
career, inservice training workshops and interaction with colleagues were important.
However, teachers identified a wider range of professional development types than did
trainers / administrators, suggesting that their full needs were not being recognised by
those responsible.
Teachers later in their career were keen on inservice training, which was surprisingly not
mentioned by trainers / administrators. The more experienced teachers mentioned a
wider range of professional development experiences than trainers / administrators. In
both cases, teachers mentioned a wider range of professional development and gave
more responses to what type of professional development was useful. The type
mentioned was not matched by the trainers’ / administrators’ responses either.
Professional development wanted

Interview question 14 referred to “wants”, not “needs”. The range of perceived desired
professional development was not as broad as the range of needs described for
teachers by trainers / administrators. Some felt teachers were not interested in
professional development, either because “no-one is going to finance you and private
teaching doesn’t pay much”, or “because they think they don’t need it.” These attitudes
were not, however, reflected in actual teacher responses.
Summary of trainers’ / administrators’ perceptions
Table 6.13 sets out the type of professional development the trainers / administrators felt
teachers wanted and contrasts this with the teachers’ own views of their professional
development needs.
358
Table 6.13: Type of professional development wanted by Geneva TES OLs as perceived by
trainers / administrators
Responses***
Type of professional development wanted Trnrs / Teachers**
admrs*
Inservice training / workshops 7 Positive: 23
Negative:11
Not interested 6 4
Diversification / experience 4 1
Depends on stage 3 -
Conferences 1 4
Administrative support 1 -
Interaction with colleagues 9
Reflection - 7
Everything - 3
Further studies (DTEFLA) - 2
* Number of trainers / administrators = 10; **Number of teachers = 21
response)
Inservice training / workshops
Inservice training / workshops were the most frequently mentioned form of professional
development that trainers / administrators believed Geneva TESOLs wanted. This view
was even more strongly expressed by the teachers.
Many trainers / administrators felt that teachers wanted practical sessions with hands-
on ideas. Two trainers / administrators said:
They like to have games, they like ideas about teaching grammar, they're always
interested in grammar ...I only know what they tell me they
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want - phonology chart, how to teach phonology, things like that, a reader and how
to look at that.
I have a feeling they want more gimmicks that work on the spot ...They want
something that isn't going to take up too much of their time - something that's
going to be amusing.
Some trainers / administrators felt that teachers wanted sessions led by experts with
important names for inspiration:
they think gosh Adrian Underhill, that's a big name and so they think I'll go to his
workshop and instantly I will be more developed and they often take what's given
as gospel, and don't think through the relevance or use of what's being given.
However, 11 teachers felt the current workshops were not useful, preferring applied
theory. Perhaps the trainers / administrators have misperceptions about the most
relevant workshops for teachers.
They are not interested
More than half of the trainers / administrators felt that teachers were not interested in
professional development as they were too busy or were not paid to attend. This view
was shared by only four out of 21 teachers. One trainer said that the permanent staff
members were the ones who were the least interested:
half the teaching staff are international organisation staff members and half are
not, and the half that are not are much more interested in gaining training and
cooperating. They have everything to gain and nothing to lose by cooperating and
participating.
Perhaps security is perceived to be associated with a lack of interest in or perceived
need for development.
Lack of financial support was also deemed to be significant:

360
I feel many of them are not interested enough in the area, particularly teachers in
the private sector, because no one is going to finance you and private teaching
doesn't pay much ... it takes a pretty devoted teacher to find enough time and
money to invest in professional development.
However, the teachers themselves did not mention the financial aspect in the interviews.
Trainers / administrators could be failing to meet teachers’ professional development
needs because of a perceived lack of interest, which may not be the case judging by the
responses.
Diversification
Diversification was mentioned by trainers / administrators but not teachers. Some felt
teachers needed to be involved in designing professional development programs
themselves:
I’ve had very positive feedback from people involved in the design of programs
and looking at course objectives themselves and the feedback was very positive.
Two trainers / administrators felt that more experienced teachers needed to go more
deeply into issues in professional development:
The more experienced teacher needs quite challenging things ... they need things
to keep the motivation going, and to keep them interested in teaching as a job -
it's not easy to keep the spark going.
Depends on what stage they’re at - different things
Three trainers / administrators felt teachers needed different professional development

according to their stage of development, which was not mentioned by teachers. One
stated that teachers did professional development because they wanted to become
better teachers. He felt it was essential to meet their individual wishes, rather than
imposing development of another kind on them.
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I’m conscious people do it because they want to be better teachers, a lot of will
goes into it, you have to take them from where they are, even if you feel they need it
at a different level, because otherwise you're asking people what they want and
not giving it to them or saying that they don't need it.
Teachers mentioned a range of professional development which was not often

mentioned by trainers / administrators, such as keeping up to date (two trainers /
administrators mentioned this), interaction with colleagues, reflection, everything, further
studies and conferences (mentioned by one trainer).
Administrative support
One trainer specifically mentioned administrative support:
Teachers need a secure pattern they can see - who to go to what for, a clear
framework around them and they need to be kept informed about any changes in
it.
None of the teachers mentioned this as a form of professional development, but some
newer ones mentioned it as a general need in other parts of the study.
Section summary
Trainers / administrators sometimes seemed to trivialise the desires of teachers

regarding their professional development, saying they wanted hands-on practical
workshops, talks by famous writers or something amusing and not too time-consuming
or that they were not interested in professional development at all. However, some
teachers, even some who were less experienced, demonstrated a more critically aware
and reflective response than the trainers / administrators gave them credit for. Seven
teacher responses related to the need for more reflection, wanting something with a
theoretical basis. Eleven respondents had found some workshops, such as those on
interpersonal skills, somewhat superficial. Teachers mentioned a greater range of
professional
362
development too. So there was a danger that trainers / administrators were misreading
teachers’ perceived needs, and oversimplifying the offerings.
Ideal professional development for Geneva TESOLs

This question required trainers / administrators to be more imaginative, describing the
kind of professional development which would be best for teachers if there were no
funding constraints. In these responses, trainers / administrators came a little nearer to
teachers’ expressed wishes, mentioning a greater range of professional development.
Trainers / administrators may have dismissed some of the types of professional
development earlier because of perceived funding restraints. Table 6.14 provides a
comparative analysis of the “ideal professional development” envisaged by trainers /
administrators and the professional development regarded by teachers as being most
important to them. This question was not asked directly of teachers, so the teachers’
comments, when asked what professional development is useful for them now, are
repeated for comparison.
363
Table 6.14: Geneva TES OL trainers / administrators’ ideal professional development for
teachers compared to teachers’ unsolicited responses
Responses***
Ideal professional development Trnrs / Teachers**

admrs*
Inservice 14 34
2-3 day courses / longer courses / specific courses 6 8
Workshops with famous names on non-TESOL 5

topics
Better researched presentations with theoretical 1
basis
Pay people to attend training, and free sessions 1
Time to relearn the language in your mother tongue 1

country
Other: workshops - 15
Negative: Current workshops not useful - 11
Diversification 6 1
Look at field other than teaching 3
Look at different fields of teaching 2
Materials development 1
Reflection 3 7
Get teachers together to observe each other 1
Greater range of journals 1 2
Teach in blocks with time built in for reflection 1
Reflection - 5
Conferences 2 4
Sponsor people to go to conferences 2
Individualised programs / homogeneous group 2 -
Individualised programs 1
Market courses to get homogeneous group 1
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Team-building 1
School events 1 -
Time, infrastructure and money to put on school 1

events
None - 4
Everything - 3
Further studies 2 2
Sabbatical year for further education 2 -
* Number trainers / administrators= 10; ** number teachers = 21 (unsolicited

responses)
response)
The most common new suggestion was the need for time to concentrate on
professional development. Inservice training received the most responses. Another
aspect mentioned was the need to lift financial constraints which would enable teachers
to be funded to go to conferences and attend more professional development programs,
as well as assisting with marketing professional development courses, allowing for
individualised professional development programs, and enabling teachers to observe
each other.
Inservice training / workshops / courses
Trainers / administrators mentioned some additional types of inservice training

activities.
Longer seminars / going more deeply into issues
Many people criticised the current workshops and wished to have longer sessions with
time to go more deeply into issues:
365
I feel personally there's a lot of time and money wasted on very short term Friday
afternoon let's look at this in two hours and not enough continuity, and it's better to
have a group of teachers free for one week to work on something, and get
somewhere.
Organise sessions with famous names
One respondent felt that with funding specialists could be contracted to examine a range
of personal development concerns as well as methodological concerns:
something on communication and personal development, group dynamics,

something on team building in the school, learning to express their needs,
making them more aware, and some at the methodological level ... I think it would
be nice to have outsiders come in too, someone bigger and better than us for a
couple of days.
Better researched presentations
One said that she felt that conference papers were often given without the research
basis they required. She felt that ideally the academic and practical sides needed
bringing together more:
There are a lot of sessions given at conferences with very little research
supporting it. They are presentations of good ideas that work. ... Academic
research needs to meet the practical side more.
Funding issues
The issue of funding was raised, with some respondents feeling that the employing
institution should pay for attendance at conferences or professional development, and
others feeling it was up to the individual to take responsibility:
paying people to attend - that's what happens in the real world - my husband gets
everything paid for when he goes to a conference, in industry that's what happens.
Can you imagine them saying to him - oh
366
could you pay for the trip, and pay for your hotel, and your training. It's a miracle
anyone comes along, and it's all in their own time.
Diversification
Looking at other fields
Some respondents felt that examining other fields would be useful, such as relearning
one’s language in one’s mother country, management teaching or communication
skills.
Reflection
Reflection received more references than in other sections and included some ideas
which would require funding.
Teaching in blocks with built-in time for reflection
One respondent felt there was no time in the teaching profession built in for reflection:
Teaching for blocks but having time during the teaching block to stop and think, so
perhaps four days teaching, half a day's materials development, and half a day
getting together and sharing ideas if it's a full time thing, but it's not what happens
now. We work day one week one to the last day of the course without time to
breathe and you need a breathing space during the week..
The same respondent felt that because of time constraints, it would be fruitful to get
groups of teachers with similar needs together to monitor each other.
More journals and resources
One respondent felt that schools could be judged on their attitude to professional
development by the range of professional journals they make available to their teachers.
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She felt that the attitude of the school was more important than the budget for
professional development, as even a school with a low budget could maintain a
professional development program.
Conferences
In other questions, trainers / administrators did not mention conferences, perhaps

because of a lack of funding. However, in this section, two respondents felt that
sponsoring people to go to conferences or courses would be of use.
With more money I’d be able to sponsor someone to go to a conference further

away, the British Council type events.
Further studies
S abbatical time out
Some saw the value of a sabbatical term out:
if we could get them a term off to go to school, it would be so beneficial and make
them happy, refresh their minds, they would be happy to know the organisation
cares about them. Everyone wants to do a competent job, and if they have the
tools, if they have what they need, it would be so much better, and they would
recognise it would be better. You have to give them what they want, they could
choose to improve their skills in areas they wanted.
Additional concerns raised
One respondent summed up the general feeling of frustration with current conditions
and the possibilities if funding were no object:
Oh, we could do so much - seminars, off-site training, ... there's no end to it. If the
money were infinite and the teachers could choose their own training, they would
all be very happy to get training, and I would be
368
happy to meet the needs of the clients, if we could, for example, every year have
teachers get in-service training.
The budget prevented them from carrying out these wishes:
But at the moment money is a big constraint. We have to justify every project and
get approval and establish a track record for the budget for the next biennium.
A concern was that teachers were expected to self-fund their own development. Some
respondents who were teachers as well as trainers / administrators raised the issue
that freelance teachers already had to prepare and travel to work sites with no
recompense, and could not be expected to pay for their professional development too.
I feel many of them are not interested enough in the area, particularly teachers in
the private sector, because no one is going to finance you and private teaching
doesn't pay much, and it's a big time grabber, you have so many hours to put in to
keep up with your own preparation and teaching, that it takes a pretty devoted
teacher to find enough time and money to invest in professional development.
Section summary
With no financial constraints, the ideal professional development mentioned by trainers /
administrators focused mainly on inservice training and longer courses. A few
mentioned exploring fields other than teaching and some would have liked to organise
special events or put time aside for reflection. However, there were no clear indications
that they would implement anything more imaginative than the current offerings. Either
teachers were well served with professional development offerings, or trainers /
administrators were lacking in inspiration. Most disturbingly, their ideas did not closely
match the type of professional development which teachers mentioned as being useful,
such as reflection, interacting with colleagues and keeping up to date. The possible
implications of this important mismatch will be discussed in the conclusion.
369
SYDNEY TESOL STUDY
In the Sydney TESOL study, unlike the Geneva study, the trainers / administrators
interviewed were a discrete group which did not overlap with teachers. Eleven Sydney
trainers and administrators were interviewed. They seemed clearer than the Geneva
respondents in their understanding of the concept professional development. This was
probably because each institution had some kind of professional development program
in place. One sent its teachers to another institution for professional development.
Teachers’ professional development needs

For Sydney respondents, the interview question asked of trainers / administrators in both
studies was clarified further to distinguish between the different years of experience.
Respondents were asked to discern what types of professional development is
appropriate for different stages of development.
All trainer respondents agreed that needs differed with different career stages. One
respondent felt it was a mindset:
Some are resentful they are expected to develop professionally and go to

conferences and seminars because they don’t have to in other jobs.
Another mapped out teachers’ needs starting with an initial pre-service qualification,
followed by a range of experience, then another Diploma level qualification:
still classroom based, but that gets them to look at the rationale behind various
approaches and what theoretical support they have. And for those interested
there should be something more theoretical like an MA where they can look in
detail at Second Language Acquisition research and linguistics.
Sydney TESOLs with less than five years’ experience
Table 6.15 summarises the responses given by all trainers / administrators (n=11) for
teachers with less than five years’ experience, and compares this
370
information with the responses given by teachers in this category of experience about
their professional development needs.
Table 6.15: Type of professional development needed for teachers with less than five years’
experience: S ydney TES OL study
Responses ***
0-4 years’ experience: type of Trnrs / Teachers**
professional development admrs*
Experience / diversification 9 5
Support and guidance (interaction with 8 1

colleagues)
Inservice training 7 8
Reflection 5 5
Further studies 5 2
Everything 1 -
Understanding and motivating - 2

students
Conferences - 1
Other / travel - 1
Teacher training - 1
*Number trainers / administrators = 11; **number teachers = 9

response)
When asked to identify the type of professional development most useful for those with
less than five years’ experience, trainers/ administrators identified experience and
diversification as most important, followed by support and guidance and inservice
training. Teachers, however, identified inservice training as most important, followed by
experience / diversification and reflection.
371
The diversification mentioned by trainers / administrators was limited to hands-on
classroom experience with a range of levels, while teachers mentioned additional duties
to teaching, such as teacher training and coordination.
Support and guidance by colleagues was the third most mentioned category of
professional development by trainers and administrators, while only one teacher valued
interaction with colleagues.
Five teachers and five trainers / administrators referred to reflection. This was placed
third by teachers in this category. Teachers, but not trainers/ administrators, valued
reading b ooks / journals, particularly to clarify a grammar point before teaching.
Although only two teacher respondents were interested in doing further training, five
trainer/ administrator respondents felt this was necessary after several years’
experience.
Teachers also valued conferences, and specific courses / seminars, while trainers/
administrators did not specify these areas.
Section summary
Teachers and trainers/ administrators agreed that important professional development
included consolidation of b asic teaching skills by attending workshops, diversification in
experience and reflection. Trainers / administrators but not teachers felt that further
studies were important. However, teachers but not trainers / administrators felt that
support and guidance by colleagues was important, as well as understanding and
motivating students, conferences, keeping up to date, travel and teacher training. The
inexperienced teachers’ views of their own needs were therefore more imaginative than
those of their trainers / administrators.
372
Professional development appropriate for respondents with 5-10 years’ experience
Table 6.16 shows the different perspectives of trainers / administrators and teachers
concerning appropriate professional development for teachers with 5-10 years of
experience. Although there were some areas of consistency between teachers and
trainers / administrators, there were some surprising differences.
Table 6.16: Type of professional development needed for teachers with 5-10 years’
Responses***
Type of professional development Trnrs / Teachers**
needed admrs*
Diversification 17 3
Further studies 6 3
Teacher training 2 -
Career focus 2 -
Conferences 1 3
Reflection 1 3
Departmental meetings: goal setting - 1
* Number trainers / administrators = 10; ** number teachers = 12

response)
The trainers / administrators felt teachers in this category needed diversification more
than any other type of professional development, while teachers made only three
references to this aspect of professional development. The teachers, on the other hand
felt inservice training was more important, with six responses relating to this while six
trainers / administrators made reference to further studies, and teachers only three.
Teachers also regarded keeping up to
373
date and interaction with colleagues as important, while trainers / administrators valued
these less. Reflective forms of professional development and conferences were
mentioned by three teachers and only one trainer.
Section summary
Responses for this category show quite distinct views of teachers from those of trainers
/ administrators. Trainers / administrators above all believed that teachers needed to
diversify and undergo further studies, which were not the most popular responses for
teachers.
Professional development appropriate for respondents with 11+ years’ experience
Table 6.17 shows that trainers / administrators believed that diversification was the most
important facet of professional development for those with more experience, while
teachers continued to favour inservice training. Inservice training was only mentioned by
one trainer, but was the most valued form of professional development by teachers with
11-29 years of experience.
374
Table 6.17: Type of professional development needed for teachers with 11-29 years’
Responses***
Type of professional development Trnrs / admrs* Teachers**

needed
Other / holiday / new job 10 -
Reflection 4 3
Further studies 2 2
Various / non-specific 2 -
Training teachers or trainers 1 3
Broader knowledge of industry 1 -
Interaction with colleagues - 4
Conferences - 1
Ongoing professional development - 1

response)
Trainers / administrators also felt it was more important for teachers to have other
interests, or to take a sabbatical or holiday, and some even felt teachers should get
another job, while this was not mentioned by teachers. Trainers/administrators
demonstrated a certain cynicism, which was not expressed by teachers, about their
dedication to the field:
Workshops on how to open a successful coffee shop. (Laughs) Most of the

cafes in Balmain and Glebe are run by ex-EFL teachers!
Another said:
375
10-11 years they need a new job. They’d be getting pretty stale if they had not got
into some sort of supervisory position by then. If they’re still a classroom teacher
after 10-20 years then they must be stale.
However, the two teachers in the 20-29 years’ experience range professed to be very
happy teaching, one with family obligations and working part-time and the other with no
desire to climb the ladder.
Teachers and trainers / administrators rated reflection as important. Aspects of
professional development rated highly by teachers, but not by trainers/ administrators
included the following: interaction with colleagues was mentioned by four teacher
respondents and conferences by one teacher.
Section summary
Trainers/ administrators appeared to feel that many of the areas of professional

development they identified for teachers with 5-10 years’ experience were no longer
relevant, while the teachers were still keen to develop along those lines. Inservice
training was not considered important by trainers / administrators, nor was interaction
with colleagues. Trainers / administrators focused more on diversification and exiting
the career or turning to personal interests.
Trainers / administrators seem to expect teachers to grow in their professional

development expectations, but teachers do not. Trainers / administrators even
commented that teachers still in the profession with more than 11 years’ experience
should require different experiences outside TESOL. However, the teachers seemed to
be generally satisfied with teaching and still felt inservice training was the most useful. It
is important to remember, however, that the teachers’ more general responses
throughout the interviews revealed a very different picture with a recognition of the
importance of diversification seeming to come from various changes to the career.

Table 6.18 records what trainers / administrators perceived teachers wanted for
professional development compared with teachers’ responses.
376
Table 6.18: Type of professional development wanted by S ydney TES OLs as perceived by
trainers/administrators
Responses***
Type of professional development Trnrs / Teachers**

wanted admrs*
Inservice training / other training 24 22
Some are not interested / no time 7 -
Depends on their stage 6 -
Further studies 4 7
Career focus 3
We ask for ideas on this 2 -
Reflection 1 11
Conferences - 5
Understanding and motivating students 1 2
Goal setting - 1
On-going professional development - 1
Travel - 1
response)
Inservice training was the single most mentioned type of professional development that
trainers / administrators perceived teachers wanted. This perception matched the
teachers’ own responses. This is an interesting finding as in the other cases, trainers /
administrators felt that teachers would benefit from other forms of professional
development. However, some of the types of inservice training asked for by teachers
was different from that suggested by trainers / administrators. Practical / hands on
professional development was
377
the most frequently mentioned by trainers / administrators and was also valued by
teachers. Trainers / administrators also valued theoretical workshops in linguistics but
teachers did not mention these. The special courses referred to by trainers /
administrators were of a different type from those mentioned by teachers, who wanted
more practical courses. Trainers / administrators mentioned conflict resolution, stress
management and other topics of a similar vein.
The remaining professional development was mainly mismatched as teachers

continued to mention a greater range of professional development than trainers /
administrators. Two administrators responded that it was important to consult with the
teachers to discover their wants. One administrator had conducted a survey to identify
the professional development teachers wanted and he stated that it depended on what
their roles were:
Teachers wanted practical stuff, classroom things, and I think they wanted a mix
and more experienced people tended towards formal professional development
eg study leave, conferences and bringing external people in, and workshops
addressing practical things. With more formal things, getting a more theoretical
base, a deeper base.
Seven trainers / administrators felt that teachers had a lack of interest in professional
development. However, teachers did not mention any lack of interest.
Six trainers/administrators felt that teachers’ wants would vary according to the stage
teachers were at. The most obvious differences between trainers’ / administrators’
perceptions and those of teachers were in regard to diversification, which was referred
to 14 times by teachers, but only twice by trainers / administrators; reflection, which
teachers referred to 11 times, but trainers / administrators only once; and interaction with
colleagues, with nine responses by teachers and only three by trainers / administrators.
378
Keeping up to date was mentioned by four trainers/administrators and eight teachers.
This was linked to theoretical and practical workshops, but included broader issues
such as methodology, keeping informed about new examinations, sociolinguistics and
psycholinguistics, and information technology.
Seven teachers were interested in further studies, while only four trainers /
administrators mentioned this. Teachers but not trainers / administrators were also
interested in conferences.
In summary, there was a misperception by trainers / administrators of the professional

development priorities of teachers. However, as the next section indicates, some
trainers/administrators might have felt that some of these aspects of professional
development were desirable but not affordable.
Some trainers/administrators felt that teachers wanted something not too time
consuming, or that they are not interested as they are too b usy, but teachers did not
voice these views. This suggests that trainers / administrators may tend to
underestimate the level of teacher interest in professional development.
Ideal professional development for Sydney TESOLs

The findings are presented in Table 6.19, together with a comparison with responses
from the Sydney teachers about what kinds of professional development was most
useful for them.
379
Table 6.19 : S ydney TES OL trainers / administrators’ ideal professional development for
teachers
Responses***
Professional development area Trnrs / Teachers**

admrs*
Workshops / famous speakers 10 12
Longer courses / specific courses 1 10
Management workshops for senior teachers 1
Theoretical side (linguistics) later 3
School events 13 -
Have time, infrastructure, money to put on school 12

events / inservice training / housekeeping
Opportunity to take staff away for reflection 1
Further studies 9 7
Money/sabbatical to support external study 5
Further formal training after 2-3 yrs 3
More interactive MA courses 1
Conferences 8 5
Reflection 7 11
Peer observation / observing others 4 5
Reading books and journals: access to good 1 5

libraries / time for reading
Carry out own research 1
Being observed 1
Reflection 1
Discussion with colleagues 4 9
Liaison with other schools 3
Mentorship system 1
Team teaching 1
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Explore different areas to teaching eg 4

management; IT; personal development; finance;
marketing; cross cultural skills; MBAs
Consultation with teachers for professional 3 -
development preferences
Staff identify areas they want developing in / 3
consultation with teachers
Depends on stage 2 -
Give teacher trainers time for own professional 1 -

development
Other (travelling; understanding students; - 5

ongoing professional development; goal setting)
* Number of trainers / administrators= 11; ** number of teachers =32

response)
Some of the kinds of professional development desired by teachers were apparently not
considered a possibility by trainers / administrators, perhaps because of time or money
constraints, as they were not mentioned frequently in response to the other questions in
this section. However, some are identified here as examples of ideal professional
development; for example, reflection, such as ob servations, reading b ooks / journals,
sponsoring people to go to conferences, and materials development.
The trainers / administrators mentioned inservice training as the most desired form of
professional development for teachers if they had no constraints, which coincided with
the teachers’ own perception. This seems to indicate that
381
trainers / administrators perceived that their budgetary constraints prevented them from
conducting inservice training.
Twelve trainers / administrators referred to the desire to have the time / infrastructure
and money to support school events, but neither was mentioned by teachers probably
because this is an organisational issue of greater interest to trainers / administrators.
Trainers / administrators were also keen to encourage teachers to study externally.

Teachers shared a wish to study. This was followed by sponsoring people to go to
conferences, which was mentioned by eight trainers/administrators and five teachers.
One administrator said, somewhat cynically:
I could fly people all over the world - we wouldn’t get much teaching done - to the
TESOL conferences in Japan and the USA. I’d send a limited number to each
one.
Another administrator said:
interstate conferences with five star accommodation and frequent flyer points and
exotic locations. And in return they do not want to do workshops or presentations
at said conference. (laughs).
Trainers / administrators made seven references to reflection, including peer

ob servation and reading b ooks and journals, which they had neglected to refer to in
responses to earlier questions. This is possibly because organising such professional
development is very expensive as teachers would have to be released from teaching to
engage in peer observation. There is also the possibility that trainers / administrators
underestimated the value given to reading as a form of professional development.
On the other hand, facets of professional development prominent in the previous

responses were less prominent here presumably as they were not
382
perceived to cost much money. For example, diversification was mentioned as an ideal
form of professional development by only four trainers / administrators, but had been
referred to 14 times by teachers, interaction with colleagues was mentioned by only four
trainers / administrator but had been referred to on nine occasions by teachers.
COMPARISON OF GENEVA AND SYDNEY TESOL STUDIES
Professional development needs

Geneva trainers / administrators and teachers both stated that inservice training was the
most important professional development for inexperienced teachers, although trainers /
administrators underestimated the level of interest in inservice training, and the range of
professional development mentioned by trainers / administrators was more limited than
that of teachers. More experienced teachers continued to favour inservice training, while
trainers / administrators felt interaction with colleagues was the most necessary. Not
one trainer / administrator mentioned inservice training for this group, demonstrating a
wide misperception of teachers’ desires.
Sydney trainers / administrators felt teachers in all categories of experience required

diversification foremost, followed by interaction with colleagues and inservice training for
inexperienced teachers, further studies for those with 5-10 years’ experience, and a
complete change or new job for more experienced teachers. This mismatched with
what teachers stated they wanted as all of them nominated inservice training as most
useful, and no-one felt in need of a complete change. Therefore, the apparent cynicism
of trainers / administrators was not shared by teachers.
In summary, Sydney and Geneva trainers / administrators had quite different perceptions
of the professional development requirements for teachers with different experience
levels. Sydney trainers / administrators may be closer to the reality than Geneva trainers
/ administrators as they mentioned diversification first and foremost, which was the most
frequently mentioned development throughout the general interviews. However,
teachers did not
383
identify diversification as professional development as they rarely referred to it with the
same frequency when asked directly about their professional development needs.

When asked what professional development teachers wanted, Geneva trainers /
administrators realised teachers wanted inservice training, but they underestimated the
level of interest in this form of professional development. Teachers mentioned a range
of professional development which trainers / administrators did not even consider, such
as interaction with colleagues, reflection and further studies. Trainers / administrators
also overestimated a perceived lack of interest by teachers.
Sydney trainers / administrators very closely perceived the level of interest of teachers in
inservice training, but underestimated or missed completely other aspects of
professional development rated highly by teachers, such as diversification, reflection,
interaction with colleagues and further studies. Many trainers / administrators felt
teachers were not interested, which was not the case judging by the teachers’
responses.
Therefore, trainers / administrators from both studies were aware that teachers wanted
inservice training primarily, but their perceptions diverged substantially from teachers’
desires in other areas.
Ideal professional development

Free of budget constraints, Geneva trainers / administrators continued to rate inservice
training most highly as did Sydney trainers / administrators. Sydney trainers /
administrators also mentioned school events during non-teaching periods, followed by
further studies, conferences and reflective aspects of professional development. In this
section, therefore, the professional development mentioned by Sydney trainers /
administrators more closely matched that of teachers while Geneva trainers’ /
administrators’ responses did not closely match the teachers’ responses and the range
of professional development activities proposed continued to be fairly limited in both
studies.
384
CHAPTER SUMMARY
The TESOL teachers from both studies mentioned the following aspects of professional
development spontaneously and in order of frequency when questioned directly about
what was currently useful for them (see Table 6.20, left hand column). Table 6.20, right
hand column, lists in order of frequency the factors which emerged from the analysis of
the interviews of all TESOL teachers. These factors were not referred to directly, but
were mentioned in the course of recounting their life history.
Table 6.20: Factors perceived as important by TES OL teachers from both studies
Factors identified by TESOL teachers Professional development factors
when specifically questioned about mentioned by TESOL teachers
professional development during their general interviews
Inservice training Diversification (including change;
higher / other duties; teaching)
Keeping up to date Further studies
Interaction with colleagues Gaining experience / confidence
Reflection Support structures
Diversification (other duties) Personal life
Conferences Reflection
Further studies Workshop
Nothing Conferences
Training other teachers
Everything
Understanding and motivating

students
Goal setting
Travelling
The most noticeable difference between TESOLs’ responses to the specific question on
professional development and their comments in more general questions is as follows:
385
• Diversification (including change; higher / other duties and teaching) was mentioned
extensively throughout the general interviews by teachers, but given far less
importance in the direct question. Diversification often led to increased levels of
satisfaction, but not necessarily immediately as change sometimes brought
moments of stress initially before longer-term benefits were felt.
• Inservice training was perceived to be the main type of professional development
when teachers were questioned directly, but in the general interviews this type of
professional development was virtually never mentioned
• Further studies were mentioned much more frequently in the general interviews than
in the specific question on professional development
• Support structures were mentioned during the interviews but not in the direct
question on professional development.
Huberman (1995) identified four professional development cycles in an attempt to

develop a professional development model. These were described in more detail in
Chapter II. They are the open individual cycle, the closed individual cycle, the open
collective cycle and the closed collective cycle (Huberman, 1995, pp. 208-218). The
summary of professional development mentioned by TESOL respondents above can be
related to Huberman’s paradigms by organising the professional development activities
mentioned by TESOL respondents into four main categories. Table 6.21 therefore
shows the professional development mentioned by TESOL respondents both from the
direct question on professional development and from the general interviews. The
combined responses have been organised into four categories.
386
Table 6.21: Four main categories of professional development mentioned by TES OLs
1 Development focused on 2 Diversification beyond the 3 Professional support ←Environmental factors

teaching classroom and interaction within the impacting on success
• increasing expertise with • coordination of teachers & organisation ← change of school /
different levels of programs • formal or ad hoc support country, often leading to
students • administration, placement of systems “back to teaching”
• “tinkering” & students, assessment & report • discussion with ←increased opportunities in
experimentation writing colleagues & swapping new environment after
• further development of • curriculum development of ideas settling in period
areas of expertise in • developing self access materials 4 Training / further ←downturn in economy
teaching • taking up promotional positions studies beyond the affecting school enrolments
• observation and • teacher training organisation and increased insecurity
feedback of trainees • counselling • inservice training ←“boom” periods, leading to
• observation by • organising student activities • further formal studies increased opportunities for
management or by • organising student • workshops and mobility and professional
peers accommodation seminars development
• observing others • external liaison • specific courses such ← availability of promotional
• reflection on teaching • attending conferences as learning about opportunities / study
reading books & journals • organising exams / examining computers
on teaching issues
387
The four main areas are as follows:
• Development focused on teaching, where the “lone wolf” scenario teachers work on
their technical skills and carry out experiments, at all stages, but particularly in the
early stages of teaching. Reflective types of professional development were
mentioned, including reading books and journals to assist in curriculum
development for the classroom, reflection on classroom teaching and observation by
others and of others in the classroom. These relate to Huberman’s closed individual
cycle.
• diversification beyond the classroom, including additional duties where TESOLs
combine teaching with coordinating, administration, curriculum development, teacher
training, counselling or other duties. This relates broadly to Huberman’s open
individual cycle, but includes elements of all cycles as the duties may be broad and
involve different types of interaction.
• professional support and interaction within the organisation, where, in initial
phases, TESOLs receive support and guidance from their colleagues or
coordinators, and later they exchange ideas and information with their peers. This
relates to Huberman’s open individual cycle.
• training / further studies beyond the organisation, where they regularly update their
knowledge and skills through formal training programs from diploma to masters
level. This relates to Huberman’s closed collective cycle as teachers from different
schools have the opportunity to interact and to conduct experiments. It also relates to
Huberman’s open collective cycle as specialists manage the learning.
Environmental factors impacted on professional development. If the teacher had a

combination of favourable external environmental factors, and opportunities for
diversification, further studies and additional duties, then there was evidence of multiple
phases of further experimentation and new challenges, which often continued even in
later years. For example, both of the Sydney TESOL respondents with most experience
had had many life changes provoked through personal circumstances, and mentioned
positive spurts of further experimentation and energy throughout their careers. A change
of country or change of school could also be a catalyst for positive professional
388
development and in some cases promotion, or, in other cases, for reassessment and
return to teaching. Economic fluctuations could also generate opportunities for
diversification; in negative times TESOLs may be forced to leave secure positions and
search for new opportunities or travel overseas, while in positive times TESOLs have
increased opportunities for diversification.
The types of professional development mentioned in the study can be related readily to
Herzberg’s two-factor motivational theory (1959). Diversification in the classroom and
Diversification b eyond the classroom tend to relate to Herzberg’s motivators or intrinsic
factors. Professional development in the staffroom and training / further studies tend to
relate to Herzberg’s extrinsic or hygiene factors, and in the case of the factors mentioned
contributed to the teacher’s satisfaction.
In summary, professional development preferences were varied. They depended not so

much on the phase or stage of career, but rather on a combination of factors including
environmental influences, external factors affecting the teacher, available opportunities,
environmental change factors affecting teachers, such as the teacher changing school
or country, which could lead to a phase of “back to teaching”, “taking a breather”, or to
further opportunities. There were other factors affecting teachers’ professional
development opportunities: either a downturn in the economy or special circumstances
affecting schools, such as a change in visa regulations leading to reduced enrolments
and increasing insecurity, or a rise in enrolments leading to expansion in schools and
their activities. The latter generated increased opportunities for mobility between
schools and for promotional opportunities.
These findings bear similarities to Huberman’s “lone wolf” scenario, with teachers in all
three studies finding diversification useful, accompanied by discussion with colleagues
and reading. Inservice training and workshops feature more favourably for TESOLs than
in Huberman’s study, and further
389
studies were very important, particularly in the Sydney study, to enable TESOL teachers
to diversify further or develop greater depths of understanding. Huberman states that the
“lone-wolf” scenario will remain entrenched, and in the current organisation of schools
teachers are professional “craftspeople” (Huberman, 1995, p. 208) who, like artisans,
work mainly alone in a self-tailored work environment.
Overall, there was a fairly pronounced difference between what trainers / administrators
perceived to be teachers’ desire for their professional development and what the
teachers themselves report. Trainers / administrators had a less imaginative perception
of professional development than teachers. This is disturbing if what is offered by
trainers / administrators is so different from what teachers desire. If it is true for the
profession at large, these attitudes would lead to disappointment and even
disillusionment among TESOL teachers about their professional development
opportunities.
Trainers / administrators also felt that teachers were not interested in professional
development, which was not echoed by teachers, above all in the Sydney study.
Teachers professed to be interested in more aspects of professional development than
trainers / administrators gave them credit for. For example, teachers in the Geneva study
were interested in inservice training later in the career, but this was not recognised by
trainers / administrators. Geneva teachers were also more interested in reflective forms
of professional development than trainers / administrators acknowledged.
Sydney trainers / administrators felt that teachers with more experience needed
diversification, but teachers were more interested in inservice training. Sydney trainers /
administrators also felt that teachers with more than 11 years’ experience needed a
complete change, such as a new job, but teachers did not mention this.
Overall, Sydney teachers wanted inservice training, diversification and reflective forms of
professional development. However, Sydney trainers / administrators
390
felt they wanted inservice training more than any other form. Teachers mentioned a far
greater range.
Finally, Huberman’s concept of teachers tinkering in the classroom interspersed with

consultation with colleagues and reading, relates more closely to desires expressed by
teachers than to the perceptions of trainers / administrators.
VOLUME II
CAROL K WAITES
A dissertation in fulfilment of the requirements for
the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
at the University of New South Wales
June, 1999
xxi
391
CHAPTER VII
CONCLUSION
In this chapter, reflections on methodological issues arising from the study and limitations of the study
are presented. The findings from the TESOL studies are discussed as well as implications for
educational administrators, further research and career phase theory.
METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The methodology followed in this research was qualitative, many of Huberman’s methods of analysis
being employed and developed further. However, the exact nature of Huberman’s enquiry was
impossible to ascertain as the detailed analysis was unavailable for scrutiny. Where relevant, the same
wording of the interview questions was retained, and the respondents were interviewed under similar
conditions. However, the analysis of the data, the categorisation and the reporting of findings did not
follow Huberman’s study exactly as the circumstances were not the same.
In Huberman’s study, 160 teachers were interviewed by many researchers, who were trained for
reliability issues. In the TESOL studies, the same researcher carried out all the interviews. In the
Geneva study, as the study unfolded, on many occasions respondents were interviewed separately for
different questions (see Chapter III Tables 3.1 and 3.2 for details). In the Sydney study, an interview
schedule was used with respondents interviewed on one occasion, with one exception. No adverse
effects were observed from these variations and Geneva TESOLs did not change their opinions from
one interview session to the next.
Issues concerning the respondents

In the Geneva study, there were no clearly defined roles, with many teachers also performing freelance
or doing additional training or administrative duties, leading to respondents sometimes being
interviewed both as teachers and as trainers / administrators. This could, to a degree, have
compromised the
392
validity of some responses given to the professional development questions. In the Sydney study,
trainers / administrators had different recognised positions, so respondents were not duplicated and
could be interviewed in one capacity only. Therefore, the responses to the professional development
questions may be more valid in the Sydney case.
If possible, in any future study on professional development, separate groups of teachers and trainers /
administrators should be interviewed for the different perspectives. This may be impossible in
situations overseas where there is a shortage of qualified TESOLs, making differentiation of roles less
likely. Respondents with multiple roles may have to be treated differently. Perhaps the two situations
are not fully comparable in this respect.
Interview schedule and conducting the interviews

Respondents were not given the interview schedule in advance, which was regarded as important as
their responses could be coloured by discussion with others if they had time to prepare. In some cases,
however, respondents seemed unprepared for some questions. In particular, the question on
beginning teaching sometimes led teachers to comment that they could not remember as far back as
that, or led them to dismiss aspects they may have found painful. The time given for each question
was perhaps too short and the interview could have benefited from a lengthier introduction and more
specific scene setting. For example, it may have been useful to take respondents back to the first class
they gave, and explore what their feelings and emotions were. With more time, more detail could be
elicited.
In the case of professional development, the range of responses to the specific questions on
professional development was fairly limited, leading to a further analysis of all the interview transcripts
for instances which seemed to refer, even obliquely, to professional development. This produced a
wide range of examples. It may have been useful for respondents to undergo a training session before
being interviewed to reflect on the types of career long experiences which may be of benefit for
professional development. This may have stimulated them to think more broadly of professional
development rather
393
than limiting themselves to inservice training and other more concrete types of professional
development. Undergoing such sessions could of course lead them to give responses to please the
interviewer, which nevertheless may have been a danger it was worth taking. Taking particular difficult
situations teachers encountered in their career and finding out the strategies employed to overcome
these difficulties may be another useful method to discover the kinds of professional development
activities required by teachers.
Where new questions were added to the TESOL studies, similar techniques were employed to
condense and analyse the data. This was particularly important in Chapter V, as questions on two new
topics were added (questions 2-4 in the Geneva study and questions 3, 12 and 13 in the Sydney study).
The question about the future plans of TESOLs was added because it followed on naturally from their
account of their actual careers, and because it could shed additional light on the question about
whether they would re-select the profession. This proved to be a wise decision as the question about
re-selecting the profession raised additional problems because some respondents used creative and
imaginative interpretations to this question.
The question in which TESOLs were asked to comment on a list of secondary school teachers’
beginning concerns (question 10 in the Geneva study and 8 in the Sydney study and reported in
Appendix H) was not particularly useful as the wording of the issues was different from the common
terminology in the TESOL field, leading to many different interpretations of the issues. It is advisable,
therefore, not to rely on wording from one teaching field to the next, as the issues may be similar but
the language used to describe them is often different. The earlier question asking them to nominate
their own beginner concerns (question 9 in the Geneva study and 7 in the Sydney study) was more
valid and the language used consistent between the two studies in most cases.
In the Sydney TESOL study, a decision was made to show the respondents lists of Geneva TESOLs
responses for comment after they had answered the question. The findings have been reported in
Appendix I as they are not comparable to the spontaneous responses. While the findings are
interesting
394
and changed the emphasis given to some of the responses, they demonstrate the dangers of giving
respondents pre-determined lists to respond to. Many of the aspects they raised in the initial question
may never have been discussed, as their attention was diverted to items the list suggested. There were
also some misinterpretations of some of the issues raised, for example company personnel being
interpreted by Sydney TESOLs as the management of the language school while the Geneva TESOLs
referred to the management of the company to which they had been subcontracted to deliver
language classes. If the study had involved ticking lists rather than in-depth discussion, these differing
interpretations may never have been discovered. These findings should serve as a warning to
researchers who rely solely on quantitative lists of factors for consideration. If lists are used, an
opportunity for discussion should also take place to ensure correct interpretation of the content of the
list. If the list is devised by someone who is not directly involved in the field, the language may lead
to further misinterpretations.
In most cases, the lists produced the least interesting results, which should be a warning to future
researchers. Very open-ended questions, on the other hand, were also difficult to tame at the time of
analysis, as respondents sometimes approached the question from different angles. The most useful
questions were those which started from an open-ended question and then became more specific. For
example, even the preliminary question asking respondents to describe their careers by phases
(question 1 in the Geneva study and 2 in the Sydney study) required the interviewer to focus their
responses by breaking up their careers into specific phases and giving a name to different phases. The
respondents were often carried away in reverie and omitted to give a name, drifting onto the next
experience. This demonstrates that the interviewer has to be properly trained in order to focus the
responses where necessary.
Asking respondents to carve their career into phases and nominating themes to describe the phases
was helpful in encapsulating the essence of their feelings at the time, which were often multi-faceted.
This identification assisted the

395
researcher in the categorisation of the data, which is discussed in the next section.
Analysing the data

The interviews in the TESOL study were transcribed to replicate the exact wording of the respondent,
and many different methods were used to condense and analyse the data as described in Chapter III.
The general principles employed were the same as those Huberman used, but the TESOL analysis was
independently carried out. The most important aspect was to retain the respondents’ wording at all
times, and direct quotations taken from the interviews were used when making decisions about how to
analyse the data. The quotations were reduced when making final decisions, but key words were used
in the analysis of phases. The data analysis system evolved as the study evolved, particularly in the
case of synthesising the data for career cycles. In many cases, the researcher revisited the Geneva
TESOL interviews to analyse the data in a clearer fashion after experimenting with the Sydney
interviews. This shows that the methods used for analysing the data when dealing with such
voluminous amounts of data should not be totally pre-determined and rigidly adhered to as the
transcripts themselves will suggest more effective ways of synthesising the data. It is important that the
nature of the data themselves shapes the process of interpretation.
The categorisations used in the Huberman study (1993) were considered in detail for each question. In
many cases aspects could be retained, particularly where there were intrinsic or extrinsic
categorisations. However, there were many instances where the Huberman categorisations did not fit
the TESOL samples, and new categories or methods for analysing the detail were devised. In
particular, the most difficult decisions related to the minute detail. It was of utmost importance to
retain the original meaning behind the different quotations and not to try to fit them into categories for
the sake of orderliness. In this way the integrity of the data was maintained.
396
PROFESSIONAL LIFE-CYCLES OF TESOLS

Research questions 1-4 addressed the professional life-cycles of TESOLs. Following Fessler’s guide to
model building which was detailed in Chapter III (Fessler, 1995 in Guskey and Huberman, 1995) and
which provided a framework for conducting the research, the following preliminary framework has been
developed to identify the major issues explored and the interrelationship between the professional life-
cycles, the contextual factors and the motivational entry factors affecting TESOLs (see Figure 7.1).
The model includes the following variables: firstly, the various active, material and passive
motivations for entering the career, secondly, the career cycles and their phases described and
identified by respondents; thirdly, positive and negative aspects of job satisfaction; and finally, the
professional and personal contextual factors impacting on the career cycles and job satisfaction levels,
which include both professional and personal factors.

397
Motivational entry factors: active, material and passive motivations
⇓ ⇓ ⇓
Career cycles Job satisfaction
Phases / themes ⇔TESOL: POSITIVE ASPECTS
Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards
Future plans including TESOL
Reasons for re-selecting TESOL
Professional development opportunities
⇔TESOL: NEGATIVE ASPECTS
Lack of intrinsic or extrinsic rewards
Reasons for leaving TESOL
Future plans excluding TESOL
Reasons for not re-selecting TESOL Lack
of professional development opportunities
⇑ ⇑ ⇑
Contextual factors
Professional factors Personal factors
Figure 7.1: Preliminary model of career cycles of TESOLs
This model bears similarities to both Huberman’s and Fessler’s models in that all three explore career
cycles in detail. In addition to this, Huberman’s study and the current study focus on specific aspects of
satisfaction within the career cycle. Fessler’s model also explored the influence of the organisational
and personal environments on the career cycle, while the current study explores the impact of personal
and professional factors on the career cycle.

398
Each part of this preliminary model is analysed in the following sections in answering the research
questions. While there were clear differences between the two TESOL groups, particularly in their
qualifications, working conditions and levels of stability of contract, there were sufficient similarities
between responses to paint a preliminary picture of TESOLs working in an Anglophone and non-
Anglophone milieu and to speculate on a more generalised model which may apply to similar
professions.
Research question 1
What motivated TESOLs to enter the profession?
Figure 7.2 illustrates the major motivations for entry to the profession of TESOL, which included the
following active, material and passive motivations. This part of the model gives an indication of the
types of people attracted to the career, their background and reasons for entering the career. The
motivations identified varied considerably from those mentioned by Huberman’s respondents, in
particular in the areas of desire for a change and opportunities for travel, which were the most
important ones for TESOLs.

399
• Active motivations
Seeking change Suggestion from other
Preferred teaching adults to children Helping others
Career potential Love of language / teaching
Previous experience Meeting people
• Material motivations
Need a job Family life in parallel Travel opportunities
Job freedom Conditions better than in Security / work permit
schools
Access to higher status
• Passive motivations
Fell into it By process of elimination
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
TESOL CAREER
Figure 7.2: Preliminary model applied to Geneva and Sydney TESOLs: analysis of motivational factors for
entry
TESOLs often, but not always, started the career later in life. This was particularly true of those in
Geneva as they often arrived in Geneva with their spouses later in life. The main motivation for
entering the career was a desire for change (active motivation). Sydney TESOLs were also keen to
travel (material motivation), and this was particularly true for the younger career entrants, some of
whom were considering leaving TESOL after finishing their travels. Many Geneva TESOLs also “fell
into TESOL” (passive motivation) as their other career options were limited in a country where English
was not the main language. However, once they had fallen into it, they were mainly very enthusiastic
towards TESOL.
The types of motivations for entering the career differed among the three studies. However, the
TESOL respondents in both studies mentioned similar motivations which typically differed from those
mentioned by secondary school

400
teachers, in particular wishing for a change and being able to travel and reside overseas.
Sydney TESOLs were more actively motivated to enter the profession than Geneva TESOLs or
secondary school teachers, while Geneva TESOLs mentioned a higher incidence of passive
motivations due to their circumstances.
The active motivations were more intrinsic in nature for secondary school teachers, reflecting a desire
to work with young people as well as enjoyment of the subject matter. However, Sydney and Geneva
TESOLs were more extrinsically motivated, actively seeking a change. In Geneva there was less
choice and circumstances often dictated that TESOL was the only option in a non-English-speaking
environment, while in Sydney in an Anglo-environment, respondents had more choice and actively
chose TESOL as a catalyst for change in their lives. Sydney TESOLs gave a greater range of active
motivations and included more intrinsic factors, such as enjoying the profession and people in it, than
did those in Geneva.
The types of material motivations mentioned varied substantially among the three studies.
Huberman’s teachers were typically attracted to the working conditions and tenure associated with
school teaching, while TESOLs, particularly those in Sydney, were mainly attracted to the travel
opportunities afforded by TESOL. Respondents in all three studies were attracted to the flexibility and
freedom of teaching.
Lortie (1973) highlighted the importance of considering gender differences in any study of motivations
for entry to or for leaving the profession. Only two percent of responses from Huberman’s study and
from the Geneva TESOL study actually referred to the fact that TESOL is a feminine profession
allowing a career and family life in parallel. Even fewer responses from the Sydney TESOL study
(0.5%) specifically referred to this factor. TESOL does not follow the conventional school timetable as
school teaching does, but may allow flexibility and job freedom to choose a variety of timetables,
within certain
401
limitations. However, in none of the three studies were these issues raised as significant for career
choice. This suggests that the respondents were not consciously recognising gender issues as
important but it cannot rule out less conscious gender influences on the nature of response. Some
gender differences were evident in the study: for example, the males were more interested than
females in promotional positions, particularly in Sydney, and the males in Geneva had obtained or
aspired to promotional positions with more security than most of the females.
Passive motivations were not very frequent in any of the studies, but Geneva TESOLs, due to their
circumstances, “fell into” the profession more often than those in the other studies. Once they had
fallen in, they were often very satisfied with the profession.
Respondents from both TESOL studies therefore demonstrated more certainty about their choice of
profession as in many cases it was a mature decision. School teachers generally entered teaching as a
first career after university studies undertaken immediately after completing school. TESOLs rarely
discovered TESOL until much later in life, having had one or several previous careers, often including
school teaching.
Acker’s research (1992, 1995) suggests women have an “accidental” quality to re-entering the career
after family building. The large number of Geneva TESOLs mentioning a similar entry (as opposed to
re-entry) to TESOL is related to their circumstances of being in Geneva having followed their husband
and being without other career options. Many were re-entering the field of teaching in the area of
TESOL, not mainstream teaching, following their move to Geneva. Therefore, while their
circumstances differed from Acker’s, they had the same “accidental” quality to their career entry. Those
in Sydney had a lesser but still noticeable incidence of responses along these lines. Most Sydney
respondents had entered the career as a more considered choice. Many Sydney respondents,
however, discovered TESOL in order to travel, which was not the case for Geneva TESOLs, most of
whom had already travelled. A further 10% of Geneva TESOL responses and 8% of Sydney
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responses related to respondents entering because of an external suggestion. It should be noted that
male respondents were also likely to have an “accidental” entry to TESOL, so this was not a purely
female phenomenon.
Although gender does not appear to have exercised a clear direct influence on the nature of
motivations, there can be little doubt of its indirect influence, particularly in Geneva where most
entrants to the TESOL profession were women who came to Geneva only because their husband’s
career led them there.
Research question 2
What are the phases TESOLs pass through in the course of their career?
Tables 7.1, 7.2a and 7.2b present a phases model comparing the typical phases of TESOLs to those of
Huberman’s school teachers. The Huberman model is a synthesis by the author of this study of
Huberman’s findings as summarised in Huberman (1993, pp. 244-247).

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Table 7.1: Modal sequences of the teacher career cycle: a schematic model
School teachers: Huberman

(1993, ref. pp. 244-247)
Survival and discovery
Stabilisation
Experimentation & diversity / renewal and reform
Self-doubt following stabilisation /
Reassessment following disillusionment with attempts at reform
Internalisation or serenity and affective distance following period of self-doubt (not time-
bound)/
Less activism and less commitment in pursuit of greater serenity in second half of career
Greater caution (conservatism) towards reform / energetic / open / committed and
optimistic
Focusing down
• Positive focusing
• Negative focusing
• Disenchantment (bitter or serene)

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Huberman’s phases
The schematic model devised by Huberman to represent the professional life cycle of school teachers
consists of relatively clear cut phases, although Huberman states that it is a
fragmentary, embryonic and, above all highly speculative and normative sequence
(Huberman, 1993, p. 13).
The main phases traversed by school teachers according to Huberman include:
• survival and discovery, between years 1-3
• stabilisation / consolidation of a pedagogical repertoire, between years 4-6
• experimentation and diversity, between years 7-18
• self-doubt and reassessment, between years 7-25
• serenity / affective distance between years 19-30
• conservatism between years 30-40
• disenchantment (serene or bitter), between years 34-40
Huberman’s findings (1993) corroborated the first three phases of his 1989a model but identified a
slightly different ending, which included all forms of disinvestment:
• focusing down, with several sub-patterns: positive focusing; negative focusing or disenchantment.
Huberman therefore found different subpatterns and emphasised the fact that some findings are
specific to a given cohort of teachers, who have lived through the same set of events and in similar
social environments.
TESOL phases model
The TESOL groups did not demonstrate such clear cut phases and appeared to go through multiple
“mini-cycles” as well as maxi-cycles (see Table 7.2a). Table 7.2a is a further refinement and synthesis
of the Geneva and Sydney phases presented in Table 4.17 on page 232.
The major phases in the TESOL studies were:

405
• survival and discovery, between years 1-2
• experimentation, between years 2-7 (often repeated instances)
• stabilisation, between years 3-20 (often repeated instances)
• new challenges, between years 2-24 (often repeated instances)
• training, between years 1-19
• doubts / reassessment / stocktaking, between years 2-25 (often repeated)
The TESOL phases were recurring.

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Table 7.2a: Preliminary model of career cycles for Geneva and Sydney TESOLs combined
Career cycles of Genev a and Sydney TESOLs (1993-1996)
Survival and discovery (1-2 years’ experience)
Training (1-2 yrs)
Exit and re-entry (1-6 yrs)
Experimentation (2-7 yrs)
Doubts (2-11 yrs)
Uncommitted (2-6 yrs)
Back to teaching (5-8 yrs)
Further experimentation / more confidence (2-6 yrs)
Training (3-8 yrs)
Stocktaking / reassessment (3-6 yrs)
Experimentation / new challenges (2-16 yrs)
Disillusioned (1-9 yrs)
New challenges (4-15 yrs)
Stocktaking/ reassessment (7-18 yrs)
Second wind / New challenges (11-24 yrs)
Reassessment (7-25 yrs)
⇑ ⇑ ⇑
It was noted that the phases did not occur in any particular linear fashion and that many were
recurring. This is different from the main phases in Huberman’s study. Therefore, a different type of
presentation, such as the one in Table 7.2b below in which the phases are categorised, may be more
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appropriate. Table 7.2b is a further synthesis and refinement of Tables 4.6 on page 157 and 4.13 on
page 204 where the Geneva and Sydney TESOL phases were presented in a linear fashion, but
subdivided into positive and negative ones.
Table 7.2b consists of positive ones and negative phases and a third group of phases involving
reassessment or training:
• Positive phases
Discovery and experimentation (between years 1-7)
Further experimentation and new challenges (between years 2-24)
Stability (between years 3-20)
Acceptance (between years 6-28)
• Reassessment / training phases
Training (1-8 years)
Exit and re-entry (1-6 years)
Further training (3-19 years)
• Negative phases
Doubts (2-11 years)
Disillusioned (1-9 years)
Lack of commitment (2-6 years)

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Table 7.2b: Preliminary model of career cycles for Geneva and Sydney TESOLs combined
Career cycles of Genev a and Sydney TESOLs (1993-1996)
• Positiv e phases • Reassessment / training phases • Negativ e phases
Discov ery and experimentation Training Doubts (2-11 yrs)

Experimentation / new challenges Reflectiv e phases
(11-24 yrs) (3-6 yrs; 7-18 yrs; 7-25 yrs)
Stability
Stabilisation (3-9 yrs; 11-19 yrs; 8-20 yrs) Acceptance
⇑ ⇑ ⇑
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In summary, apart from the beginning phase of survival and discovery, the major phases identified by
the TESOL groups were recurring for many TESOLs and difficult to place in a linear sequence. In
contrast, the phases in Huberman’s model could generally be attributed to specific time-periods of the
career. For example, stabilisation typically occurred during years 4-6 of the cycle, while for TESOL
respondents this phase could occur at any time during the career cycle, and often there were recurring
instances of it when a respondent changed jobs, countries or schools many times in a life-time. While
the TESOL studies did not include respondents with more than 30 years’ experience, the incidence of
recurring cycles typical of many TESOLs showed no signs of abating further along the career path for
those with more than 20 years’ experience.
Contextual factors
The TESOL respondents’ career paths were influenced by specific environmental and contextual
factors, both personal and professional, relating mainly to Herzberg’s hygiene factors or potential
dissatisfiers. This finding verifies the contention made by Fessler and Christensen (1992), Huberman
(1993), Johnston (1997) and Measor (1985) that environmental factors played a role in career paths.
When positive, these contextual factors laid the ground for job satisfaction in the long-term, but, when
negative, they tended to lead to dissatisfaction. This is consistent with Herzberg’s two-factor theory.
For example, professional development opportunities may in the long term lead to promotion and
growth and greater intrinsic job satisfaction, or it can raise expectations which are never realised, while
contextual change factors can lead either to job satisfaction or dissatisfaction.
The findings of the study further highlight the dynamic nature of career cycles, as discussed by Fessler
and Christensen (1992) and Fessler, (1995). This is particularly pronounced in the case of TESOLs
because of the nature of their careers and the unstable conditions in which they often find themselves
working. The Geneva setting highlighted this, as did Johnston’s study of Polish EFL teachers (1997)
with their “unstable, marginalised, impermanent

410
occupation” (Johnston, 1997, p. 707). Industry booms and depressions also affected TESOLs in
Sydney.
In summary, unlike most school teachers, all TESOLs experience significant fluctuations in the industry
during their professional life-cycles, some many times over. Many experienced dramatic changes in
working conditions, leading to stocktaking, reassessment, and often the need for training. However,
although change, turmoil and uncertainty may be thought to cause disillusionment, cynicism, and
negative exits from the career, conversely, these adverse environmental factors appear to lead many
TESOLs to resilience, optimism, positive coping, and acceptance of challenge, and ultimately to more
positive career endings.
Figure 7.3 represents a model illustrating the contextual factors which influenced the professional life-
cycles of TESOLs. These covered a wide range of personal issues as well as professional factors.
These are discussed in detail following the model.

411
⇓ influence ⇓ influence ⇓
Career cycles and job satisfaction
⇑ influence ⇑ influence ⇑
Contextual factors

• General working conditions • Family and affective factors / personal
Isolation (Geneva) crises
Freelance / Contract / Tenure Family commitments
Working conditions in company teaching Partner’s career
(Geneva) Health of self / of family
• School management issues Divorce / separation / romantic problems
Relationship with management
Working conditions in school
• Change • Change
Change of schools / specialisation Industry Change of country
booms and crises Ability to adapt locally
• Professional development • Individual interests / needs
PD opportunities No need to earn money (Geneva)
Promotional opportunities Need for a break / holiday
Diversification Outside interests
Studies / Further studies Other career
Travel
Figure 7.3: Contextual factors (personal and professional) affecting TESOLs’ professional life-cycles
Professional factors
The professional variables affecting the respondents ranged from internal factors such as professional
development opportunities within the school to external forces such as industry booms and crises.
Other internal factors included the attitude of the school’s managers towards their employees:
412
working conditions and promotional opportunities and opportunities for diversification within the
school. In some circumstances, for example, an industry boom, respondents may have greater
potential for career development. A crisis may lead to change and possible anxiety and dissatisfaction
in the short term, but may have positive repercussions in the long term. Because they lie outside the
job itself, these variables are identified with Herzberg’s hygiene factors (Herzberg, 1959), and in some
cases would be classified by Dinham in his third cluster of in-school variables (Dinham, 1998).
• General working conditions
The general working conditions of the profession affected respondents in both settings. However, there
were similarities and differences between the two TESOL settings. Geneva respondents had a peculiar
set of circumstances, common to non-Anglophone settings but which were not found in Sydney. They
mentioned isolation, some because of working alone in a small town or city at some part of their career
with not much contact with others in the field, others because of the freelance nature of their work.
The latter were required to travel from company to company giving classes to the employees, but
rarely went to the TESOL school or interacted with colleagues. Physical conditions (including space
and room allocation) in these companies were often unsatisfactory.
Inadequate working conditions also included lack of fringe benefits, superannuation, and sick or
recreation leave. Many of the freelance Geneva respondents and had no work contract and were paid
by the hour. For others contracts were restricted to one year. Salary scales were either non-existent or
negotiated on an individual basis with the director. There was a small group in Geneva which had
excellent conditions and tenure, but this was the exception rather than the rule.
In Sydney the working conditions were generally better, with a teachers’ award, established salary
scales and sick and recreation pay. Some schools offered

413
ongoing contracts or even tenure, but most teachers started out on a freelance basis.
• School management issues
Respondents from both Sydney and Geneva mentioned school management issues. These related
either to dissatisfaction with the attitude or ethics of the manager of the school or with the
management of the school generally. In some cases this affected the general attitude of the staff
member over a long period of time contributing to dissatisfaction with aspects of the career, while in
other cases it led to career exit on a temporary or permanent basis. However, school management
issues (in Fessler’s model (1985) in the organisational environment) were not as important an issue for
respondents in the current study as for Fessler’s respondents. TESOLs were more concerned about
more general working conditions, which were not included in the Fessler model (1985), but which are
identified as hygiene factors in Herzberg’s model (Herzberg, 1959).
• Change
Change was a constant feature in many TESOL respondents’ lives. Some changed country for a range
of professional or personal reasons, which in some cases entailed a period of time when they would
take a step backwards in their career before moving ahead again. This tended to give them a chance
to stocktake and was a valuable part of the process of professional development for some.
Change also led for some to a period of uncertainty, dissatisfaction or even exit from the field. Industry
booms and crises affected respondents in both TESOL settings. These had a profound effect on many
respondents, often precipitating a change of country, workplace, position or responsibilities, and
causing some to leave the field.

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Change brought negative and positive consequences, but most of those interviewed had overcome any
hardships and had proceeded to more challenging and satisfying outcomes.
• Professional development
In Sydney there were a large number of professional development opportunities available both within
the schools and externally, such as postgraduate degrees which could be undertaken in the evenings.
Although extrinsic to the job, some professional development activities were directly concerned with
teaching itself, such as those which focused on curriculum development, diversification in teaching or
preparation for promotion. These opportunities often had a profound effect on the career cycles of
respondents. In Sydney there were more opportunities than in Geneva, probably because Sydney is a
major city in an Anglophone country. These opportunities included further study at postgraduate level,
which were taken up by many respondents. There were also more opportunities for promotion and
diversification in Sydney than in Geneva, (see Table 7.3) including managerial positions, coordinator
positions, and movement sideways into counselling and other roles as well as curriculum development
and other specialised courses. Some respondents in Sydney had opportunities to market schools and
courses overseas as well as the opportunity of teaching ESL as well as EFL.
Some of the functions set out in Table 7.3 were also carried out by Geneva respondents, but mostly
with no paid time off to perform them. Some of the additional roles outlined in Table 7.3 focused on
intrinsic factors to do with teaching itself, such as course design, materials development and TESOL
courses, while others focused on extrinsic factors connected to the work environment, such as
accommodation issues, or liaison with external bodies.

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Table 7.3: Roles of TESOL teachers and range of developmental programs undertaken by TESOLs in
Sydney
Roles of TESOLs in addition to teaching Formal programs taken by TESOLs

• Course design (including publishing texts) • Business courses
• Materials development (for courses and self- • English for Academic Purposes
access packages) • Direct entry to university
• Self-access centre counselling and materials • General English (beginners to
writing advanced)
• Assessment and placement of students • Australian Studies
• Coordinating a team of teachers • Cambridge examination preparation
• Administrative duties connected to conducting courses
all courses: documenting courses, report • Study tours
writing, class rolls, etc • High school English programs
• Responsibility for accommodation
• Student counselling including career and
further studies counselling, supporting social
welfare of students etc
• Organising social activities for students
• Liaising with external bodies / clients etc
• Marketing courses (in Australia and overseas)
• Teacher training
Geneva had more limited offerings, which is probably typical of settings in non-Anglo environments.
There were few further study opportunities at postgraduate level, but many one-off sessions from
publishers or within schools on topics of general interest. However, there was the issue that freelance
workers, who were in the majority in Geneva, were not paid to attend professional development
sessions and were expected to do so in their own time. This tended to inhibit attendance.
416
Personal factors
The personal variables affecting respondents were broadranging. In Sydney there were several
instances of respondents exiting the career temporarily because of a need to reassess their options.
Others exited for extended travel or for health reasons. The personal motivations for entering the
career could also have a lasting effect on career cycles and job satisfaction levels.
• Family and affective factors / personal crises
The respondents in Geneva included a significant cohort of women who had come to Geneva
accompanying their partners. Family commitments included temporarily exiting the career for
maternity reasons or to raise a family. In some cases, women found it difficult to manage a family with
the types of timetable restrictions of a TESOL, particularly evening teaching. This caused some to exit
the career temporarily or substantially reduced their availability, and thereby limiting their possibilities
of securing a contract. In one case, the respondent turned the circumstances of being a mother at
home into a flourishing career in textbook writing and editing.
Some respondents had to travel to follow their partner’s career. In some cases they managed to find
satisfying jobs during their career cycle in spite of frequent changes, but in other cases they were
dissatisfied with having their security frequently broken in an untimely way, having to start again, even
when quite senior in the career. In another instance in Geneva, the partner’s career involved travel
overseas and the TESOL respondent wished to accompany him but was unable to because of the
restrictions of a teaching timetable.
Health problems in some cases necessitated respondents’ temporarily exiting the field, usually without
sickness benefits or financial assistance.
Divorce or separation had profound consequences for some respondents. Some respondents in
Geneva affected in this way went from casual teaching mainly for interest reasons to making TESOL a
career in order to be the

417
breadwinner. This transition from family duties to enforced full-time working commitment tended to
prove unsettling for a period of time. However, once such respondents had adjusted to the new
situation, they often had a very satisfactory career.
Romantic problems could affect respondents at any time during the career cycle. This could have a
minor or major effect, causing just a temporary interruption during the career or a major life change.
• Change (travel-related issues)
Respondents frequently changed country during their career cycles, but in many cases they eventually
settled down into a more stable situation. However, when they were beginning their career, many
travelled for pleasure and adventure, with TESOL being the means to enable this. Some had
problems adapting locally and in some cases when the change was on a more permanent basis (such
as emigrating to Geneva because of the partner’s career), the period of adjustment was lengthy.
• Individual interests / needs
Some respondents had no need to earn money, particularly in Geneva, and had taken up TESOL for
social reasons. However, these teachers could be as committed to the profession as any others. Others
entered the profession as they perceived it could give them space for their outside interests, which in
some cases related to another parallel career, for example, art (painting, acting) and music.
Some felt the need for a break from the career or for a long holiday or to pursue another career and
left TESOL temporarily for that reason.
In summary, Geneva respondents mentioned more family or personal factors as well as factors relating
to working conditions. Sydney respondents, however, mentioned more professional factors as well as
those connected to industry booms and crises. One explanation for this different emphasis could
418
be that many Geneva respondents were in TESOL there because they had followed their partner’s
career.
Research question 3
What are the similarities and differences in the career cycles of Huberman’s school teachers to
TESOLs?
There were similarities in the nature of the phases and themes encountered in Huberman’s study and
the findings of the TESOL studies, but there were differences in the order, timing and patterns of how
they revealed themselves, further highlighting the dynamic nature of the career cycle (cf. Fessler,
1985).
Beginnings
The beginning phases of discovery and experimentation were similar for TESOLs and school teachers
(for example, Adams, 1982; Fessler, 1985; Field, 1979; Fuller, 1969; Huberman, 1989; Veenman,
1984) as were the self-doubts experienced by many TESOLs early in their careers.
Stabilisation, new challenges and stocktaking / reassessment

A feature of the Huberman and other studies was the phase of stabilisation secondary school teachers
entered after gaining permanency in the profession (for example, Ball and Goodson, 1985; Burden,
1981; Fuller, 1969; Huberman, 1989c and Sikes, 1985). There was not such a clear progression to
stabilisation for TESOLs apparently because the field did not afford the same level of permanency or
membership of a guild as was available to the secondary school teachers (for example, Huberman,
1989c). TESOLs were more likely to continue to diversify, maybe to change their situation, stabilise for
a while, then to experience new challenges or perhaps reassessment of their situation. These phases
seemed to recur throughout the career. Sikes (1985) found that teachers often became “activists” at this
stage, due to a need perhaps for variation and new challenges, and tried to lobby for improvements.
TESOLs rarely mentioned this type of activity as they were more likely to be trying to keep their jobs or
changing workplaces to seek improved conditions rather than lobbying from within. New challenges
therefore arose more from a change of country or school, a promotion or diversification in their
teaching duties.
419
The reassessment mentioned by many TESOLs could be related to the fear of stagnation referred to in
the school teacher literature (for example, Cooper, 1982; Huberman, 1989b, 1989c and Watts, 1980).
Stocktaking (or reviewing one’s career and contemplating other careers) occurred for respondents in
many studies (for example, Adams, 1982; Hamon and Rotman, 1984; Huberman, 1989; MacDonald
and Walker, 1974; Prick, 1986 and Sikes, 1985). There are some indications that males are more
affected than females. The TESOL studies revealed many instances of stocktaking or reassessment,
often scattered throughout the career. This was attributable in some cases to feelings of
disillusionment with the management of the school or to a wish to change (not necessarily out of
TESOL). In others there was a desire to change career, but often with no certainty as to possible
direction. TESOL males were affected as well as females. The sample of males was small, but these
feelings were noticeable among the sample.
Negative themes
In addition to stabilisation, Huberman’s secondary school teachers mentioned instances of negative
themes such as disenchantment and defensive focusing. In the TESOL studies, respondents had not
perhaps reached these later phases in their careers. However, from the career cycles and external
forces impacting on these, it is possible and perhaps even probable that they would not experience
these phases in the same way as many teachers do. TESOL is a relatively new profession and while
the average age of TESOLs was similar to that of the secondary school teachers, most had not been in
the profession all of their lives but had experienced one or several different careers before entering
TESOL. Moreover, even the few with more experience did not exhibit the signs of disenchantment or
of serenity or affective distance shown by many of the secondary school teachers (for example,
Lightfoot, 1985 and Prick, 1986). The two teachers in the Sydney study who had had more than 20
years’ experience did not demonstrate such tendencies. It is important, therefore, for a further study to
explore TESOLs who reach the later stages in their career.

420
This will be more feasible as the profession evolves and TESOLs age in their jobs.
New challenges and training

Poor working conditions could spur respondents to seek new challenges, and some TESOLs exited the
field temporarily, with the result that they rarely stabilised for long. In addition, the increasing
professionalisation of the field encouraged many in Sydney to become more qualified. Taking further
qualifications almost always had a positive effect on respondents in both TESOL studies, and led to
some exploring of new options and taking up of new challenges.
Owing to the relatively recent regulation of the industry (Davison, 1998), all Sydney TESOLs had to be
qualified and many had masters level qualifications. This was the first factor which caused many to
undergo frequent surges of enthusiasm within the field, and to take up new challenges. The volatile
nature of the industry in Sydney was also a factor causing many teachers to change their work situation,
which often led to new challenges and reassessment or other responses, but rarely to long periods of
stabilisation.
Balance / acceptance
On the other hand, many Geneva TESOLs lacked professional career ambition, preferring to be part-
time teachers, combining their teaching with family or other activities. Some felt that this approach
gave balance to their lives. Other respondents held the view that the prevalence of such part-time
teaching in TESOL downgraded its status. Nevertheless, both balance and acceptance were phases
experienced by Geneva TESOLs. These two themes were comparable to Huberman’s phase of
stabilisation.
Effects of change: new challenges or reassessment

As the detailed analysis of the interviews revealed, TESOL respondents in both studies seemed to
have experienced more instances of major change than secondary school teachers; change of country,
change of school, change of career and change of position. This led to a range of phases including
diversification, experimentation and new challenges on the one hand, or to

421
reassessment and a return to teaching on the other. Though people are known to fear constant
change and uncertainty, it appears that less stable and predictable environments may actually lead in
some instances to greater flexibility and resilience, more regular periods of challenge and renewal,
and in the end, more enduring job satisfaction.
Figure 7.4 provides a preliminary model of the career cycles of Sydney and Geneva TESOLs from the
current study, indicating the factors affecting them. The career cycles include positive, reassessment /
training and negative phases and aspects of job satisfaction are considered in further versions of this
model.
422
⇓ ⇓ ⇓
Career cycles
Positiv e phases Reassessment / training Negativ e phases
phases
Survival and discovery Training Doubts / Disillusioned
Experimentation Further training Uncommited
Further experimentation / more Exiting and re-entry
confidence Back to teaching
Experimentation / new Stocktaking / reassessment
challenges
Second wind / new challenges
Stabilisation
Acceptance / balance
⇑ ⇑ ⇑
Contextual factors
Figure 7.4: Preliminary model of the career cycles of Sydney and Geneva TESOLs with the factors affecting
them.
Research question 4
How valid is Huberman’s career phase model currently in view of the changing employment situation
globally from more tenured secure employment to less security, greater casualisation and a consequent
greater need for mobility?
Overall the TESOL career cycles had more variety in them than those of the secondary school
teachers. TESOLs went through mini-cycles of phases which were often linked to events, in particular
instances of change; for example a promotion may lead to new challenge, or a change of country
could lead to a
423
whole chain of phases from beginnings, then diversification followed by a promotion.
One respondent with more than 10 years of experience from the Sydney study expressed how she
repeatedly had to begin again:
My future in Sydney is probably not more than two years, and with some apprehension I’ll start
again, digging in again, establishing credibility again, but I never imagine I won’t find work,
but I might not find what I want.
A change in the economy could lead to a downturn in the industry, which could lead to retrenchment
or to TESOLs having to seek work elsewhere. They may therefore enter one mini-cycle, going through
a beginning phase, then one of experimentation and diversification as they “learn the ropes”, followed
by a brief phase of stabilisation before the next change, which may lead them to a period of
reassessment before moving into a new mini-cycle.
TESOLs, therefore, also progress through a career, but they may go back through a cycle, then move
forward, and then back many times. One possible reason for this difference between TESOL and
secondary school teachers is that the secondary school teacher models of Huberman and others were
all based on the school scenario of an earlier era or on one which may continue to pertain only in
large, stable school systems. Teachers had stable jobs and progressed steadily through cycles, which
in many cases had a predictable trajectory. This could be attributed principally to the stable tenured
employment with security, a regulated promotion system, and other related benefits. It could be that
Huberman and others have over-simplified their model in reducing the experience of secondary school
teachers to a clear phases model. If not, and his respondents do, in fact, experience these major
phases in the broad sequence he proposes, then their overall experience is very different from that of
the TESOL respondents.

424
TESOLs, unlike Huberman’s secondary school teachers, demonstrate behaviour which may reflect
changes occurring more generally in contemporary society with its lack of tenure of employment, its
lack of secure working conditions, its mobility and its sensitivity to economic forces (for example,
Cleary, 1998 and Thurow, 1996). As a result people must be adaptable, qualified in diverse areas,
mobile and ready to start several times over. These qualities were all aspects of TESOL, and, while
being clearly apparent in the unstable circumstances of Geneva, were also evident in Sydney where
there were more opportunities for mobility and where many respondents had already undergone
several crises even in the early years of their career.
JOB SATISFACTION
Research questions 5-11 addressed job satisfaction of TESOLs. Analysis of research question 10 is
discussed later in this section as well as being subsumed in the discussion of research questions 5-9
below.
Research question 5
Do respondents consider TESOL to be a career?
Figure 7.5 illustrates the positive and negative aspects referred to by respondents about TESOL as a
career. Respondents in both studies mentioned more intrinsic rewards than extrinsic ones as reasons
for believing TESOL to be a career. Sydney respondents appreciated the material rewards of the
profession, particularly opportunities to travel, more than Geneva TESOLs. However, few respondents
in either study mentioned those material benefits which are linked to pay or working conditions.
425
Positive aspects of TESOL as a career
• Intrinsic rewards • Extrinsic rewards
Professional rewards: Material rewards (eg travel)
expansion; advancement Commitment
Personal rewards (eg full-time employment)
Negative aspects of TESOL as a career
• Intrinsic rewards • Extrinsic rewards
Lack of professional rewards: advancement Lack of material rewards
Lack of commitment (eg freelance)
Lack of personal rewards
Figure 7.5: Positive and negative aspects relating to TESOL being a career
More Sydney TESOLs than Geneva TESOLs were convinced of TESOL being a genuine career, but
both studies indicated optimism for the future of TESOL, with respondents in both studies believing
TESOL was becoming more professional. Sydney TESOLs particularly referred to the growing
professionalisation of the industry, which they felt was offering more opportunities. It would be of
interest to interview the same teachers today to assess if their perceptions had changed as a
consequence of the recent crisis in the Sydney industry brought on by the Asian economic difficulties.
This sense of optimism about TESOL being or becoming a profession is not necessarily echoed by
other TESOL studies. McKnight (1992) states that his study supported common assertions that TESOL
has no proper career structure and he further commented on the low morale, low status and lack of
opportunities for study leave (McKnight, 1992, p. 30). Furthermore, the study conducted by the Centre
for British Teachers (1989) found a heavy attrition rate of teachers by the age of 45. The current study
did not explore attrition rates, but it did indicate that many people were joining the profession later as
a second career. As indicated earlier, in Geneva many were women following their husbands, while in
Sydney several were school teachers wishing for a career change.

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Acker (1992, 1995) found that the few male teachers she encountered could not be characterised as
more career-minded than the women. These findings are not, however, corroborated by the current
research as the few TESOL male respondents were, in fact, more career-minded than many of the
female respondents. Many could be found in the group of trainers / administrators interviewed (the
only male trainer interviewed in the Geneva study was younger than the other respondents yet in a
senior post, while the gender balance of Sydney trainers and administrators was more even, but the
males were younger than the female respondents), while many of the males still in the teaching group
were disillusioned or stocktaking at the time of the study. All had sought career advancement or
diversification or talked of exiting if their career ambitions were not realised. This was not the case for
most of the female respondents, some of whom stated that they did not wish to be promoted.
Research question 6
What concerns do beginning TESOL teachers have?
The beginning phase of the career seemed to be fairly consistent with Huberman’s findings about
school teachers. Therefore, even though respondents may have had previous teaching experience
and training in another context, as many of them did in both TESOL studies, they seemed to go
through an initial phase of finding their feet, learning the ropes and gaining confidence in themselves.
The TESOLs had less focus on discipline problems than did secondary school teachers. Many of those
who had worked previously as school teachers mentioned previous school discipline problems as a
prime motivator for leaving schools and entering TESOL.
The number of positive and negative responses given were very similar in the three studies, with
marginally more negative responses in the beginning phases. This suggests a considerable degree of
satisfaction with the career even in the formative years.

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Sydney TESOLs detailed considerably more positive aspects than Geneva TESOLs in the examples
given. There was more variety in the types of responses given by Sydney TESOLs than by Geneva
TESOLs, almost certainly because of the richer work environment available in Sydney. However, there
were similarities in the types of concerns expressed.
Pedagogical concerns were similar in the three studies including the familiarisation process with
teaching materials and methods. Planning and preparation issues were also mentioned by
respondents in the three studies. The differences were that Huberman’s respondents were concerned
about their relationship with their colleagues, and their attitude towards professional roles and status.
Discipline was a major concern for them, but not for TESOLs. Many Geneva TESOLs worked in
isolation and were thus more concerned about a lack of support and their relationship with their
students than Sydney TESOLs or secondary school teachers. Logistics were another concern voiced by
several Geneva TESOLs as they had to travel between classes.
Personal themes included financial matters in all three studies and marriage or family concerns.
Adapting locally was a concern for Geneva TESOLs and school teachers, but was not mentioned by
Sydney TESOLs. Many of the Sydney TESOLs were on their home territory when they entered
TESOL, while Geneva TESOLs had often followed their spouses and were in a new environment.
Affective themes included positive and negative responses about the quality of the experience and
self-perceptions. Stress and a lack of confidence were frequently mentioned, which would be expected
at the beginning of a career. However, 30% of Sydney TESOL and 8% of Geneva TESOL responses
were unsolicited positive comments.
Sydney TESOLs were better prepared at entry and had better support systems than Geneva TESOLs,
which may explain why they were more positive towards TESOL in the early stages of the career.
However, although there were many secondary qualified teachers taking up TESOL, they encountered
similar issues at the beginning of their career to teachers with no preparation and secondary school
teachers who entered the career directly following university.

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The concerns of respondents in all three studies were therefore fairly similar, concentrating on
familiarising themselves with materials and methods in the classroom and gaining in confidence.
Research question 7
Do they have moments of doubt about the profession?
In spite of their overall general career satisfaction, the TESOL respondents in both studies appeared to
have more numerous moments of doubt than secondary school teachers. Working conditions were the
main reasons for moments of doubt for TESOL teachers. This is not surprising considering the security
of school teachers’ working conditions compared with the high levels of casual and contract work in the
TESOL field. Even in Sydney where the conditions were much better than in Geneva, one quarter of
respondents mentioned working conditions as leading to moments of doubt.
Figure 7.6 illustrates the main reasons, both personal and professional, for considering leaving TESOL:
Reasons for considering leaving TESOL
• Professional reasons • Personal reasons
Money and working conditions Family reasons
Positive motives (career change; move sideways) Reluctance to work
Lack of confidence
Stress / boredom / loneliness
Institutional reasons
Bad experiences with students
Disappointment with management
Figure 7.6: Negative aspects of TESOL: moments of doubt
The frequent moments of doubt and reassessment in TESOL were also as a result of external crises,
such as the Asian crisis which started in 1997 (for example, Coorey, 1997), change of country or of
position, which often led to a

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period of reassessment and doubt, and in some cases even to respondents exiting the career for a
while before re-entering. Overall in the study, these moments of doubt or stocktaking often preceded
more positive phases of new challenge, stabilisation or further experimentation.
Johnston (1997, pp. 698-699) and the current Geneva TESOL study both found an instance of a
disillusioned male teacher citing that only women can afford to be in TESOL because they have their
husband’s financial support. Some women also commented that those taking up TESOL for more
social rather than economic or professional reasons possibly downgraded the status of the profession,
but generally the women affected perceived TESOL in a positive light in the Geneva study as it gave
them an interest outside the home. However, for some males it meant a downgrading of the profession
and low salary levels. Johnston (1997, p. 699) speculated that the low levels of pay in teaching may
be due precisely to the fact that teachers are predominantly women.
Doubts were mainly clustered around the beginning phase and between years 7-10 for TESOLs, while
school teachers had most doubts at the beginning and between years 11-15. Other periods of doubt
for school teachers were after year 15, while Geneva TESOLs had a lower incidence after year 15, and
Sydney TESOLs did not mention doubts after year 16. The doubts for TESOLs often related to
extrinsic aspects such as dissatisfaction with working conditions and attempts at a career move to
improve the situation. These attempts were scattered throughout the career cycle, particularly for
Geneva TESOLs. In the later phases of their career, they often settled into phases of acceptance or
stabilisation.
Research questions 8 and 9

Question 8: What are their future career plans?
Question 9: Would they re-select TESOL if they had their lives to relive?
Question 8 was asked only of TESOLs, whilst question 9 was asked of respondents in all three studies.
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When questioned about their future plans, the majority of TESOLs expressed a desire to remain in
TESOL or to combine it with another activity, suggesting high levels of satisfaction with the career.
Figure 7.7 illustrates the future plans of TESOLs.
Future plans
• TESOL-related • Non-TESOL related • Neutral
Continue in TESOL Other career Uncertain
TESOL combined with other Family life priority
activity Preference to travel
Figure 7.7: TESOLs’ future aspirations
Parallel activities could be related to TESOL, such as materials writing, or moving into training or
development, or not related to TESOL, such as translation or music. Pursuing further studies was
mentioned by many Sydney TESOLs, because of the variety of types of programs available and the
need to upgrade qualifications to remain competitive. Sydney TESOLs also mentioned a greater
variety of TESOL-related positions to which they aspired, such as counselling, management and
promotional positions, which were not available in Geneva. Greater numbers of Sydney TESOLs
planned to continue with TESOL than Geneva TESOLs, but both studies indicated that the majority
wished to continue.
Many respondents in the current TESOL study evidenced levels of uncertainty in their responses to this
question as did respondents in the study conducted by the Centre for British Teachers (CfBT, 1989).
They were often unsure or vague about future career direction. This is possibly because of a lack of an
institutionalised career structure in TESOL. CfBT (1989, p. 17) found that for most TESOLs who have
done their five or ten years at the coalface and have normally collected their qualifications, there is
probably nowhere to go but sideways.
Acker’s research (1992, 1995) revealed that gender issues included female respondents being reluctant
to make long-term plans with any certainty and

431
older women blaming their gender for impeding their progress in the career structure. Some of Acker’s
younger female teachers had no well-developed ambitions but several years later had become deputy
head teachers. There are parallels in the current research into TESOLs. Some female respondents
stated that they did not wish to be promoted while two others said they were happy to be back in
teaching after a period overseas and had no ambitions. Both of these have since taken up senior
positions.
Huberman felt that asking teachers whether they would re-select the profession or not was an
“unequivocal way” of measuring satisfaction. However, this was not the case in the TESOL studies as
some respondents said they would not re-select the profession for reasons other than lack of
satisfaction. Some were women who had had few opportunities open to them other than teaching and
were attracted to the idea of choice itself rather than having any concrete ideas for change, while
others said they would do something different just to have a new experience. Many of the Geneva
TESOLs said that had they not been in Geneva with their spouses, they would probably not have
discovered TESOL in the first place. Therefore they were unsure how to respond. This may account
for the larger number of responses indicating indecision in the TESOL studies compared with
Huberman’s study. Therefore the greater uncertainty in the TESOL studies was probably not due to
less satisfaction but more to uncertainty about whether they would find themselves in the same
circumstances again. For secondary school teachers this appeared to be a more straightforward
question and perhaps for that reason a greater percentage said they would re-select the profession
even though their career cycles showed growing negativism for many towards the end of their careers.
Figure 7.8a illustrates the reasons respondents gave for re-selecting TESOL, while 7.8b gives the
reasons for not re-selecting or conditional reasons for re-selecting TESOL:

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Re-select TESOL?
• Intrinsic reasons • Extrinsic reasons
Enjoyment / rewarding Flexibility
Learning about other cultures Travel opportunities
Meeting people Comfortable lifestyle
Suits me Family life in parallel
Desire to help Boom industry
Love of teaching Variety; creativity
Love of language No other choice
Figure 7.8a: Reasons for re-selecting TESOL
Re-select TESOL?
• Conditional reasons • No
Aspects I would change Wouldn’t have discovered it
Would have done it earlier Why do same thing again?
For part of my life Women’s opportunities are changing
If married same man No, other choice
Not enough money
Wouldn’t have discovered it
Figure 7.8b: Reasons for not re-selecting or conditional reasons for re-selecting TESOL
Intrinsic reasons for re-selecting included the pleasure of contact with children / adults for respondents
in all three studies, a desire to help people and a love of the subject matter. Sydney TESOLs were
keen to travel and some enjoyed the lifestyle of TESOLs. Reasons for considering change without
necessarily reflecting negative feelings towards the profession, for Sydney TESOLs included the fact
that there were more choices available now and a wish to try something new. Geneva TESOLs
expressed similar conditional reasons. For school teachers such conditional reasons related more to
fear of routine and a desire to combine work and pleasure.

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The conditional reasons for re-selecting the profession included finding themselves given the same
circumstances as in this life. In fact, some felt that they would never have discovered it had it not been
for these circumstances (for example, having followed their husbands to Geneva, having given up their
previous careers, having had it suggested to them, etc).
Intrinsic reasons for re-selecting the profession were more frequent than extrinsic reasons in all three
studies, which is in keeping with the findings of other major studies on job satisfaction with teaching
(for example, Farrugia, 1986; Kyriacou and Sutcliffe, 1977; Lortie, 1975; Pennington, 1991 and
Sergovianni, 1964). Sydney TESOLs gave a far greater variety of reasons, both intrinsic and extrinsic,
and more numerous responses than Geneva TESOLs for re-selecting TESOL. The extrinsic reasons,
however, reflected the better working conditions Sydney TESOLs enjoyed when compared with their
Geneva counterparts. Extrinsic factors such as change, both in personal circumstances, travel or
promotion in the school, as well as a change in the economic situation, crises or booms in the industry
also affected respondents and their potential for advancement. These contextual factors, which have
been explored in more recent literature on job satisfaction (for example, Dinham, 1995, 1998), can be
related to Herzberg’s hygiene factors, often being external to the work environment, but having an
impact on it.
Research question 10
How do the findings for research questions 6, 7 and 9 compare to Huberman’s findings for secondary
school teachers?
In summary, despite having more ups and downs including moments of doubt and fear than secondary
school teachers, and despite poor working conditions, TESOLs appeared overall to be as satisfied or, in
some cases, more satisfied with the profession than secondary school teachers. The lack of security in
the profession may have kept their interest alive as there were no instances evident of long-term
stagnation or boredom with the profession. Those who were in a negative period showed signs of
embarking on the next change in their career.

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Sydney TESOLs consistently gave a greater variety of responses for each question than Geneva
TESOLs, which was indicative of the richer environment for opportunities for promotion, for moving
sideways in the career and for undertaking further studies, the better working conditions and the greater
professionalism in Sydney. This resulted in what appeared to be an overall slightly greater satisfaction
for Sydney TESOLs than for Geneva TESOLs.
Huberman found that job satisfaction was contingent on three factors later in the career (Guskey and
Huberman, 1995, p. 205):
• enjoying privileged relationships with cohorts of students
• sudden improvement in students’ performance
• seeking a role shift when feeling stale
The first two were not important for TESOLs, who rarely mentioned student relationships or student
achievement, focusing instead on the intrinsic and extrinsic rewards relating to personal satisfaction,
such as opportunities to travel, enjoying relationships with colleagues in TESOL, enjoying languages
or learning about other cultures.
The third factor was significant for TESOLs, as the findings revealed that TESOLs frequently changed
jobs, country or schools when feeling stale or in economic downturns.
A comparison of findings on phases and job satisfaction

The findings from Chapter IV on phases and itineraries of school teachers and TESOLs predicted that
TESOLs may have smoother career paths as there was a higher incidence of themes related to
harmony than doubts, unlike the secondary school teachers whose itineraries included more themes of
doubt than harmony.
However, in Chapter V where respondents were questioned specifically on aspects of job satisfaction,
school teachers answered more positively than TESOLs on questions such as whether they had
considered leaving the profession or whether they would re-select it. However, TESOLs had higher
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levels of uncertainty, possibly due to the fact that it was a career which was often hard to discover, and
which had less secure working conditions. In the TESOL studies, respondents were also questioned on
their future plans and their attitude towards TESOL as a career. Sydney TESOLs answered more
positively than Geneva TESOLs, who were nonetheless fairly positive.
The findings suggest that some of Huberman’s teachers may have had more deep-seated doubts than
TESOL respondents, above all at the end of the career, whereas most TESOLs experiencing doubts
were likely to re-enter fresh positive phases as they made changes to their lives, even later in their
lives. In Chapter VI, diversification including change was reported as a major influential factor in
TESOLs’ careers. In most cases change had a positive outcome with respondents preparing
themselves for the next challenge. The levels of uncertainty, but not necessarily dissatisfaction,
experienced at different times during the career cycles were, however, very high for TESOLs due to the
unstable working conditions, lack of job security and instability in the industry generally, which is tied to
the economic situation.
In the final analysis, apparently due to the reasons outlined in the previous paragraph, school teachers
seemed more prepared to commit themselves to positive or negative responses, while TESOLs seemed
to waver in uncertainty in their responses. These differences were probably due to their differing
situations. This did not necessarily mean that TESOLs were less positive about the career, but that
they demonstrated less certainty about their future paths. Many had tentatively attempted to leave the
profession during the career, but often for reasons of uncertainty about future prospects rather than
because of dissatisfaction with the career itself.
These findings reinforce the dynamic nature of the career cycle as defined by Fessler and Christensen
(1992) and both the strengths and some inadequacies of Huberman’s framework (1993).
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PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
What are the professional development needs of TESOL teachers at their current phase?
Figure 7.9 shows a preliminary model of TESOL categories of responses for professional development
in Sydney and Geneva, with the environmental factors impacting on the likely successful outcome. In
the centre of the model are the main categories of professional development during their career cycles
mentioned by TESOLs in the study. These include diversification in the classroom and beyond the
classroom, professional development in the staffroom and collegiality as well as training and further
studies TESOLs undergo.
The likely success of this professional development is affected by their environmental situation. If they
are undergoing change they may need professional development to support them through the change.
For example, if they change country or school they may work in a position requiring new skills for which
they will need preparation and support from others. Change may bring with it new development
opportunities or a lack of such opportunities. A boom period may bring new opportunities, whereas a
downturn in the economy may lead to reduced opportunities or even job loss. Where they live or their
personal circumstances may determine whether there are further study opportunities or a lack of these.
437
Career cycles
⇑ ⇑ ⇑ ⇑
TESOL professional dev elopment opportunities
Diversification in classroom
Diversification beyond the classroom
Professional development in staffroom / collegiality
Training / further studies
⇑ ⇑ ⇑ ⇑
Env ironmental factors impacting on success
• Change
• Opportunities / Lack of opportunities in the new environment
• Downturn in economy / Boom periods
• Promotional opportunities / Lack of promotional opportunities
• Opportunities for further study / Lack of further study opportunities
Figure 7.9: Preliminary model of TESOL professional development and associated environmental factors
impacting on success
The professional development mentioned by Geneva TESOLs was more limited in range than that
mentioned by Sydney TESOLs, almost certainly due to the superior working conditions and the greater
range of promotional opportunities and professional development opportunities available in Sydney.
Geneva TESOLs also indicated some cynicism towards professional development, partly attributable to
expectations that they would self-fund their professional development and partly because some
respondents had not experienced professional development for more than 10 years and felt no need
for it.
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TESOLs appear to have a narrow view of the term professional development, limiting it mainly to
formal inservice workshops. However, there is considerable evidence from responses to the general
interview questions that TESOLs are aware of a range of less formal activities which can promote
professional growth and development, including changing countries, occupations and positions. There
was criticism of the workshops and formal inservice training offered, which was also evident in
Huberman’s study. However, many TESOL respondents professed to enjoy workshops as they offered
an opportunity for interacting with others outside their institution. Diversification was mentioned as
being important to TESOLs, particularly in the Sydney study where there were more opportunities,
such as movement into administration, counselling or training.
According to the literature, collaboration between teachers is essential for successful professional
development (for example, Fullan and Hargreaves, 1991), and structures supporting collegiality are
also positive factors (Anastos and Arcowitz, 1987; Eisner, 1988; Johnson and Johnson, 1987;
Leiberman and Miller, 1984 and Little, 1984). In this research trainers / administrators rate these types
of professional development low in priority overall, whereas the TESOL teachers seemed to value
them consistently. This is further evidence that the TESOLs in the study were more aware of their
professional development needs than many trainers / administrators gave them credit for. In the
TESOL model (see Figure 7.9), the following aspects support these notions: diversification in the
classroom included observation and feedback by management, by trainees and by peers, as well as
observing others. However, respondents contended that there was little time for this type of valuable
professional development, and when it did occur, it was generally at the beginning of the career.
Diversification beyond the classroom included coordination of teachers, teacher training and taking up
promotional positions, which all involved collaboration with peers, if not always on an equal basis as
most of these were promotional positions; professional development in the staffroom specifically
related to informal discussions with colleagues and exchanging ideas, which was viewed positively by
teachers in the study, but not

439
given much attention by trainers / administrators. Training / further studies also included instances of
collegiality, particularly when carrying out research projects with colleagues or in teams.
Huberman’s model for professional development (1995, pp. 208-218) can be applied to the TESOL
groups. The collective cycle mainly involved groups of teachers from different backgrounds and
schools working together, sharing experiences and experimenting together. Further study opportunities
offered this type of experience in TESOL. As indicated earlier, TESOLs in Sydney had more
opportunities to undertake professional development in keeping with the models proposed by
Huberman and others (for example, Fullan and Hargreaves, 1991), while those in Geneva were more
restricted, with teachers often operating in isolation, with few opportunities for professional
development other than the occasional inservice session or workshop.
Another important aspect of professional development is personalised development programs for
individual teachers (for example, Eraut, 1993, Fessler, 1995 and Levine, 1989). This type of
professional development is consistent with that promoted in the TESOL literature (for example, Edge,
1992 and Richards, 1991) and was regularly practised by one trainer / supervisor in Geneva. However,
Nunan (1991) supports peer, not supervisory collaboration. The Geneva TESOLs undergoing this type
of professional development were freelance, and many of these felt resentment for having to give up
their private time for professional development with no recompense. Several other trainers /
administrators in both TESOL studies mentioned that they would like to conduct more tailored
programs, but they also acknowledged the funding constraints.
Another aspect of professional development highlighted in the general literature included developing
new skills and incorporating new ideas into practice (Fullan, 1985; Goodlad, 1984; Joyce, 1986;
Sirotnik, 1987 and Welsh, 1986). While timetables generally allow little time for this type of
professional development, there were instances in Sydney of funded projects allowing

440
curriculum development over periods of time. This was unusual, however. Further studies may also
allow for this type of professional development.
The literature also states that, while professional development sponsored by outside agencies is
acknowledged as important, the most important type is that which is built into the school itself (Bolam,
1982; Goodlad, 1983 and Joyce, 1986). The main schools involved in the study in Geneva had their
own professional development programs, but many of the teachers were operating freelance across
many schools. In Sydney all but one school had their own professional development programs.
However, further studies involving lectures outside the school were deemed by respondents to be an
important part of their professional development.
In summary, the principal types of professional development promoted in the TESOL literature were
not really taking place on either site, as action research (for example, Burns, 1998; Wallace, 1998) in
which teachers collect data and reflect on their own and colleagues’ philosophy to teaching was rarely
referred to by either Geneva or Sydney TESOLs. The main type of professional development
mentioned in both workplaces were workshops and other formal and informal gatherings of language
teachers. These were also mentioned in the TESOL literature (for example, Murphy, 1994).
Is there a link between professional development needs perceived as useful and the phase
respondents are in?
There was some link between the phase respondents were in and the type of professional development
mentioned, but the link was not strong. Respondents in a phase of doubt or stabilisation in both
studies mentioned different kinds of professional development from those in a phase of
experimentation. Inservice workshops were typically favoured by those in a phase of doubt or
stabilisation, most probably in an effort to refresh themselves and restimulate their interest in the
profession. They often mentioned specific courses which included personal development,
management training, computer training and other issues not directly related to TESOL. Those in a
phase of
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experimentation, however, preferred reflection and diversification in the case of Sydney TESOLs and
inservice training, keeping up to date and interaction with colleagues in the case of Geneva TESOLs.
When looking at experimentation and professional development, all respondents favoured inservice
training although there were many criticisms of the inservice workshops actually offered. Those with
less experience favoured interaction with colleagues, while those with more experience placed
personal reflection higher.
Professional development needs appeared to be related to a range of factors including external
economic forces, personal factors such as change or promotion, going back to teaching or a personal
reassessment. Any or all of these factors may influence the type of professional development preferred
at a given moment in the TESOL career and there is little evidence of consistent patterns emerging
according to stages, phases or ages. This has significant implications for educational administrators, as
a diverse program of professional development needs to be available at all times for TESOLs as it is
difficult to predict the type of professional development they may require at any given phase of the
career. This is almost certainly linked to the more unpredictable careers TESOLs follow compared to
their school teacher counterparts.
What professional development do TESOL trainers/administrators perceive the teachers need at the
various phases of their career, and what do they perceive teachers want?
Geneva trainers / administrators mentioned inservice training for those more inexperienced TESOLs
and other types of professional development for more experienced TESOLs. However, the TESOLs
themselves continued to value inservice training above all. Sydney trainers / administrators felt that
both inexperienced and more experienced teachers needed diversification most, while the teachers
appeared to prefer inservice training in their responses to specific professional development questions.
However, an examination of the

442
professional development mentioned in the general interviews reveals a far greater interest in
diversification following change than teachers specifically referred to in both studies. This indicates
that the Sydney trainers / administrators may be consciously aware of some of the types of professional
development that teachers need and want, but do not readily identify as professional development.
What ideal aspirations do trainers/administrators have for professional development programs?
Trainers / administrators continued to rate inservice training as most important, but produced a slightly
more imaginative list for this question than for the previous ones, nominating school events and
sabbaticals, for example. One of the constraints faced by trainers / administrators was that many
schools conduct courses with no break, leaving little time for professional development. Being able to
hold school events outside teaching time was an attractive option. Sydney respondents also
mentioned formal studies. Conference attendance also featured more prominently than in responses
to other questions, as many apparently considered it too expensive an item to mention previously.
Sydney trainers / administrators more accurately predicted teachers’ perceived needs than did Geneva
trainers / administrators. However, in spite of the additional types of professional development
mentioned in answer to this question, the range continued to be fairly limited. Perhaps not
surprisingly, respondents appeared to be unable to imagine a situation with no budget constraints.
How closely does the professional development mentioned as useful by TESOL teacher respondents
match the perceptions of trainers / administrators?
In the Geneva study, the types of professional development mentioned were more limited in scope
than they were in the Sydney study, but both studies demonstrated a mismatch between what the
trainers /administrators perceived

443
the teachers needed and wanted and what the teachers themselves considered they needed.
Some of the Sydney trainers / administrators were cynical about the general level of interest of
teachers in professional development, but this was not mirrored by the responses of teachers
themselves. In Geneva some teachers were not interested in professional development, but trainers /
administrators perceived a greater lack of interest even than the reality. In many cases, the trainers /
administrators were more limited in their perception of what constituted professional development than
were the teachers, as evidenced by their general comments on their career path.
While professional development for school teachers is often based on career phase theory, there was
no evidence of TESOL trainers / administrators using any particular theoretical basis or consistent
methodology for their choice of professional development offerings. Rather, their professional
development programs seemed to be based, in some cases, on teachers’ requests and in other cases
on the trainers’ whims, leading to programs devised without adequate resources or consultation and
without any clear rationale.
Summary of major findings

Encapsulated from the findings in relation to each of the research questions, reported above, the major
findings of the present study include the following:
1 The study demonstrates that Huberman’s theoretical framework and methodology can be
creatively applied to a different situation. Huberman’s framework provides a useful framework for
analysis, regardless of the specific environmental factors even though his teacher career phase model
did not adequately predict the typical career phases experienced by TESOLs.
2 The research provides verification of the contention made by Huberman and separately by
Fessler and Christensen that environmental factors play an important role in determining an
individual’s career trajectory. It also suggests that groups experiencing specific environmental
conditions may follow different

444
kinds of career paths from other groups experiencing different environmental conditions. This has
implications for program managers and policy makers.
3 The study provides valuable insights into the specific career trajectories experienced by
TESOLs and the special factors which influence these trajectories. The typically late career entrance
and the problematic and transitory nature of the profession are two factors contributing to the
development of TESOL career patterns which, to a large degree, are different from those typical of
school teachers. In spite of the inherent uncertainty in their profession, TESOLs were very committed
to their discipline, students and lifestyle. Many valued the flexibility of the profession in spite of its lack
of stability.
4 The study provides support for a theoretical model which may assist future research into teacher
career cycle theory and career cycle theory generally. The critical differences identified in the
variables between the Huberman model and the TESOL model may be indicators which predict
differences in the type of career trajectory which groups demonstrating some or all of those differences
are likely to undergo. This suggests that traditional career models may need modification in light of
recent developments in career stability generally, to take account of less traditional and stable careers
like TESOL.
5 The current study also suggests that the traditional career cycles often used by policy makers
and program managers in the field of education to determine professional development needs and for
human resource management need to be reviewed in view of the typically changing work situation
towards less security and more flexibility in the workplace. The findings have implications for
identification, recruitment, preservice training and the continuing professional development of
TESOLs and other groups with similar career characteristics.
6 There is considerable difference between the way in which TESOLs perceive their
professional development needs and the way in which their

445
trainers / administrators perceive them. This gap needs to be closed if the professional
development provided for TESOLs is to be seen by them as relevant and useful.
IMPLICATIONS DERIVED FROM THE FINDINGS
Implications for career phase theory

The findings of the TESOL studies on career cycles may be the most significant in the study. The
career phases of TESOLs were in many ways very different from those of secondary school teachers
generally, and also from those of other careers reported in the classical career phase literature. Up to
the 1980s jobs were more secure and tenured, particularly in large organisations. Workers in the public
service, in the banking industry and in school and tertiary education, for example, entered the career
after completing secondary or tertiary studies and often remained in the same career for life
(Barrowclough, 1998). These life-long careers offer stability but often appear to lead to boredom, and
even cynicism, particularly towards the latter years. Huberman’s and other studies give clear
indications of this type of progression. Of course, the career cycle is not necessarily a common, linear
process and for some, there were instances of major external change, such as those experienced in
Huberman’s study, and opportunities for promotion for some members of the career. These events and
opportunities offered some diversification and renewal, but there was also a good deal of stability for
many, with little change. Professional development programs have therefore typically been geared to
this type of more predictable (and for many, more static) career.
TESOLs, however, have never experienced this type of career, as their stories reveal. Their typical
employment situation has always been unstable and the industry responsive to economic changes.
They have been forced to be mobile, which often suited them as they tend to travel to find new
challenges or just to find a job. In more recent years, in Sydney the situation had become more stable
and secure, with contracts and permanency being offered to many respondents. However, during the
writing of this thesis the industry experienced a new unexpected crisis as a result of the Asian economic
446
downturn, leading to many redundancies and once again to TESOLs going overseas to find
employment or other types of change. Therefore, the career phases of TESOLs reflect the very
different nature of their situation and the different factors in their environment.
The trajectories of many TESOLs therefore fluctuated throughout their career, with respondents
undergoing mini-cycles, often starting a new phase with a new beginning, then engaging in
experimentation followed by a brief moment of stability. This may be followed by a period of
reassessment coinciding often with external turmoil, (but sometimes because of the beginnings of
boredom while in a stable situation), before encountering the next change and mini-cycle. There were
very few instances of respondents entering the career and stabilising long-term. Even those who did
not lose their jobs had watched their colleagues being affected by the economic downturns and could
not allow themselves to become bored or complacent. They had to constantly upgrade their
qualifications or diversify their experience in order to remain employable.
This may have a powerful message for career phase theory as many of the industries that previously
enjoyed secure employment conditions have entered a new era. According to Michael Pusey
(Professor of Sociology at the University of NSW), one in three jobs in Australia is now part-time or
casual, as opposed to one in 20 in the 1970s (Barrowclough, 1998). And according to Elaine
Thompson (Associate Professor of Political Science at the University of NSW), for many people it is no
longer possible to talk about a “career”:
In my profession, in your profession, in the public service, in big organisations like banks, it’s
simply not the case now… At the best, people have to expect and prepare to be retrained or
look for completely different work and expect to have long periods of unemployment. There
are no guarantees anymore (Barrowclough, 1998).
In these changing conditions, new studies need to be carried out in order to rethink the traditional
career phase models to make them more relevant to prevailing and future employment conditions.
The whole basis of career phase

447
theory may need to be reconsidered in these changed circumstances. A TESOL model arising from
this research (figure 7.10) is therefore offered as an example of a profession demonstrating tendencies
and with environmental and personal variables which may inform or provide some indication of future
research directions.
Figure 7.10 represents a complete model showing the variables referred to in this study; the
motivational entry factors for TESOL, including the active, material and passive motivations; the
career cycles with main categories of phases and job satisfaction factors considered in the career as
well as the contextual factors affecting the career cycles and job satisfaction.
448
Figure 7.10: Preliminary TESOL model of career cycles and factors affecting them
• Active motivations • Material motivations • Passive motivations
Seeking change Suggestion from other Need a job Family life in parallel Fell into it
Preferred teaching Helping others Job freedom Conditions better than in By process of
adults to children Love of language; teaching Access to higher status schools elimination
Career potential Meeting people Travel opportunities Security / work permit
Previous experience
⇓ ⇓ ⇓
(continues)
449
Career cycles
• Positiv e phases • Reassessment / training phases • Negativ e phases
Discov ery and experimentation Training Doubts (2-11 yrs)

Experimentation / new challenges Reflectiv e phases
(11-24 yrs) (3-6 yrs; 7-18 yrs; 7-25 yrs)
Stability
Stabilisation (3-9 yrs; 11-19 yrs; 8-20 yrs) Acceptance
⇓ ⇓ ⇓
Job satisfaction (see ov erleaf)
Figure 7.10 (cont.)

(continues)
450
⇓ ⇓ ⇓
Job satisfaction
⇔TESOL: POSITIVE ASPECTS ⇔TESOL: NEGATIVE ASPECTS
Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards Lack of intrinsic or extrinsic rewards
Future plans including TESOL Reasons for leaving TESOL
Reasons for re-selecting TESOL Future plans excluding TESOL
Professional development opportunities Reasons for not re-selecting TESOL
Lack of professional development opportunities
⇑ ⇑ ⇑
Contextual factors (see overleaf)
Figure 7.10 (cont.)

(continues)
451
⇑ ⇑ ⇑
Contextual factors

• General working conditions • Professional development • Family and affective factors / • Individual interests /
Isolation (Geneva) PD opportunities personal crises needs
Freelance / Contract / Tenure Promotional opportunities Family commitments No need to earn money
Working conditions in company Diversification Partner’s career (Geneva)
teaching (Geneva) Studies / Further studies Health of self / of family Need for a break / holiday
Divorce / separation / romantic Outside interests
problems Other career
Travel
• School management issues • Change • Change
Relationship with management Change of schools / specialisation Change of country
Working conditions in school Industry booms and crises Ability to adapt locally
452
The preliminary model proposed in the current study has similar classifications of variables to the
models presented by Huberman (1993), Fessler and colleagues (1992, 1995) and to the discursive
findings from the Johnston TESOL study (1997).
Johnston (1997) felt that because of the nature of the TESOL career with its high rate of attrition and
so few older teachers, and with professional opportunities to move only sideways, it would be futile to
try to:
shoehorn the working lives of large numbers of teachers into a model such as the Teacher
Career Cycle, which is designed to describe a lifelong career (Johnston, 1997, p. 685).
This study supports this view. However, because this study is not limited as was Johnston’s, to locations
in non-Anglophone countries, and because the contextual factors and the individual trajectories were
taken into account with rigorous attention to the details revealed in the interviews, it has been found
possible to develop a modified model from the Fessler and Huberman models which does clarify
TESOL careers. The dynamic nature of the career is linked to the particular contextual and
environmental factors affecting the TESOL respondents.
The dynamic nature of the career cycle is highlighted in this study to an even greater degree than that
proposed by Huberman and Fessler and colleagues, because the nature and types of variable affecting
respondents are different. The models therefore, to a degree, complement each other although the
TESOL model may be closer to the experience of many contemporary workers than those presented by
Huberman and Fessler.
This model may therefore provide a useful framework for further research into the career cycles of
TESOLs or for other more itinerant or freelance professions. It may also provide a useful framework for
future employment generally as careers the world over become more flexible, casualised and
problematic.
453
By noting the critical differences between the Huberman model and the current TESOL one, it is
possible to identify variables which may lead to different outcomes from the ones suggested by
Huberman.
For example, in the case of motivations for career entry, the critical differences in the active
motivations lie in those seeking change, entering the profession on the suggestion of others. The
critical difference in the material motivations lies in the desire to take up travel opportunities. There
were also more passive motivations such as “falling into” the profession because of following a
husband’s career to an international location.
In the area of career cycles, as discussed before, Huberman’s respondents had a more linear and
predictable sequence of career phases, while the TESOL respondents had identifiable phases, but
which continued to be recycled and were not linear at any phase.
Other identifiable critical differences are in the moments of doubt mentioned by respondents in the
TESOL studies. Those most in evidence for TESOLs, but not for Huberman’s respondents, included
concerns about money and working conditions; stress, boredom or loneliness (particularly for Geneva
TESOLs); lack of confidence and disappointment with a change in the management of the school.
Another question posed to respondents in both studies where critical differences can be identified is
that of whether or not respondents would re-select the profession. The TESOL respondents, but not
Huberman’s respondents, in particular identified the following reasons for re-selecting the profession:
• learning about other cultures
• travel opportunities
• flexibility
454
• having no other choice
• suitable profession for a woman
• need to find an occupation compatible with husband’s profession
Finally, contextual factors in the models provide a revealing aspect of critical differences. Huberman’s
model does not consider many contextual factors outside of the impact of two critical historical events;
the major reform of the secondary system in 1962 and the May 1968 movement. It must be
acknowledged that these reforms had considerable impact on the career paths of those affected by
them. Huberman also considered personal factors including family and affective factors and problems
encountered combining studies and teaching as well as maintaining outside interests. Fessler’s model
goes further, identifying factors in the personal and organisational environment which may impact on
the career phases.
The critical environmental differences in the TESOL study include in particular personal and
professional factors such as
• late entry to the profession often because of following a partner’s career and changing country
• individual interests or needs such as travel or exiting the career temporarily for a multitude of
reasons (for example, maternity, child-rearing, to undertake another career, for extended travel,
because of visa problems of because of being disillusioned).
• professional development opportunities
• school management problems
• the negative impact of adverse working conditions and a more problematic environment,
particularly in Geneva
• a change of school or of specialisation
• industry booms or crises.
The above analysis suggests that different kinds of contextual and motivational factors may lead to
quite different career path patterns.

455
Careers which are typically characterised by the following motivational and contextual factors (as in
Huberman’s study of school teachers) may typically tend to be more predictable and linear, following
the Huberman model (see page 403 of thesis):
• career entry by deliberate choice
• entrants seeking tenure, stability and security, even in changing economic circumstances
• commitment to core elements of the profession (in teaching these are love of children and desire to
teach)
• desire or willingness to remain in a particular location
• clear, consistent employment and working conditions such as tenure, salary and professional
development and promotional opportunities
• conditions which apply equally to genders
On the other hand, careers which are typically characterised by some or all of the following
motivational and contextual factors either separately or in conbination (as in this study of TESOLs)
may typically tend to be more unpredictable, consisting of a number of mini-cycles and maxi-cycles,
with more periods of doubt followed by renewal, and perhaps without the typical loss of motivation and
morale towards the end of the career, as in the Waites TESOL model (see page 408 of this thesis):
• career entry later in life, as a subsequent profession, sometimes following retraining, and often
because of change of circumstances (for example, without a job after following husband’s career)
• entrants seeking travel, change of culture or simply a change of direction
• attraction to the associated elements of the profession (for example, travel, variety, learning)
• lack of employment certainty or consistency, often inadequate working conditions and professional
development and promotional opportunities
• heavily feminised profession

456
This tentative general proposition, suggested by this research but not proven, is set out in Figure 7.11
below. Further research on several careers displaying similar characteristics to TESOLs would be
needed to confirm the relationships proposed.
Traditional career path models “Emerging” career path models
Motiv ational • Direct career entry • Late career entry

and • Tenure, stability and security • Travel, change of direction
contextual • Commitment to employer • Attraction to associated elements
factors
• Desire to remain in one general • Lack of employment certainty
location • Heavily feminised profession
• Stable working conditions
• Equal conditions for genders
Career path As per Huberman model (see page As per Waites TESOL model (see
403) page 408)
Figure 7.11: Traditional and “emerging” career path models
Implications for further research

More studies such as the one conducted by Johnston (1997) in further TESOL settings in both
Anglophone and non-Anglophone settings would further corroborate the findings in this and Johnston’s
study.
Career phases
It would also be of interest to undertake a longitudinal study on a cohort of TESOLs who have lost their
positions in the current crisis in the industry, to examine the effects on their careers and levels of
satisfaction over time. Some were in a relatively stable phase or one of reassessment at the time of
the study and just before the crisis. From the TESOL “character” revealed in the present study, it may
be predicted that some would take up new challenges and in some cases travel overseas, gaining
renewed vigour and enthusiasm. Alternatively, some may leave the profession forever but take up new
professions with positive consequences.

457
Another area for future research relates to the end part of the TESOL career. Currently those TESOLs
in the study with 20-25 years of experience are nearing retirement. Some of the younger TESOLs may
make it a life-long career and it may be possible in the future to study TESOLs with more than 30 years
of experience. One may predict from some of the findings of this study that the latter phases
encountered in Huberman’s study, particularly the disenchantment and negative focusing experienced
by those with more than 30 years of career involvement, may not be encountered by many TESOLs.
On the other hand, it could be predicted that too many downturns and too few booms may lead some
long-serving members of the profession to become totally disenchanted. Future research could
investigate these possibilities.
As indicated earlier, the findings of the present TESOL studies could be typical of other modern
professions, particularly as professions generally become less stable and secure. The observations
recorded from this study need to be further tested in a range of industries. They suggest that one
needs a careful consideration of the nature of the profession one is dealing with before being able to
use the classical phases models for research and for guiding human resource development policies
and practices. Considerations to bear in mind include:
• is it typically a whole life profession?
• is it typically a profession requiring training?
• is it typically a male or female dominated profession?
• are the working conditions typically based on short term contracts, casual positions, longer term
contracts or life-long tenure?
• are the organisations being examined small work settings or large organisations like the army, multi-
nationals or large government departments?
Job satisfaction
Working conditions seemed to be an aspect of TESOL which impacted negatively on satisfaction
levels. However, according to Herzberg’s two-factor theory, simply by improving working conditions,
satisfaction levels will not

458
necessarily increase. This is a preventative method, but not necessarily a cure. There are suggestions
in the outcomes of this research which support this view. For example, TESOLs (particularly in
Geneva) had poor working conditions, but relatively high levels of intrinsic satisfaction. This is
therefore an area which would benefit from additional research. As this was an exploratory study, the
aim was not to direct teachers’ attention to any particular issue. Hence there were no specific questions
asked about working conditions. It was felt that working conditions would be mentioned if teachers felt
they were relevant or important to the discussion.
A study which addressed working conditions directly may provide more data to resolve the paradox of
security and tenure. Would TESOLs recognise that the lack of security in their positions and in the
field in general may be a factor which maintains their interest in the field as they are forced to undergo
change many times in a career? It may be that some do recognise this as working conditions were not
emphasised by Sydney TESOLs spontaneously as a reason for dissatisfaction with the career.
Another aspect which emerged frequently was change. It would be of interest to explore this aspect
more directly to identify the possible long-term benefits or disadvantages of change. This is especially
important as the speed and amount of change in society as a whole impacts on the stability of all
professions.
While the indications are that the TESOL industry is in a process of professionalisation, the future is
uncertain. Another area of interest for research would be to monitor the long-term effects of the
downturn of enrolments on the morale of the participants of the study or another similar group.
Researchers should note the mismatch between the responses of teachers and trainers / administrators
relating to professional development and the limited perspective both groups had of what constitutes
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Research could be carried out in the area of professional development, in terms both of teachers’
perceptions and directions and of guidance for trainers / administrators.
The professional development needs of TESOLs are not easily categorised according to career phases,
but are much more complex and diverse. This leads to difficulties in formulating tightly planned,
sequential professional development programs. Budgetary constraints also impact on the variety of
programs centres may offer to suit the varying needs. Research could be carried out into how these
needs may be met within budgetary constraints and how educational administrators may best identify
the specific needs of TESOLs in particular circumstances.
Gender
Gender is an area for further research. TESOL is a highly feminised profession, and while gender
issues were not a major consideration in the study, there is sufficient anecdotal evidence of gender
issues affecting the career paths of TESOLs. For example, the male respondents in both studies were
generally more career-minded and more likely to be in promotional positions or disillusioned if they
were not than the female respondents. The female respondents valued the flexibility offered by
TESOL for personal reasons, often including family ones, and many in Geneva worked freelance.
Many of the Geneva female respondents had followed their husband’s career and were in TESOL
because it was the only choice available to them. The Sydney female respondents, however, had
mainly selected TESOL for reasons other than as a result of following their husband. There were also
more career opportunities available in Sydney and more females in promotional positions. These
areas and others connected to gender should be followed up with TESOLs or with other groups in a
more direct fashion as the current study did not specifically target gender in its objectives.
460
Implications for educational administrators
Career cycles
In summary, whilst some degree of progression and sequencing has been observed in the career cycle
of TESOLs, and the concept of phases certainly exists, there is a difficulty of fitting the TESOL career
neatly into a phases model and there are so many individualised career paths it is difficult to establish
firm generalised patterns from these individual diverse experiences with any confidence. The concept
of phases may therefore have less relevance for TESOLs in the areas of awards, working conditions,
superannuation and particularly professional development than it does for regular school teachers.
Findings related to professional development are summarised later in this chapter.
Job satisfaction
The major concerns arising for consideration of trainers / educational administrators from the study on
teachers’ satisfaction with the career can be summarised as follows:
Major areas of concern
• perception of lack of a career path, especially opportunities for promotion
• perceived lack of career progression in TESOL
• perceived low status / poor working conditions / low salary / lack of security
Positive aspects
• the stimulation / interest generated by respondents in TESOL in both studies
• the recent professionalisation of the industry with increased opportunities, particularly in Sydney
• possibilities for travel
Major areas of concern
Criticisms related to few promotional opportunities in TESOL, working conditions and salary and the
low status of the profession. These were all identified as hygiene factors in Herzberg’s two-factor
theory. According to Herzberg (1959), removing or improving these factors does not necessarily
461
entail increased satisfaction for employees, which is supported in this research. Many of the Sydney
teachers had fairly stable secure contracts, which they had had to fight for over many years, and were
sympathetic to the difficulties of people entering the profession coping with insecurity and sessional
contracts. In Geneva the job security ranged from nil for freelance teachers, who had to accumulate
hours at the beginning of each year, through yearly renewable contracts in private schools, to
permanent well paid positions for a few in the international organisation. However, the number of
permanent contracts was limited, with no prospect of expansion in the future. Educational
administrators will need to monitor working conditions in the future, as they may impact on job
satisfaction levels.
The goal may be to provide as much certainty and security as possible, but within that more secure
context, to provide more opportunities for new challenges through diversification of tasks and roles,
new responsibilities and new opportunities for growth and development. Intrinsic factors connected to
teaching itself are more likely to increase satisfaction than extrinsic ones, according to the literature,
and supported by this study.
Lack of a career path
The lack of a clear career path seemed to be one of the biggest problems. The flat structure in the
TESOL profession with relatively few promotional positions, particularly related to teaching, has been
commented on in other studies (for example, McKnight, 1992 and Pennington, 1992). Typically in
Sydney, there were teachers, teacher coordinators, head teachers and directors of studies. The
university language centre in Sydney continued to have a coordination system, an expensive model
which many schools had abandoned, contributing to the limited career path. The private schools in
Sydney were currently similar to those in Geneva with only one or two coordinators, senior teachers or
directors of studies. However, in Sydney, unlike Geneva, these were officially recognised and
remunerated roles with job titles. Within the Sydney model, therefore, there was some room for career
progression.
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In Geneva, there was less differentiation in positions, with most being classified as teaching positions,
with some of the roles mentioned below being added to a full time teaching load. Only one of the
teachers interviewed had a position which had officially recognised additional management or training
duties. Freelance teachers were often teacher trainers and teachers, while full time employees had
limited room for movement. There was a reluctance on the part of educational administrators to
acknowledge the different roles teachers had, giving them generic titles such as teacher, senior teacher
or coordinator.
Considering the wide-ranging duties of a Sydney TESOL teacher / coordinator mentioned during the
interviews (see Table 7.3) and the variety of teaching programs, it may be considered surprising that
the perception that there was no room to move was so prevalent, even in Sydney. However, these
duties were not usually acknowledged except in general terms, and there was a relatively flat salary
structure in both Sydney and Geneva. While teachers may move up the scale, they often reached the
top quickly, certainly in the university language centre. A teacher was positioned at a certain level
according to his/her experience and qualifications regardless of the tasks undertaken. Therefore, a
coordinator or senior teacher could be expected to undertake any of these duties with no change in
salary or title.
This is an aspect of TESOL that deserves further consideration by educational administrators as
advancement is an intrinsic job factor, which is a motivating factor, according to Herzberg’s two-factor
theory. Teachers’ perceptions need to be changed if they are to perceive there is a career path or
possibilities of advancement, or there need to be actual changes to the career structure which may
further increase their job satisfaction.
Low status, salary, security
Contracts in TESOL are dependent on enrolment figures. TESOL is affected by external forces, which
has led to a tendency for instability with teaching contracts. This was clearly observed in the present
studies as a result of the unpredictable nature of enrolments which could be affected by external
factors, such as a change in visa regulations in Sydney, or the 1997 currency crisis (for
463
example, Coorey, 1997). Sydney schools were therefore unable to give more than a certain number of
longer term contracts or permanent contracts, and Geneva schools tended to hire mainly freelance
teachers. In some schools there was a high incidence of casual employment, which left some teachers
feeling insecure, particularly during long periods of unemployment, holiday periods and market
fluctuations. Other benefits such as superannuation schemes were slowly being introduced, but for
older teachers, who had experienced professional instability and casual employment, this was a cause
for concern as they had no long-term security or superannuation.
Adult TESOLs do not enjoy the same holidays or breaks as school teachers because courses are
typically conducted with no break across the year, with four weeks’ holiday allowance a year for those
with a contract. In spite of this, many respondents had come from the secondary or primary school
system, preferring to teach adults to children, because they felt adults were more motivated, and did
not bring the discipline problems encountered in school teaching. These factors seemed to be more
important to them than the security of employment offered in primary or secondary schooling.
The problems of insecurity of employment are not easily resolved but the perception that TESOL is
becoming more professional combined with the recently introduced regulation of the industry in
Australia should have positive repercussions in the future in Australia at least. This will have to be
monitored as the present situation suggests the possibility of a further reduction of current conditions.
With high unemployment levels worldwide, however, and the current trends towards casual
employment (for example, Barrowclough, 1998; Cleary, 1998 and Thurow, 1996), there is unlikely to
be significantly greater security in the immediate future.
Positive aspects
Professionalisation of the industry
The need to gain higher qualifications in Sydney in order to remain competitive was seen by many as
a positive factor. The TESOL industry in Sydney was

464
young with several boom periods starting in the late 1980s, followed by the collapse of many schools,
followed by stabilisation of the industry and a rise in enrolments for many centres during the course of
the study. However, with the current currency crisis, enrolments are likely to decline (for example,
Coorey, 1997). One respondent felt that TESOL as a profession had gained a theoretical
underpinning in the last few years. With many studying at masters degree level, the profession should
develop more research and publications and should eventually acquire greater status and credibility.
However, with university fees increasing in 1996-1997, the numbers enrolling in masters courses in
Sydney are diminishing, and it is likely that fewer will take masters courses in the future.
Although opportunities for higher qualifications did not exist in Geneva, some TESOLs were taking the
initiative to go to England to qualify at masters degree level. On the other hand, many teachers were
not prepared to qualify further than certificate level in Geneva, often because the opportunities for
promotion were too few or because they had other priorities. Most would remain at the teaching level
throughout their career.
Several key issues arose from the professional development analysis. The first message is that teachers
exhibited more awareness of the range of professional development they might require than
administrators who were more cynical and more limited in their perception of teachers’ needs. This
could be disturbing if administrators and trainers are in charge of teachers’ professional development,
as through their limited perceptions they may be producing disappointed and frustrated teachers.
TESOLs need to be more fully involved in decisions about their own professional growth and
development.
The second key issue is that professional development in schools has often been linked closely to the
concept of career phases. Huberman himself is sceptical about career-phase engineering and is more
inclined towards collaborative work among teachers at different points in their career (Huberman, 1995,
p. 207). As stated before, Huberman’s and the other models

465
appear to be based on the school scenario of an earlier era of more stability and conservatism.
TESOL is a profession with less security of employment and differing needs, and people who need to
be adaptable and prepared to start many times over.
If this is the case, then TESOLs would need more liberal professional development offerings from
which to choose in order to match their changing needs. Some who enter the profession with training
may need the same type of professional development as that proposed by Huberman and others, but
TESOLs also enter the profession untrained or with different types of experience. Older teachers
entering the profession, in particular, often have previous teaching or other experience and may
require different types of professional development. The same training may be inappropriate for them.
Some of the trainers / administrators were certainly sensitive to this situation. One trainer from Geneva
stated:
Professional development is very often a misused term - is it just going to teachers’ meetings
and is that necessarily the sort of professional development you need? Until recently teachers
were usually recycled from other professions, from other walks of life, they brought in a lot
which could be tapped, it was a matter of identifying what could be tapped.
It's an individual thing - at appraisal time on a personal level, I ask teachers what they think,
what they think their needs are, and at an institutional level, it's tied into the institutional
expectations, and again at appraisal time I'll guide teachers towards areas they need. It
involves me making them aware or they might jump through the hoops and go to this or that
session, and read whatever literature I suggest, but unless they perceive where it's from and are
aware of the need, there'll be no growth, which is one of the keys of professional development.
Therefore, there are various ways into professional development. I haven't defined clearly
what professional development is because it's individual and institutional driven, it's bound up
with being able to do the

466
job better. I don't think it's definable - I see it very much as line management, people class
professional development at conference time and at budget time - “I need a bit of professional
development” “I think I need a conference” - people do feel they are going for professional
development ... but it's much more fundamental - it's more the person defining what they need,
that they can be aware of it and accept it as valid.
Taking a personalised approach to professional development is in keeping with recent developments
in the field of supervision and staff development models (for example, Burke et al., 1987 and Fessler,
1995). The suggestions made by trainers included sabbatical leave, which may allow teachers to
explore career opportunities or pursue solutions to personal problems. The mobility of those in the
TESOL profession means that they sometimes are able to pursue such professional development
perhaps more than other types of teachers. An example is the researcher of the current study who was
able to take more than two years’ leave without pay to pursue research interests in Geneva. Individual
TESOLs and the systems for which they work need to be constantly on the look out for such
opportunities, and to be flexible enough to make the necessary arrangements for them to be utilised
effectively.
In summary, educational administrators should note the signs of discontent with the working conditions,
balanced against the intrinsic satisfaction TESOLs have with the profession. It would be of interest to
explore ways of making the working conditions more attractive and secure without losing the
stimulation afforded by present uncertainties. This is perhaps the greatest challenge as the working
conditions do not show signs of further improving in the current economic climate.
CONCLUSION
TESOLs in Geneva enjoyed little job security and were largely a transient casual workforce. In Sydney
some aspects of job security and contracts have recently appeared. However, in Sydney this more
stable situation has recently come under threat.

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The TESOL industry is fickle as recently demonstrated (from September 1997) by the collapse of the
so-called “tiger economies” in Asia on which the Australian ELICOS industry heavily depends. This
was due to a combination of factors: economic (for example, Coorey, 1998 and Illing and Coorey,
1997); the negative impact of racially biased comments and the perception that Australia may not be
a safe environment for Asian students. These factors, and the fact that Australia is chosen for further
study (and therefore for English preparation prior to further study) as a second choice to Britain and
USA, (for example, Illing and Coorey,1997, p. 38), mean that the number of Asian students coming to
Australia has declined since September 1997. This has led to substantial job losses in the TESOL
industry and a return to a more casual workforce. Any work available is on a short term contract or
casual basis. This uncertain situation was not predicted and occurred rapidly. TESOLs have lived
through similar situations in the past and even those with relatively secure jobs have moved in and out
of the industry according to personal needs and changes in the environment.
The findings highlight many aspects of career phase theory urgently in need of further research.
Career phases in many different industries in today’s changing employment situation require
exploration in order to gain a better grasp of the current needs of employees. The TESOL studies
demonstrate the tendencies of a mobile insecure profession and the possible positive outcomes of such
a situation, along with its challenges and disadvantages.
The findings on job satisfaction demonstrate that it is not necessarily always linked to stability and
secure working conditions. While the issues were often different for secondary school teachers and
TESOLs, the findings reveal that job satisfaction for TESOLs, as for other teachers, is more linked to
the intrinsic facets of the teaching profession than to the extrinsic facets.
The professional development findings reveal that both teachers and trainers / administrators have a
lack of imagination and perception of the breadth of what may constitute professional development.
The findings also indicate a mismatch between what many trainers / administrators believe TESOL
468
teachers need compared with the teachers’ comments. Some trainers /administrators undervalue their
needs and desires for professional development. Further research is urgently needed to assist in
making the professional development programs more closely match the needs of the recipients.
Finally, the research has led to some important theorising about patterns of motivational and
contextual issues associated with different careers and their possible influence upon the nature of the
career paths experienced by participants in the career. These remain to be tested but the verification
of the tentative propositions put forward in this research could signal an important departure from
traditional teacher career path research.

469
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APPENDIX A
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS IN THE TESOL STUDIES

The interview questions as asked of respondents are set out below for both Geneva and
Sydney TESOL studies.
Geneva TESOL study: teachers’ interview schedule
1. Survey your career from the very beginning up to the point of the interview. Reflect on
your career trajectory and try to discern some key themes and leitmotives. Plot these
themes sequentially, if possible, into a series of steps, stages or phases that would capture
the flow of your professional experience.
2. Looking to the future.
3. Define the word “career”.
4. What is its relationship to TESOL?
5. Tell me how you came to be a TESOL teacher? Review your own studies and indicate
the moment at which you decided to teach, and state your reasons and hesitations for that
choice.
6. Very honestly, if you had your professional life to live over again, would you choose
TESOL and why or why not?
7. Have you ever thought seriously of leaving teaching? If yes, at what time in your career
did these doubts occur? What would be the reasons for leaving this career?
8. Reflect back on the initial period of your teaching career; describe the year, the setting,
the circumstances, your personal situation, your difficulties and emotions.
9. Describe two situations that caused problems during the initial months of classroom work.
10.Here is a list of concerns or problems that beginner teachers in secondary schools often
experience. Mention any of these concerns that you faced as a beginning TESOL
teacher.
List of concerns faced by beginning school teachers (derived from the Huberman study)
492
Difficulties in maintaining class control
Difficulty in teaching other than by standard lesson format.
Discouragement
Fearing what others may think
Feelings of continual trial and error
Feelings of never “measuring up”
Feelings of “surviving” from day to day
Inconsistency (sometimes rigid, sometimes laissez-faire)
Intimidated by the students
Physical exhaustion
Preoccupation with oneself rather than with the task at hand
11.What sort of professional development is useful for you now?
Geneva TESOL study: trainers / administrators’ interview schedule
12.What sort of professional development do teachers need, and do they need different sorts
at different times of their career?
13.What professional development programs have you been involved in, and how successful
were they?
14.What do teachers want as professional development?
15.What would you do ideally for teacher development, taking away constraints, like money?
Sydney TESOL study: teachers’ interview schedule
1. Summarise briefly your working life pre-TESOL from graduation to taking up TESOL.
What was your personal situation during that time?
2. Survey your TESOL career from the very beginning up to the point of the interview.
Mention your personal situation where relevant. Reflect on your career trajectory and try
to discern some key themes and leitmotives. Plot these themes sequentially, if possible,
into a series of steps, stages or phases that would capture the flow of your professional
experience.
3. Looking to the future?

493
4. Tell me how you came to be a TESOL teacher? Review your own studies or life and
indicate the moment at which you decided to become a TESOL. What were the reasons
and hesitations for your choice?
5. Here is a list of motivations for becoming a TESOL teacher mentioned by TESOLs
overseas. Are there one or two you would add from this list to the ones you have already
mentioned?
List of motivations of TESOL teachers (derived from Geneva TESOL study)
Unhappy with other career/ lifestyle - wanting a change / actively seeking something to do
Access to a higher status
I sank / drifted / fell into it
I needed a job / money
To enable me to travel / it’s portable
I couldn’t think of anything else
External request, suggestion / someone approached her because she speaks English/ met
someone who gave her/him the idea
To enable me to get my work permit / stay in the country
Feminine profession: the possibility of a family life in parallel
I substituted for someone
Job freedom; flexibility in one’s work
Preferred TESOL to teaching children/in schools
Because I majored in English
Because I already trained as a teacher before
Because at some stage in my past I had done TESOL before or something related
Modelling; influence of former teacher or parents who were teachers
Compensate for a perceived educational deficit; desire to “do better than one's own
teachers”
Meeting people
I enjoyed it
Helping people
Because I love language/ English

494
6. Reflect back on the initial period of your TESOL career: describe the year, the setting, the
7. Describe two situations in TESOL that caused problems during the initial months of
classroom work.
8. Here is a list of concerns or problems that beginner teachers in secondary schools often
teacher.
Discouragement
Physical exhaustion
9. Here is a list of concerns expressed by TESOL teachers overseas at the beginning of their
careers. Identify one or two you faced:
TESOL teacher additional beginners’ concerns (derived from Geneva TESOL study)
Lack of confidence / experience / training
Practical things connected to conducting the lesson - timing/ instructions / using
equipment
Learning English grammar
Planning / overplanning
Interpersonal relationships with students
Problems with the method
Lack of guidance / support

495
Lack of familiarity with materials / lack of material
Stress
Problems of motivation
Keeping interest levels / motivation high
Different learning styles of students / motivational factors / levels
Positive comments
Positive comment: I liked the colleagues, the atmosphere in EFL staffroom
I feel much more confident
It’s been enriching from the personal point of view
10.Have you ever thought seriously of leaving TESOL? If yes, at what time in your career do
these doubts occur? What would be the reasons for leaving this career?
11.Here is a list of concerns expressed by TESOLs overseas in moments of doubt. Which
concerns do you share? Have you resolved them? If so, how? Do you have any to add?
Motive for wishing to leave TESOL (derived from Geneva TESOL study)
Because of money and working conditions
Yes, positive motive: for a career move; didn’t want to work; TESOL is a stepping stone, a
stop gap; want to travel with husband
It’s stressful, I was bored / talents underused / teaching’s a lonely job
Lack of confidence in my ability
Institutional reasons: method or student conditions
12.Define the word “career”.
13.What is its relationship to TESOL?
14.Very honestly, if you had your professional life to live over again, would you choose
TESOL and why or why not?
15.Define the word professional development.
16.What professional development is useful for you now?
17.Here is a list of professional development activities mentioned by TESOLs overseas. Do
you share these ideas? Any to add?
Professional development activities mentioned by TESOL teachers in Geneva (list
derived from Geneva TESOL study)
Workshops / seminars
Practical
496
Theoretical
Reflection
Self appraisal
Discussion with colleagues
Reading books / journals
Observing others
Conferences
Specific course / seminar
Keeping up to date
Doing something different
To keep evolving
Nothing
Wish list
Courses / conferences / workshops
Talk to expert / guru
To have done it earlier
Sydney TESOL study: trainers’ / administrators’ interview schedule

18.What experience /qualifications did you have before taking up adult TESOL? (job titles,
19.What TESOL-related qualifications do you have; where and when did you do them?
20.How many years’ adult TESOL experience do you have, when and where?
21.What teacher training and / or administrative positions have you held, when and where?
22.How long have you been in your current position, and what is your title? (if less than three
years how long were you in your previous position?)
23.Describe your current role as trainer and/or administrator
24.The following training roles were mentioned by administrators / trainers in Geneva. Are
there any others you would add?
List of training roles (list derived from Geneva TESOL study)
Attending conferences and seminars
Consultancy or one off training seminars /workshops etc
Organising training programs for schools

497
Writing articles
Presenting at international conferences
Writing journal articles/books
Formal training programs (DTEFLA, CTEFLA)
Formal and informal support and guidance for teachers
Providing informal guidance to teachers
Observing teachers
Providing formal guidance to teachers (through appraisal)
Administrative roles
The following administrative roles were mentioned by the trainers / administrators in
Geneva. Are there any you would add?
Administration of training courses
Placement tests
Program administration
Budget management
Visiting new company clients
Ordering materials
25.What professional development programs have you been involved in in your current or
not?
26.The following types of professional development programs were mentioned by trainers
and / or administrators in the Geneva study. Some programs were led by respondents,
and in some they were participants. Are there any you would like to comment on? You
may also refer to your past.

498
Types of professional development programs mentioned in chronological order by
respondents (lists derived from the Geneva TESOL study)
Type of program mentioned Program description

Pre-Serv ice and Inserv ice methods
1970s-1980s
Speed reading with Ferguson (1970s) “Meaningless prescriptive method”
“mechanical, militaristic”
SGAV (1970s) Structural Global Audio Visual
All’s Well (1970s) “It was the whole way of looking at teaching that
involved a lot of other aspects, not just linguistics, body
language, drama etc”
NLP techniques (current) Neuro Linguistic Programming
Silent Way (Gattegno) (1980s) Introduced in the international primary school
Communicative approach (1980s) Getting students to learn through interaction. Focus on
functional aspect
These are the types of professional development programs trainers and administrators are
currently involved in conducting:

499
respondents
Program leading to certification

CTEFLA (mid 1980s on): Pre-service
DTEFLA (1980 on): In-service
Bridging program between CTEFLA and DTEFLA (pilot scheme): Early in-service training
Workshop:
Organising 2-week training prog. in Sept.
Organising workshops:
guest speakers, weekend workshops
Series of seminars (pilot bridging professional development program for Cambridge)
Leading workshops:
FORUM - teachers professional association (famous names mainly)
Going to conferences
Consultancy elsew here
Fly in fly out type
Basic academic skills management
Appraisal
27. What sort of professional development do teachers need, and do they need different sorts
at different times of their career? What sort of professional development do they need at:
11 + years’ experience
28. These are the types of professional development mentioned by trainers and
administrators in the Geneva study. Are there any you would add? (derived from the Geneva
TESOL study)
Beginning teachers
Hands on techniques
500
Support with materials
Looking at student needs and learning styles
The ability to reflect on what went wrong with the lesson to improve
Seeing a wider range of options to work from
Later / generally
Keeping abreast of new developments, new methods, new ideas, new materials
Wide range of teaching experience
Observing other teachers, learning from classroom - self development, reflection, responding
to student evaluation
More indepth, personal development workshops, communication skills, management skills
Teachers actively involved: Networking, going to conferences, meetings, writing things
Look at the linguistic angle
Theoretical basis in professional development
29. What do teachers want as professional development?
administrators in the Geneva study. Are there any you would add?
Type of professional development wanted (list derived from Geneva TESOL study)
Practical, hands on for beginners: eg games, grammar, phonology, readers, drawing course
etc
Seminars on interpersonal skills, people skills
Something to get excited about / new ideas / gimmicky things, something amusing
Something not too time consuming
Designing programs themselves / more specialised teaching
Something challenging for more experienced teachers
Conferences

501
They are not interested as they are not paid to attend
Nothing - they feel they do not need it
31. What would you do ideally for teacher development, taking away constraints, like
money?
Wish list (derived from Geneva TESOL study)
Courses and seminars
Longer courses
Organise sessions with famous names on topics eg personal development, communication,
group dynamics, time management, team building (not pedagogical)
Sponsor people to go to conferences
Better researched presentations with theoretical basis
Organising the seminars
Having time, infrastructure and money to put on school events
Paying people to attend training, and free sessions. More like the real world
Market professional development courses to get homogeneous group
Reflection, individualised programs
Individualised programs
Teaching in blocks with time built in for reflection
Getting teachers together to observe each other
Materials development
Greater range of journals
Other non-TESOL related professional development
Time to relearn the language in your mother tongue country
Clarify aims of administration
Look at field other than teaching
Look at different fields of teaching eg state education, management teaching
Sabbatical year for further education

502
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS IN THE HUBERMAN STUDY
The exact details of the interview schedule were not set out in Huberman’s literature, but
the following provides a fairly detailed view of the interview questions selected for the
TESOL studies and their wording as reported in Huberman, 1993. The findings are
reported in the chapter headings below.
The Nature of our Enquiry and the Research Process
Our preliminary question was the key to the entire enquiry. It was here that
respondents were asked to survey their careers from the very beginning up to the
point of the interview. The question was entirely open-ended, allowing
respondents total latitude. They were asked simply to reflect on their career
trajectory and to try to discern some key themes and leitmotives. They were asked
to plot these themes sequentially, if possible, into a series of steps, stages or
phases that would capture the flow of their professional experience (Huberman,
1993, p. 32).
Teachers’ Initial Motivations and Satisfactions:
We asked them simply to tell us how they came to teach at the secondary level, to
review their own studies, to indicate the moment at which they decided to teach,
and to state their reasons and hesitations for that choice ... Following this line of
questioning, we then posed the following question: “Very honestly, if you had your
professional life to live over again, would you choose teaching (and why or why
not)?” (Huberman, 1993, pp. 109-110).
At the Crossroads: To Continue or to Leave Teaching?
“Have you ever thought seriously of leaving teaching?” (Huberman, 1993, p. 138).
We asked them to identify this moment for us more precisely (Huberman, 1993, p.
141).
503
Beginning Teaching
They were asked to reflect back on the initial period of their teaching careers, to
describe the year, the setting, the circumstances, their personal situation, their
difficulties and emotions. We then presented them with a list of concerns or
problems that beginners often encounter and asked them if they had been
confronted with these problems (Huberman, 1993, p. 194).
There were also several more tightly structured questions, beginning as well with
an open-ended inquiry (eg “Could you describe what your first month in front of the
class was like?”). After an initial response, respondents received a flash card
containing a list of items (eg “The difficulties often encountered by beginning
teachers”) and designated pertinent items. Then, the responses were clarified
(“Difficult in what way? Why so?”) (Huberman, 1993, p. 25).

504
APPENDIX B
CODING THE INTERVIEWS

All of the interviews were further coded in order to identify other themes of interest, and to
corroborate questions asked in other parts of the interview. “The code” (see Table 3.23 in
Chapter III) was noted in the margin alongside the interview, then the quote added to the
relevant theme.
Example 1 is a sample from a Geneva respondents with more than 20 years’ experience:
Another thing that changed my attitude to teaching, was when I married X and
went to Brazil on holiday and realised that if I was going to communicate with
my mother in law I would have to learn the language. So, I had to learn METH
another language from scratch. It was an eyeopener learning a language from
scratch. It helped me understand the students’ difficulties.
1980 I realised how useless grammar was when I was beginning to learn a
language. I was using tenses and verbs. I didn't need a code. I'd be corrected
two or three times and even now I use expressions, but I can't write it.
METH
In 1988 they reduced the numbers of SSAs and in 1987 Maya arrived. When
they reduced the number of SSAs, it was all to do with the recession and the
financial difficulties of the UN. It was nice and much quieter without the SSAs.
During this period it got to the point when I didn't see any possible HIST
advancement in my career. WC
I'v e come to the end of my steps. I can't mov e and the only w ay to hav e a
more satisfying career at this point is to do w hat X and X are doing - the CAR
only w ay of getting prestige. They aren't paid any extra - they get a WC
reduction of hours.
505
The hours are reduced to such an extent that with my timetable, if I did such a WC
seminar I could give just a two week seminar mornings only once a term, and
spend all the rest of the time preparing. I'm not interested. Since I'm part time
I've got so many other things I'm happy doing. I'm happy to be at home 50
percent of the time and not be involved. PS
I've toyed with the idea of opening a language school here in the Pays de
Gex, but it would be a hassle and I'd never get as much money as now. Or of
doing what x is doing - being sent on mission but I could never do that FUT
because of the family. I don't know how she combines that with family life.
I'm v ery satisfied w ith teaching my eight hours, v ery happy w ith my salary.
WC
But I'll be retiring in 10 years and I'll be very happy - I'm prepared to bend over
backwards. If they would accept to have language classes for children like they
do at ILO eg for three hours on Wednesdays, I'd be delighted. The Director FUT
doesn't want kids milling around, so they turned the idea down. Or some way
of combining music with language learning. I've suggested children's classes
and I've suggested intensive conversation classes like long role plays everyday
for three hours for two weeks, but it was rejected. Students would have to throw
themselves into the course and it would be great. I don't feel like making new
suggestions, but I'll keep making them.
When I was given our contracts in 1982 I was getting pregnant. I was asked to CAR
work part time, but I wanted to work full time. With part time work you can't WC
expect to have a satisfying career and I’ve had to accept the fact that I can't
be up there in front pioneering.

506
Example 2 is from a 53 year old Geneva respondent with less than five years’ experience:
Then two years ago I came to Geneva. My husband came three years ago. PR
He wanted to make a change and took the job in ILO. It was very difficult CX
because I didn't want to come. I suggested staying in Paris, and I did so CC
happily for a year, but my husband wasn't very happy, and really it became a
question of my marriage or work.
In 1991 July I did the CTEFLA at International House in Paris. Most on the CTEFA
course were quite young 22 - 26 - 27 and three older women. It was L
comfortable and nice, and they reminded me of my own children. The course
was dynamic. The chap in charge was a strange man, but he and the others
working with him, there were three trainers, were a good team. It was a very
solid four weeks training. I found the observation every afternoon quite nerve
racking. Maybe I'll do the Diploma in a year or so as I've only had one year's
teaching since the Certificate.
My motivation for doing the CTEFLA was to have an extra skill for looking for MOT /
work here. When we were deciding if my husband should take the job, he CTEFL
enquires what my possibilities were of teaching and was told there were lots of A
teaching jobs. But it isn't true. In the International Schools where I've been
working for the last 10 years I'm at a senior level and it's difficult jumping in at PS
that level. I thought why not try TESOL? I had worked with kids after they had
had time with a TEFL teacher. I had never taught in the TESOL field before
the CTEFLA.
Now my husband and I are having marriage problems. I'm not happy. We WOM
have considered separating. I want to stay in Ferney not Geneva. I have a CAR
nice apartment, I've spent a lot of time decorating, and I'm not moving out. PR
My husband thinks I'm unreasonable. He doesn't understand. He was less
supportive than I imagined he would be. (Comment added from reading the
transcript: It’s probably fair to say that some of the problems are due to the
aging process, health

507
problems of my husband due to a highly stressful workaholic life style).
Although in some ways he is. He thinks everyone should get on and do things.
He doesn't always put himself in other people's shoes. He says I'm a part of the
decision. The question is could I have said no he couldn't go to Geneva when PR
we were in Paris? How could I with a smaller salary tell him to stay in Paris?
He doesn't recognise that aspect. The last two years have been extremely
difficult as a result. It has irrevocably damaged our marriage, which is a pity.
There were other problems moving with no children. They were always a good
source of contacts. If I couldn't get a paid job I could do voluntary work and
made friends through them. So for the first time I was without children and in WOM
a house all day. I've met other women in the same situation. My husband
seems happy in his work - he has lots of power, control and responsibility. I
have none. It has particularly come to me this year while I've been hanging
around.
Period name: Gone back to w hen I w as v ery young and lacked

confidence.
I'm 50ish and should feel confident and bien dans sa peau. It's got better but
the first year I felt unconfident and at odds with where I was and what I was. It
was difficult.
Example 3 is from a Sydney respondent with 11-19 years’ experience:
1972-1973 was the first phase with the teacher training course for TCHR
Berlitz in London, which I enjoyed immensely - I liked the direct TRNG
method, and was generally strong and grammatically based and there
were so many techniques. I think the direct method is pretty underrated.
In Berlitz the first stage was out there and doing it - I enjoyed the METH
contact. There was 40 hours teaching and we were grossly exploited,
teaching from the manual, there was no scope for creativity, you had to
follow the book and it was oral / aural. It was basically teacher talking
all the time, it was tiring and no break with them reading or anything. It BEG
disillusioned me, it w as incredibly boring and I TCHG

508
w anted to get out. I enjoyed the initial contact with people and QUIT
because the conditions put me off teaching, I didn’t consider going back
and had no desire to go into the world of teaching.
The third phase was when I w as seriously considering my career
options, and it was activ e re-entering EFL, compared with the passive
re-entering before. This was in 1983 when I went to see CM. I was CAR
looking deliberately, and was tired of drifting from job to job, travelling,
and coming back. I wouldn’t have used the word career in those days.
It was a way of consistently earning money at something I enjoyed. I MOT
felt it might be a backward step doing something I’d tried before, but
hadn’t really liked.
The next stage was when I started part time work at school A while
doing the Dip - it was a big shift for me and was the start of really my
first commitment to working life - really striving to develop skills and all DTEFL
the time I needed to develop properly - not just in the job, and the A
whole environment, the people from the Dip were mostly working at
school A and the Coop and working with x on the Certificate.
From a personal view the w hole bonding started when one year later CAR
in 1985 I became a member of the Coop of school A. That stage would
have been really hard w ork because of my lack of experience and
my kind of methodicalness and I get bogged down with detail. It was BEG
time consuming preparing lessons. When I started I only wanted to TCHG
work part time - I have a low stress threshold and find I’m under pressure
when preparing, and that leads to stress, I suppose.

509
APPENDIX C
ENTERING TESOL: BACKGROUND OF

RESPONDENTS
There have been many empirical studies into the initial reasons for entering the teaching
profession which have revealed a wide variety of motives ranging from material rewards to
professional motives (for example, Pietrofesa and Splete, 1975). However, little is known
of the motives for TESOLs entering teaching. This appendix therefore examines
respondents’ motivations and training on entry to the profession to reveal the typical
background of TESOLs. The data were derived from the following interview questions:
Interview question 5 for Geneva TESOLs
Tell me how you came to be a TESOL teacher? Review your own studies or career and
indicate the moment at which you decided to become an Adult TESOL.
Interview question 1 for Sydney TESOLs
Summarise briefly your working life pre-TESOL from graduation to taking up TESOL. What
was your personal situation during that time?
Experience and training prior to career entry
Huberman allotted the paths taken by teachers to enter secondary teaching into three
categories:
• “direct train” from university studies in Geneva or Lausanne to teaching in the same
subject matter or in another discipline (59% of responses)
• preparation outside the country, followed by entry to secondary-level teaching in
Switzerland (30% of responses)
• the passage, after complementary studies, from teaching at the elementary level to
teaching at the secondary level (11% of responses)
TESOL studies
The careers and studies of respondents before entry into TESOL were analysed first to
reveal a typical background of a TESOL. For Geneva TESOLs

510
no specific interview question was asked but part of the question on career entry explored
their career prior to taking up TESOL, the responses to which provided data for analysis.
Respondents were asked to describe their history at the point of first graduation. Sydney
TESOLs were asked a specific question.
GENEVA TESOL STUDY
Work and study prior to entering TESOL

Geneva TESOL respondents followed a different entry trajectory from Huberman’s
secondary school teachers. No Geneva TESOLs had entered directly from university
studies in the same discipline, and only 18% had entered directly or indirectly following
university studies in another discipline.
Most TESOLs came to the profession from another career (32%), while 46% came to
TESOL following school teaching, or school teaching and another career (Table C.1).
Therefore 78% of TESOLs came to the profession having had another career.
Table C.1: Trajectories of careers and studies (Geneva TESOLs n=28)
Responses
Traj ectories of careers and studies n=28 %
Other career (s), passage to TESOL 9 32
School teaching, passage to TESOL 7 25
Teaching + other career + passage to TESOL 6 21
University studies in other discipline, employment 5 18
directly (or almost) in TESOL
No career (motherhood) to TESOL 1 4
There were therefore major differences in the way TESOL and secondary school teachers
entered the field. One can speculate why some of the Geneva TESOL respondents
considered entering the field. Being abroad, they may have realised that, being English-
speakers, they had a skill which was in demand. They may have been approached for
assistance with English classes

511
or might have learned about the opportunities from others in the expatriate community.
This issue will be examined in more detail later in the chapter.
Five respondents had no degree prior to TESOL, but 13 had a degree qualification (Table
C.2). In addition, 10 were qualified teachers in other subjects, of which seven were
qualified in languages.
Table C.2: General qualifications before entry to TESOL (Geneva TESOLs n=28)
Responses
Training (non adult TESOL) n=28 %
Degree 13 46
PGCE or teacher training (of which 7 in language 10 36
subjects)
No degree 5 18
Thirty nine percent of Geneva TESOL respondents entered the field with the minimum
qualification of CTEFLA (Table C.3). Two respondents entered with a DTEFLA, being the
professional or full training level.
Table C.3: Specific TESOL qualifications at entry (Geneva TESOLs)
Responses
Qualifications of sample at entry n=28 %
CTEFLA qualification 11 39
None 10 36
Other TESOL qualification (unrecognised) 4 14
DTEFLA 2 7
MA Applied Linguistics (Hons) 1 4
Remarkably, 36% (10 respondents) started their TESOL career with no specific training at
all. Three of these went on later to become fully qualified. Others had intermittent in-
service training: “the icing without the cake” as one trainer called it. Several had partial
training (failed or incomplete DTEFLA).

512
Many of the older respondents were trained in the direct method of the private school they
joined, a common way of training at the time. The following comments illustrate the lack
of qualifications available, and the feelings of those entering the field unqualified:
I couldn't teach French in France so I did a different training to teach EFL. I
trained in the method of the time which was SGAV. That's going back 20 years ...
It gave me the basics of adult teaching so that when I went into the classroom I
had an idea of what I was supposed to be doing.
Then one day I saw an ad in the paper - an audiovisual language school needed
teachers, they trained you to teach adults. I called and they said come in for a
training course and that's how I got into teaching adults English.
Several respondents had reservations regarding teaching generally, but not TESOL. These
included a dislike of the school system, hesitations about teaching generally, aspirations to
other career paths (often unspecified), or a bad initial experience.
Non-teaching work and experience
Table C.4 presents the non-teaching work and experience of Geneva TESOL respondents
before entering TESOL. Travel and commercial activities were the largest category of
experience, being nominated by 75% of respondents (Table 5.4).

513
Table C.4: Non-teaching experience prior to teaching (Geneva TESOLs n=28)
Responses * Cases
Type of experience n=56 * % %
Studies, travel, residence in a country other than 21 37 75
Switzerland for at least one year (could be
Geneva, but prior to TESOL)
Business or commercial activities: secretarial, 13 23 46
clerical, public service, accounting, hospitality,
management
Odd jobs “just to get by” 6 11 21
Voluntary activities 4 7 14
Manual or artistic profession 4 7 14
International organisation 4 7 14
Child care responsibilities (au pair) 2 4 8
Library work 2 4 8
Both Huberman’s teachers and the Geneva TESOLs had travelled extensively; 40% and
75% respectively. This is not surprising for the TESOL sample as most had travelled to
Geneva. However, the reasons for travel varied considerably between the two samples.
Huberman’s teachers travelled to complete their education, while the reasons for Geneva
TESOL resondents to travel were divided into three main categories:
Five TESOLs travelled for educational reasons: four had spent one year abroad as part of
their British degree; another had travelled to Switzerland from the USA on a grant to
pursue research for his Ph.D.
Nine respondents had travelled before teaching TESOL. All had either not worked or
pursued other careers before turning to TESOL. Two had travelled to Geneva as young
women to pursue a diplomatic career. Four had come to Switzerland for a range of
reasons; to be a tour guide; to learn French; to

514
pursue a career in interpreting and translating in the international organisations, and one
to engage in sales marketing. Two were teachers who had come to Switzerland.
Seven respondents came to Geneva to accompany their spouses.
The most striking difference between the two types of teachers was that 46% of Geneva
TESOL respondents had undertaken business or commercial activities compared to only
16% of Huberman’s secondary school teachers. Many of the TESOLs had held responsible
positions in their previous careers. Being set in Geneva, perhaps not surprisingly, four
respondents had worked in the international organisations. Five had done clerical work in
a university research centre and in companies.
Two Geneva TESOL respondents insisted on classifying their initial experience with
TESOL as an odd job. They did not feel they had entered the profession seriously until
later when they had trained:
Something I didn't mention in my last interview was that I taught several summer
courses for a school in London. I didn't mention it because it could have been a
waiter, it happened to be TESOL, it was a part time job, I had no experience, I was
a final year student and I did it as a summer job ... It was preferable to working in a
bar because you could take the kids to London and to concerts, it was a nice way to
pass the summer as a student.
Entry to TESOL
One unusual factor about Geneva TESOL respondents was their reasons for being in
Geneva. Most came to TESOL following their arrival in Geneva with their spouses (57%).
Some were drawn to TESOL as a profession having taught in schools before, while others
were drawn to it from other career paths. For most, it was the only or most obvious career
path, having made the move to Geneva (Table C.5).

515
Table C.5: Entry to TESOL (Geneva TESOLs)
Responses
How did they enter TESOL? n=28 %
Went abroad with their partner / to join their 16 57
partner
In Geneva, seeking career change 7 25
In Geneva, fell into it 3 11
Were already TESOL before going abroad to 2 7
accompany / join partner
Many commented that, had their spouses not gone to Geneva, they may not have entered
the profession. However, many of these actively took up TESOL positively and had had a
rewarding career because of it.
The following are some examples of responses from respondents taking up TESOL when
they had arrived in Geneva, generally with a spouse:
It happened when I got married and I came to Switzerland with my husband and
had no work and qualifications, and I applied to (scientific organisation) and asked
if they needed teachers.
I was in a country with no work permit and no language skills other than English
and the only possible thing to do was to teach.
in 1969 I thought I couldn't do anything in Switzerland for three reasons, I didn't
have the papers, they didn't seem to teach religious knowledge in the schools like
in England, and I didn't speak French, so had a language problem.
I came to be a TESOL because I had to transfer from one country to another and
considered it easier to find work as an English language teacher than in a primary
or secondary school.
516
I’d come (to Geneva) with my husband and we had separated and I had to find
some sort of employment, and being a qualified teacher - not of TESOL - and I
was fortunate to meet someone who was working in the area, and she told me
about a language school and I started working a couple of hours a week.
Only two respondents therefore had actively chosen TESOL for reasons other than
convenience or lack of choice.
Section summary
Profile of Geneva TESOL respondents at entry to TESOL
• The TESOL sample was 83% female and 17% male.
• It contained 46% who were previously teachers (not all with qualifications).
• Forty-six percent had pursued a career in the business or commercial sector.
• Sixty-nine percent had lived abroad for at least one year.
• Sixty-seven percent of respondents with less than five years’ experience were women
over 40 years old and had accompanied their husbands to Geneva.
• Eighty-nine percent of recent recruits had had a career in an area other than teaching,
and 33% of these had also been a teacher.
• Thirty-six percent entered the profession with no TESOL training at all.
This is quite a different profile from that of Huberman’s secondary teachers, only 36% of
whom had had salaried positions before entering teaching.
SYDNEY TESOL STUDY
Work and study prior to entering TESOL

As Table C.6 indicates, 31% of Sydney TESOL respondents came from another career,
although three of them had done only occasional work which they did not seriously
consider to be a career. Six respondents (19%) had come from school teaching and 25%
from school teaching and another career. Twenty-five percent had a direct or semi-direct
entry after university. Several of

517
these had some travel experience and some casual employment before deciding on
TESOL.
Table C.6: Career, studies and teaching experience prior to TESOL (Sydney TESOLs)
Responses
Traj ectories of studies and careers prior to TESOL n=32 %

Other career (s), passage to TESOL 10 31
“Direct train” type 2: university studies in other discipline, 8 25
employment directly (or semi-directly) in TESOL
Teaching + other career + passage to TESOL 8 25
School teaching, passage to TESOL 6 19
In summary, only 25% of Sydney TESOLs and 18% of Geneva TESOLs entered the
profession directly, although 44% of Sydney TESOLs and 46% of Geneva TESOLs had
experienced previous teaching.
The respondents with less than five years’ experience in Sydney were younger than those
in Geneva. This may be indicative of the greater “professionalisation” of TESOL in
Sydney than in Geneva. However, some of the younger teachers in Sydney were
travelling and intended to change professions at a later date.
Fifty percent of the Sydney TESOLs had had no previous teaching experience before
entering TESOL, the other 50%, having mainly taught in the school system. Sixteen
respondents had taught languages, of which 12 taught English or EFL.
Three respondents had not taken an undergraduate degree prior to TESOL. One of those
did so several years after entering TESOL, and the other two
518
managed to enter a postgraduate program without an undergraduate degree later in their
careers in order to be employable in Australia (Table C.7).
Table C.7: Q ualifications before entry to TESOL (Sydney TESOLs n=32)
Responses
Training (non adult TESOL) n=32 %
Language degree including language component 16 50
(English, ESL, Afrikaans, French, Russian, Italian,
German, Chinese, Indonesian)
Dip Ed or teacher training in language subjects 13 40
(English, Modern Languages, TESOL, German,
French, Italian) (of which 6 mention TESOL)
No degree 3 10
Sixteen respondents took a degree with language subjects, none in TESOL. Thirteen
obtained a qualification to teach languages, with six respondents specifically qualifying to
teach TESOL in schools.
Fifty percent of Sydney TESOL respondents entered the field with the minimum
qualification of CTEFLA, as Table C.8 indicates. Many Sydney respondents entered the
field abroad or before the legal minimum qualification came into being, and for this
reason, 44% were unqualified on entry. The CTEFLA was the current established and
popular way of entering the field. Two respondents entered with a DTEFLA in Geneva,
and one in Sydney. This qualification is normally taken only after two years’ experience
and is regarded as the full training level.

519
Table C.8: Q ualifications at entry of Sydney TESOL respondents
Responses* Cases
Qualifications at entry n=52* % %
Non-adult TESOL qualifications: Dip Ed, 19 36 59
PGCE or other school teaching qualification in
any subject
CTEFLA qualification 16 31 50
None 14 27 44
Other TESOL qualification 2 4 6
DTEFLA (or equivalent) 1 2 3
Non-teaching work and experience
Twenty-two Sydney respondents (69%) had travelled and lived abroad for at least one year
prior to taking up TESOL (Table C.9). This was similar to the experience of the Geneva
TESOLs. Twenty-one (66%) had carried out business or commercial activities and half the
respondents had previously taken occasional work.
Table C.9: Non-teaching experience prior to teaching (Sydney TESOLs)
Responses* Cases
Type of experience n=75* % %

Studies, travel, residence in another country 22 29 69
for at least one year prior to teaching /
TESOL
Business or commercial activities: secretarial, 21 28 66
clerical, public service, accounting,
hospitality, management
Odd jobs “just to get by” 16 21 50
Government 5 7 16
Social, medical or religious activities 4 5 13
Manual or artistic profession 2 3 6

520
Table C.9 (cont)

Child care responsibilities (au pair) 2 3 6
Library work 1 1 3
Industrial or laboratory work 1 1 3
Voluntary activities 1 1 3
Six respondents had had experience abroad with TESOL, or a related experience which
they were reluctant to classify as TESOL. One reason given was they were unqualified
and that teaching TESOL was merely to earn money temporarily. Another was that
experience was not recognised when they took up TESOL as a profession in Australia.
Profile of Sydney TESOL respondents
• The TESOL sample was 67% female and 33% male.
• It contained 40% who were previously qualified teachers of languages and 50% who
had a degree including a language component.
• Sixty-six percent had pursued a career in the business or commercial sector.
• Sixty-nine percent had lived abroad for at least one year.
• Recent recruits entering the profession for the first time were aged between 20-40.
• Fifty-six percent had had a career in an area other than teaching, and 25% had also
been a teacher.
The profession is often represented as being one with unqualified people using it as a
vehicle for travel. However, a surprising number of Sydney respondents (40%), did not
classify some of their experience with TESOL as relevant because, being unqualified at
the time they did not see it as part of their later profession. This indicates a changing
attitude towards TESOL, which is becoming more professional, an evolution which is
referred to in other parts of the study.

521
APPENDIX D
HESITATIONS IN CHOOSING TESOL AS A CAREER

Interview question 1 for Geneva TESOLs and 5 for Sydney TESOLs
State the reasons and hesitations for that choice.
The main interview question also sought to discover whether there were any hesitations
in the initial phases of teaching and whether these constituted an obstacle to smooth
beginnings or to stabilisation.
Huberman’s teachers demonstrated from the types of responses that theirs was a considered
choice, from a range of other options available. In Huberman’s study, 57% said they had
no hesitations in taking up the career, while 43% said they had hesitations.
GENEVA TESOL STUDY

Ninety-three percent of Geneva TESOLs had no serious reservations when they entered
TESOL, but without considering it a long-term career. It may be that they had no real
choice because they were overseas in a non-English speaking environment. Nevertheless,
many were pleased to take up TESOL which in the end did become a career for them in
time.
The hesitations of some Geneva TESOL respondents related to the realisation that the
working conditions were inadequate, but this happened only after teaching for a year or so.
Table D.1: Any hesitations in choosing TESOL? Geneva TESOLs
Respondents
Any hesitations? n=28 %
None at first 26 93
Yes 2 7
522
However, thirteen respondents did mention hesitations totalling 16 responses, which
normally emerged later on once they were more committed to the career. Table D.2
shows the reasons for such hesitations.
Table D.2: Reasons given for hesitating by Geneva TESOLs
Responses
Reasons giv en n=16 %
Working conditions or salary 4 25
Lack of confidence in ability to teach English 3 19
Family responsibilities 3 19
Doubt in ability to cope with CTEFLA 3 19
Reluctant to work 1 6
Aversion to the method 1 6
Aversion to the preparation 1 6
The most frequently mentioned doubt or hesitation arose from the working conditions (four
respondents):
I didn’t like it. It was too precarious.
Three untrained respondents mentioned lacking confidence in their ability to teach:
When I first taught EFL, I remember sweating - I hated it - I was too nervous in front
of people - I had stage fright - why? - I had no methodology, no preparation, I was
hoping through good will it would be OK.
Three others were hesitant because of family responsibilities. However, these were only
temporary doubts and most were able to accommodate satisfactorily between family and
TESOL:
523
None except the difficulties with the children at school and it took a lot of time
away from them, but they were purely practical reasons.
I was a bit apprehensive about how the family would take it after having me at
home.
Reasons for not having hesitations

Most of the respondents said they did not hesitate, and 18 respondents gave 23 reasons for
not hesitating (Table D.3).
Table D.3: Reasons for not having hesitations (Geneva TESOLs)
Responses
Reasons for not hesitating n=23 %
Being abroad and therefore the obvious thing to do 6 26
Opportunity for a change of career 5 22
Opportunity to earn money 5 22
Having a degree in English 2 9
Always wanted to be a teacher 2 9
Conditions were better than in schools 1 4
To contribute to society 1 4
Unable to think of anything else 1 4
Six respondents were abroad with limited choices and TESOL seemed the obvious thing
to do:
I couldn’t teach French as I was in France, so teaching English to adults in Paris
just seemed the obvious thing to do.
I had no choice, I needed the money ... I looked for something that was marketable
anywhere in the world, and it was too late to start medical studies.
524
Five respondents had no hesitation because they deliberately chose TESOL in order to
change career:
And I wasn't sure I could do it, was capable of doing it. But then I had saved up. I
had kept the money to one side so that if I ever wanted to I could leave my job, it
made me feel good.
I had no hesitations because I had a degree in English and why should I be a
menial clerk, I could earn more money and make use of my degree.
Five respondents did it because they needed the money, therefore they had no
hesitations:
I needed money to pay back a 5,000 pound tax bill. I was going to buy a house
and needed regular income to pay the mortgage.
In summary, fewer Geneva TESOL respondents (7%) reported hesitations on entering the
profession than Huberman’s respondents (38%). However, 13 respondents mentioned
some aspects of doubt which emerged later in their initial teaching period.
Some Geneva TESOLs did not consider they had entered a career / profession until
several years later because they felt they were only “filling in” or using it as a way of
earning money abroad. When they appreciated the reality, some had hesitations, but
most by then had realised it was difficult to change when abroad. The overall mood,
however, was positive in spite of the lack of choice. Those who were in the profession
seemed to enjoy TESOL, and this was strongly reinforced in other parts of the study.
SYDNEY TESOL STUDY

As Table D.4 below demonstrates, 63% of Sydney TESOLs mentioned having no
hesitations, while only 37% said they had some.

525
Table D.4: Any hesitations in choosing TESOL? Sydney TESOLs
Responses
Any hesitations? n=32 %
None at first (either explicitly stated, or understood as 20 63
actively chose to):
Yes 12 37
Twelve Sydney TESOLs gave reasons for hesitating (see Table D.5):
Table D.5: Reasons given for hesitating by Sydney TESOLs
Responses
Reasons giv en for hesitating or doubts n=23 %
Lack of confidence in ability to teach English 5 22
Other career / dreamt of other career 5 22
Sceptical that the short course could prepare me/ unsure of 2 9
suitability of training course
Because of working conditions or salary 2 9
Hadn’t wanted to be a teacher in the past 2 9
Should have done it earlier 2 9
Afraid would be too dictatorial because of school teaching 1 4
Because of a bad experience teaching in schools 1 4
Did not know it was a recognised career or subject 1 4
Low status profession 1 4
Monotony 1 4
Six respondents were concerned about working conditions and salary in the profession.
One was concerned about it being a low status profession.
The reservations were to do with money and I think it is, and has been for a very
long time, a low status profession ... Everyone outside knows what a doctor is, and
how hard they work, and what they have to study,

526
but no one knows what my job is, they think it’s like teaching children with pictures
of large bunches of grapes.
Some respondents mentioned lacking confidence in their ability to teach (22%). None of
these had received initial training.
My hesitations were of a practical nature and whether I’ve got what it takes to be a
good teacher.
TESOLs were less likely to hesitate than school teachers as it was a considered choice of
profession, often taken up later in life.

527
APPENDIX E
SYDNEY TESOLS’ RESPONSES TO THE GENEVA

TESOL LIST OF MOTIVATIONS FOR ENTERING TESOL
In many of the interviews with Sydney TESOLs, a list of responses given by Geneva
TESOLs was shown to them after the question was asked for spontaneous responses. The
aim was to discover if they would vary their responses at all if given a list as a stimulus.
Interview question number 5 for Sydney TESOLs

Here is a list of motivations for becoming a TESOL teacher mentioned by TESOLs overseas.
Are there one or two you would add from this list to the ones you have already mentioned?
List of motivations of TESOL teachers (derived from Geneva TESOL study)
Unhappy with other career/ lifestyle - wanting a change / actively seeking something to do
Access to a higher status
I sank / drifted / fell into it
I needed a job / money
To enable me to travel / it’s portable
I couldn’t think of anything else
External request, suggestion / someone approached her because she speaks English/ met
someone who gave her/him the idea
To enable me to get my work permit / stay in the country
Feminine profession: the possibility of a family life in parallel
I substituted for someone
Job freedom; flexibility in one’s work
Preferred TESOL to teaching children/in schools
Because I majored in English
Because I already trained as a teacher before
Because at some stage in my past I had done TESOL before or something related
528
Modelling; influence of former teacher or parents who were teachers
Compensate for a perceived educational deficit; desire to “do better than one's own
teachers”
Meeting people
I enjoyed it
Helping people
Because I love language/ English
After respondents were shown the Geneva list TESOL, many added motivations which may
not have been the initial ones, but which coincided with their feelings. In this way, some
of the motivations scored more highly than in the previous section where they had
responded spontaneously (Table E.1).
Table E.1: List of motivations for entering TESOL (spontaneous responses of Sydney TESOLs
and responses to Geneva TESOL list combined)
Responses*
Motiv ation Spontaneous* Combined*
A=Activ e motiv ation; M=Material n=32 % n=32 % cases
motiv ation and P=Passiv e motiv ation cases
Ability to travel / it’s portable (M) 18 56 29 91
Love of languages / English (A) 9 28 27 84
Wanting a change / seeking something 22 68 26 81
to do (A)
Enjoyment (A) 15 47 25 78
Preferred TESOL to teaching children/in 15 47 21 66
schools /to work with adults (A)
Had been a TESOL before or something 13 41 21 66
related / majored in English / already
trained as a teacher before (A)
Helping people (A) 5 16 18 56

529
Table E.1 (cont.)

External request, suggestion / (A & P) 15 47 18 56
Meeting people (A) 4 12 16 50
Job freedom; flexibility in one’s work / I 2 6 14 44
could combine it with other career (M)
I sank / drifted / fell into it / it just 6 19 13 41
happened
was thrown; blundered; floated up, rose;
plunged; wandered in(P)
I needed a job / money (M) 7 22 10 31
Looking for vocational career / 9 28 9 28
professional path (A) (without huge
retraining)
Love multicultural aspect / finding out - - 6 19
about other cultures while travelling (A)
English is an international language / 6 19 6 19
expanding industry(A & M)
Access to a higher status (M) - - 5 16
Born teacher / had always wanted to be 4 12 4 12
a teacher (A)
Modelling; influence of former teacher or - - 4 12
parents who were teachers (A)
Limelight / begin in control / influencing 2 6 4 12
others / stage(A)
I couldn’t think of anything else (P) - - 4 12
Feminine profession: the possibility of a 1 3 4 12
family life in parallel (M)

530
Table E.1 (cont.)

Interested in people from NESB (A) 4 12 4 12
To work / stay in the country (A) 3 9 4 12
Conditions were better than in schools - - - -
(M)
I didn’t have any long term goals (A) 3 9 3 9
I wanted security (M) 3 9 3 9
Could live / work in the country without 3 9 3 9
speaking the language (A)
It could lead to other related careers (A & 2 6 2 6
M)
Desire to 'do better than one's own 2 6 2 6
teachers'.(A)
I substituted for someone (A) 2 6 2 6
I was good at it (A) 2 6 2 6
I love teaching (A) 1 3 1 3
To further myself / keep my options open 1 3 1 3
/feather in cap (M)
I like casualness and relaxed nature of 1 3 1 3
EFL classroom (A)
*Multiple responses
To enable me to travel scored the highest with 91% agreeing. In the spontaneous list, 56%
mentioned this as a motive. In the combined table, the next highly scoring motivation was
I love languages / English with 84%. However, this motive scored only 28% in the
spontaneous list. This is probably because it was not a strong initial motivation but was
part of the choice. It was tied up with travel, as some travelled in order to improve their
languages, and TESOL was the vehicle.
In the combined table, the next motivation was unhappy with other lifestyle / career /
wanting a change / actively seeking something to do with 81% of respondents nominating
it. This was the highest scoring motive in the spontaneous responses, with 66%.
531
I enjoyed it, scored highly in both the spontaneous (47%) and combined (78%) responses.
Respondents indicated positive feelings towards the profession, and a great love of being
with people generally and with people of other cultures. Meeting people of other cultures
or likeminded TESOLs, was mentioned by 50% of respondents in the combined table, but
by only 12% in the spontaneous responses.
Finding out about other cultures while travelling, and the multicultural aspects were
mentioned by 19% of respondents. This is peculiar to TESOL, as in Australia the classes
tend to have mixed nationalities. Many respondents saw the learning process as a two-way
one.
TESOL is a really interesting job in terms of meeting people from all over
the world, and brings different cultures and opinions together and I get as
much from them as they do from me.
Working and living in a country you get to know how people and society operate -
you get to know the language and how it fits in globally in today’s world.
Because I’d already studied other languages, it is interesting to meet people from
those cultures and although I’m teaching them English, I can learn a bit more also
about them and their culture - so it’s the reverse too.
Helping people was mentioned by 56% of Sydney TESOL respondents. Only 16% had
mentioned it spontaneously. Many of the respondents had worked with migrant students,
while others saw teaching language generally as being useful:
The reasons were because altruistically I thought it would be useful to help
people learn.
532
TESOL is incredibly giving - you can’t be selfish in the TESOL classroom.
In the combined table, 66% preferred TESOL to teaching children in schools. Twelve (out
of 21 respondents) had taught in schools previously, and the change was linked to wanting
to get out of that type of teaching. Forty-seven percent mentioned this spontaneously as a
motive for choosing TESOL.
Sixty-six percent of Sydney respondents said they were attracted to it because at some
stage in my past I had done TESOL before or something related, or they had majored in
English or had already trained before as a teacher. Forty-one percent mentioned this
motivation spontaneously.
Interestingly, only two respondents mentioned job flexibility as a factor in the spontaneous
responses, while 44% agreed with it when they saw the list. Some admitted they didn’t
realise how flexible it was until they got into it, while others actively chose it knowing its
flexibility and that it could enable them to pursue other interests concurrently. Some felt
there was flexibility with working hours abroad, but not in Australia, which tends to follow a
9-5 day rather than evening work.
Job freedom would be a motivation but I have found that TEFL gives you
flexibility abroad. Not so much here.
Similarly, only 19% of respondents mentioned I sank / drifted / fell / wandered into it in
the spontaneous responses, while 41% nominated it when they were shown the list, many
rephrasing it to read I was thrown / blundered / floated up / rose or plunged into it. This
could be mainly attributed again to the well-kept secret of the profession from graduates.
I plunged into it hoping it would work out.
I sank, drifted into it. In the early stages I blundered into it but later it was a
conscious decision.
533
I sort of fell into it because someone approached me but I had a major in English
and something TESOL related and thought it would be a good idea.
I needed a job / money was a frequent motivation, with 31% mentioning it in the combined
list, and 22% spontaneously. Of those, only one respondent was starting out on his first
job, three others having just moved to another country and looking for work, three others
seeking a career change and in a moment of financial need, and one other already in a
career, but wanting to make a change linked to financial improvement.
Twenty-eight percent of respondents were looking for a vocational career path, some
without a huge retraining.
Others were not considering it as a long term goal (9%).
I had no hesitations because it was not a career or lifetime thing, it was just a
means to an end of working. It seemed interesting work overseas, and English was
obviously in demand.
I’d had an interest in going overseas and it all seemed to fit, I thought I’d
see how it goes without any long term goals in that direction.
Sixteen percent mentioned access to a higher status after seeing the list, but none had
nominated this in the spontaneous mentions.
Access to a higher status. I hadn’t thought of it that way but for some reason
I was never proud to say I was a teacher at high school. But I was as an
adult TESOL. With adults it was different.
Access to a higher status - both the above would apply because it refers to
the difference between being unemployed and being employed.

534
In summary, the highest factors in both the spontaneous list and the combined list were
quite similar for Sydney TESOLs. The most significant differences between spontaneous
mentions and post-list mentions were:
• Job flexibility, where 2% mentioned it spontaneously, but 12% added it to the list
• Meeting people: 12% mentioned it spontaneously, and 38% added it to the list
• I love language: 28% mentioned it spontaneously, and 52% added it to the list
• Helping people: 16% mentioned it spontaneously, and 40% added it to the list
• I fell into it: 19% mentioned it spontaneously, and 22% added it to the list
535
APPENDIX F
DEFINITION OF THE TERM “CAREER” AND

ATTITUDES TOWARDS TESOL AS A CAREER
In the question about reasons for TESOL being considered a career, the term ‘career’ was
defined by TESOL respondents. The definition of “career” from the Australian Concise
Oxford Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Melbourne (1987) is ‘Course or progress through
life or history; way of making a livelihood and advancing oneself.’
Geneva TESOL study

Twenty-two Geneva TESOLs provided responses to this question. Table F.1 indicates that
the majority of the responses centred around the concepts of professional rewards
including development / expansion and advancement / progression; commitment and
material rewards.
536
Table F.1: Definition of ‘career’: Geneva TESOL respondents (n=22)
Responses*
Definition n=93* %
Professional rew ards: dev elopment / expansion 27 29
Growth and development 8
Evolution, new challenges and responsibilities 5
professional challenge 5
A firm structure with professional qualifications 4
Preparedness to continue investing in their own development 2
Getting experience in different fields, being prepared to 2
change and develop outwards
Research and development 1
Professional rew ards: adv ancement / progression 20 22

Advancement, a sense of progression whether up or sideways. 20
Ladder going up
Personal rew ards 7 7

Personal satisfaction / enjoyment / enthusiasm 4
Something you’ve chosen to do and enjoy; concept of job 2
satisfaction
Something you do well 1
Commitment 21 23
Something you give your priority to 7
Full-time job 6
Commitment / devotion (not just a job) 5
Something you do everyday / all your life 3
Material rew ards 16 17

Working conditions are satisfactory / having a contract 8
Being paid properly 8

537
Table F.1 (continued)

Other 2 2
‘Career’ is on two levels; top level management stuff and 1
teaching
Connected to business, not teaching 1
Intrinsic rewards (58% responses)

The largest category were intrinsic rewards in the general definition of career.
Development / expansion represented 29% of responses and advancement / progression
22%:
A career means growth and development, evolution and new challenges,
improving, something you can expand and develop professionally.
Another respondent felt it should be the possibility of growing. She felt the growth
possibilities should be on an intellectual, human and other levels:
it’s the idea of a career path - something that’s worth sticking to, where there’s
development, where you can grow, where people are doing research in it, and
where people are interested in looking at what works.
The single most mentioned facet was professional rewards: advancement, a sense of
progression, whether upwards or sideways:
Yes, I agree, there's a distinction between a job and a career ... X saw a job
expanding sideways - different levels, different needs, but in business a career talks
about advancement. It’s always moving forward.
Many saw a career as a ladder with an improved financial situation along with increasing
responsibilities and with the possibility of advancing in the area, which they perceived to
be related more to the business field than teaching.

538
Personal rewards with aspects such as personal satisfaction only received 7% of responses.
However, personal rewards could result from many of the facets of the other categories,
particularly professional rewards.
Extrinsic rewards (42% responses)

Extrinsic rewards represented 42% of the responses. Commitment drew 23% of the
responses, many respondents feeling a ‘career’ involved commitment and devotion and
that it was a two-way process; ‘commitment in the career and it’s predictable things will
come with a career.’ The respondents were divided over whether commitment involved
full-time involvement or not:
My concept of a career is something you do and commit yourself to, and enjoy it,
whether it’s one and a half hours or fifty hours a week.
Material rewards represented 17% of responses and involved having a contract and
satisfactory working conditions.
In summary, the categories detailing professional rewards were the most frequently
mentioned in defining the term ‘career’. These included both the concepts of
advancement and progression as well as development and expansion. Commitment was
also seen as important. Material rewards including satisfactory working conditions rated
only 17% of responses. Could it be that TESOLs are more interested in the intrinsic values
of a career or that they are unwilling to mention material aspects in the interview?
Sydney TESOL study

As can be seen in Table F.2, 22% of responses defined it as ‘advancement or progression’,
and 17% as ‘development or improvement’. Also important was commitment to the career,
being full time, doing it long-term and taking it seriously, totalling 21% of responses.
539
Table F.2: Definition of ‘career’: Sydney TESOLs
Responses*
Definition of “career” n=58* %
Professional rew ards: adv ancement / progression 13 22
Movement upwards / Progression 13
Personal rew ards 11 19

Fulfillment / Satisfaction 10
Enjoyment 1
Professional rew ards: dev elopment / expansion 10 17

Development / improvement 10
Commitment 12 21
A career is a full time commitment / you take it seriously 7
You do it long term 4
Responsibility 1
Material rew ards 9 16

More money and status 7
A way of earning money 1
Security and permanency 1
Other 3 5
You can have several careers in one lifetime nowadays 3
Intrinsic rewards (58% of responses)

Intrinsic rewards represented 58% of responses for Sydney TESOLs. For some, the idea of
advancement / progression was negative and for some positive. One respondent said:
540
the majority of people follow some path in which they go constantly up a ladder at
intervals, but it often means doing work you don’t enjoy, and the thought of
spending five days a week doing work I hate doesn’t appeal.
For others, it was more positive:
you would move upwards in terms of level of responsibility, size of salary, and
improvements in conditions. It’s more of a challenge or a different challenge the
higher you go. I see a career as a series of steps.
For some, the concept of development and improvement meant being challenged in new
areas:
career has a logical path of improvement and self-betterment
while for others it meant doing further qualifications and training in different areas, or
developing new skills.
Personal rewards with facets of intrinsic satisfaction with the career represented 19% of all
responses.
Extrinsic rewards (42% of responses)

Extrinsic rewards represented 42% of responses, including commitment and material
rewards. Commitment represented 21% of responses. Many compared the word ‘career’
with ‘job’, seeing the former as more serious than the latter:
it’s a job you stay at, a school you stay at.
a job is something you do then go home.
Linked to that idea, four respondents said ‘I see ‘career’ as something long term with a
definite structure.’
541
Material rewards represented 16% of responses overall, with respondents feeling that
‘career’ implied:
the more materialistic things like money and being recognised.
Another said:
at one time I thought ‘career’ meant higher status and more money but I don’t know
if that’s true.
Another said that with more experience:
the more value you are, and subsequently your remuneration is shown through that
value.
542
APPENDIX G
BEGINNING TEACHING: BACKGROUND INFORMATION

This appendix provides background information, which was from the following interview
questions:
Interview question 8 for Geneva TESOLs; 6 for Sydney TESOLs

Reflect back on the initial period of your teaching career; describe the year, the setting, the
Geneva TESOL study

Eighteen out of 23 respondents began their TESOL career in Switzerland; two in the
United Kingdom, one in Greece, one in Paris and one in Germany. Therefore, only two
respondents began their TESOL career in an English-speaking country. Only one
respondent started TESOL at the very beginning of her working life.
Sydney TESOL study
Initial training
Nineteen of the 32 TESOLs interviewed in Sydney had pre-service training, 12 entered the
career with no training, and one entered while training. The pre-service training was a
Certificate in TESOL except for one who undertook a Graduate Diploma in Language
Studies and RSA Diploma in Further Adult Community Education concurrently. Fifteen of
the respondents did their initial training in Australia, three in London and one in Ireland.
Setting of first year of teaching
Teachers commenced their careers in a wide range of countries, (Table G.1). Some
respondents changed jobs several times in their first year. Twenty-two respondents started
their career in Australasia; seven in the United Kingdom, and 14 in non-English speaking
countries.
543
Table G.1: Geographical location of first year teaching (Sydney TESOLs)
Responses*
Country n=43* %
Australasia 22 51
Non-English speaking countries 14 32
Europe 12 28
Egypt 1 2
Mexico 1 2
United Kingdom 7 16
Those starting out in summer schools in the United Kingdom (5 respondents) taught while
studying to earn extra money in the summer holidays. Many deliberately went overseas to
teach TESOL with pre-service training. The majority of those starting their career in
Australia did so in private language colleges (9), or university language centres (6).
Year started TESOL
The TESOL industry became significant in Australia in the 1980s and 1990s, with most
respondents starting in those years. In the United Kingdom respondents commenced in
the 1970s-1990s. In non-English speaking countries, respondents mainly started in the
1970s and 1980s. As Table G.2 indicates, Australia was later introducing TESOL than
some overseas countries.

544
Table: G.2: Year started TESOL
Continent / country No Year started *

respondents*
1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s
Australasia 22 - 2 10 10
Europe 12 1 4 5 2
United Kingdom 7 - 3 2 2
Egypt 1 - 1 - -
Mexico 1 - 1 - -
Total 43 1 11 17 14
* Total exceeds 32 because many spent their initial year in more than one location.
545
APPENDIX H
RESPONSES TO SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS’

LIST OF CONCERNS
Geneva and Sydney TESOL respondents were shown a list of concerns faced by secondary
school teachers. This list, which was also shown to Huberman’s respondents, combined
data from numerous studies on typical concerns facing beginning secondary school
teachers (Bush, 1980; Fuller and Brown, 1975; MacDonald and Elias, 1983 and Veenman,
1984).
Here is a list of concerns or problems that beginner teachers in secondary schools often
teacher.
Discouragement
Physical exhaustion

Twelve percent of respondents claimed that “it (beginning teaching) came off with no
problems.” The major concerns mentioned by Huberman’s respondents are set out in
Table H.1 below.

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Table H.1: Were you (are you) confronted with these problems? Huberman’s respondents
(n=158)
‘Yes’ responses
Statement n=610* %
Fearing what others may think 74 12
Feelings of continual trial and error 72 12
Feelings of never “measuring up” 62 10
Inconsistency (sometimes rigid, sometimes laissez-faire) 60 10
Feelings of “surviving” from day to day 60 10
Intimidated by the students 58 10
Physical exhaustion 56 9
Difficulties in maintaining class control 55 9
Discouragement 46 8
Difficulty in teaching other than by standard lesson format 36 6
(lecture).
Preoccupation with oneself rather than with the task at hand. 31 5
Respondents were most concerned about feelings pertaining to lack of experience and lack
of confidence as well as disciplinary aspects.
Geneva TESOL study

Geneva TESOL respondents indicated that many of the items on the list were not
experienced in the adult teaching situation, and many were seen to be positive, not
negative.
547
Table H.2: Were you (are you) confronted with these problems? (List derived from Huberman):
Geneva TESOLs (n=23) *
Responses
Concerns raised by secondary school teachers n = 126* %
Discouragement 12 10
Inconsistency 6 5
Difficulty in teaching other than by standard lesson format. 6 5
Class control (unsolicited reference to school teaching) 9 7
Many respondents felt this was an important factor no matter how experienced the teacher
was. However, many Geneva TESOL respondents viewed this as a positive rather than
negative factor. The overriding feeling here was that experimenting was a very positive
thing, rather than a problem (six out of 15 respondents). “Long may it continue...
development’s all about that” was the comment of one respondent. Another said:
I did try out things all the time - I was extremely creative. I would try out
anything; I’d think this is a good idea, I’ll do this.

548
Many feared what other teachers might think, or they feared the students if the class was
advanced or knowledgeable of grammar.
Nine respondents said they were not intimidated, four said they were, and 10 said
sometimes or mentioned one incident. Most seemed to find the wording somewhat strong.
I felt intimidated by secondary school students, but I can cope with adults.
Intimidated - if the adult speaker clearly shows superior knowledge it makes me
uncertain, it makes me stop.
Physical exhaustion
Physical exhaustion was high for Geneva TESOLs, depending on the number of hours
taught. As there was a high percentage of casual teachers, many could limit their
teaching to a comfortable level.
Thirteen of the 14 respondents positively agreed with Huberman’s wording, but one said:
I’m sure everyone feels tired. More than that, not really, and if I feel tired, I
feel I’ve done a good job.
Some respondents referred to it more as mental than physical exhaustion:
When I was doing 7 hours at the beginning, it was more mental strain, not
physical, and I was reading so many books and every book had a different
explanation and I’d wonder which was right.

549
Difficulty in teaching other than by standard lesson format
Unlike the school system, there was usually no set curriculum in TESOL. Teachers were
given control over the content of their courses, and textbooks were seen as resources to dip
into. The CTEFLA training course teaches independence in lesson planning from the
outset, and some CTEFLA graduates made reference to having problems diverging from
their own lesson plans, but not “standard” ones found in books. Consequently, 17 out of 23
respondents did not find this a problem.
In summary, 18 of the 23 respondents said that either they had no discipline problems, or
that they occurred only occasionally, or cited difficulties with one problem student. This
contrasts sharply with Huberman, where 35% of the responses stated that they had
discipline problems.
Nine of the respondents referred unsolicited to having had discipline problems with school
children or adolescents, but contrasted school teaching with the ease of teaching adults.
Methodological concerns
Huberman’s teachers averaged only 3.6 methodological concerns (Huberman, 1993, p.
205), while Geneva TESOLs averaged 10.3 concerns. This could be due to heightened
awareness of the qualities of a good teacher from the CTEFLA course, or because,
according to one respondent: “Ignorance is bliss”. The respondent indicating the highest
number of concerns was in a period of reassessment, about to commence a higher level
training course, and therefore was extremely critically aware.
Twelve respondents had previous teaching experience. Nine were trained school or
college teachers prior to TESOL while three were untrained. As one respondent said :
I can see these are relevant to beginning teachers, but I wasn’t a beginner, I
slipped into it very easily.

550
Responding to the question of maintaining class control, another respondent said: “No.
In my first year way back, but not now. You quickly develop techniques in the first year.”
She had completed an initial CTEFLA training certificate; however, she still nominated
nine concerns, and another who entered TESOL with no training nominated eleven.
Sydney TESOL study

Sydney TESOLs were also shown the list of concerns compiled from responses by Geneva
secondary school teachers. Table H.3 shows that the uppermost concern respondents
related to from this list was feelings of continual trial and error (16% of responses), which
would include several of the most frequently mentioned concerns of the TESOLs’
responses in the previous question, such as concerns with grammar and practical things.
551
Table H.3: Were you (are you) confronted with these problems? (List derived from Huberman):
Sydney TESOLs (n=32) *
Responses
Concerns raised by secondary school teachers n=122* %
Inconsistency 7 6
Difficulty in teaching other than by standard lesson format. 6 5
Discouragement 5 4
None of these problems 4 3
* Multiple responses, such that total may exceed 100%
Feelings of trial and error may also encompass problems with the method, and cultural
differences, as one respondent said:
especially when you’re making efforts to embrace the new methodologies
and to stimulate the students, and it didn’t always work and the students
expected rote learning and you’re trying to get away from it and some
students would not really see what you were doing.
The next most common concern of beginner teachers was that of physical exhaustion.
Some respondents added mental exhaustion too, or exhaustion of

552
the voice. Sixteen respondents feared what others may think, in some cases because of
observations, in others fearing what the students or other teachers might think.
Feelings of “surviving” from day to day were mentioned by 14 respondents, many
wondering how they would get through the day, and others feeling overwhelmed by all the
preparation:
I spent all day Saturday and Sunday writing lessons, just to keep my head
above water.
Twelve respondents mentioned being preoccupied with oneself rather than with the task
at hand. One respondent said: “you wonder how you’re coming across”, while another
respondent said:
the feeling that you’re the imparter of knowledge rather than focusing on the
students.
Seven respondents said they had felt inconsistent in their teaching approach (sometimes
rigid, sometimes laissez-faire). One teacher felt:
every class had to be a winner and I had to try to make every class fast and
smooth and sometimes students and you are not up to that.
Six respondents had difficulty in teaching other than by standard lesson format, because
they felt they had to stick rigidly to their lesson plans and felt unable to:
adapt to the circumstances as you go, how and when you change what you
planned to do, how to adapt without giving up your main aims.

553
Twelve respondents stated they did not have difficulties maintaining class control,
particularly when compared with school teaching:
classroom control was a dream after my experience in high school; that’s
what I love about teaching adults, there’s no difficulties with control.
Sydney TESOLs showed mobility in that many began their career overseas. There were
slightly more negative than positive memories of starting teaching, with affective or
emotional themes receiving most responses for both positive and negative memories.
When asked to nominate two situations causing concerns, pedagogical concerns were most
frequently mentioned, followed by positive comments, highlighting the enjoyable aspects
and which represented one third of responses unsolicited. Sydney TESOLs experienced
similar difficulties to Huberman’s school teachers, except for discipline problems.
Overall, the responses indicate a fairly positive beginning to the profession in Sydney.
554
APPENDIX I
SYDNEY TESOLS’ RESPONSES TO THE GENEVA LIST

OF BEGINNING TEACHER CONCERNS
Respondents were shown and asked to comment on the applicability of a list of beginner
teacher concerns Geneva TESOLs had raised. This was in answer to the following
question:

Here is a list of concerns expressed by TESOL teachers overseas at the beginning of their
careers. Identify one or two you faced:
TESOL teacher additional beginners’ concerns (derived from Geneva TESOL study)
Lack of confidence / experience / training
Practical things connected to conducting the lesson - timing/ instructions / using equipment
Learning English grammar
Planning / overplanning
Interpersonal relationships with students
Problems with the method
Lack of guidance / support
Lack of familiarity with materials / lack of material
Stress
Problems of motivation
Keeping interest levels / motivation high
Different learning styles of students / motivational factors / levels
Positive comments
Positive comment: I liked the colleagues, the atmosphere in EFL staffroom
I feel much more confident
It’s been enriching from the personal point of view

555
From Table I.1 it was clear from the endorsement Sydney TESOLs gave to the positive
comments made by Geneva TESOLs that respondents would have been keen to identify
positive aspects, had they been asked to.
Table I.1: Geneva TESOL additional beginners’ concerns / positive comments: Sydney TESOL
respondents (n=32) *
Responses
Concerns raised by Genev a TESOLs n=190* %
Practical things connected to conducting the lesson - 16
timing/ instructions / using equipment
Keeping interest levels / motivation high 15
Planning / overplanning 15
Lack of familiarity with materials / lack of materials 13
Different learning styles of students / motivational factors / 7
levels
Interpersonal relationships with students 5
Positive comments: affective factors 42 22

I liked the colleagues, the atmosphere in EFL staffroom 28
I feel much more confident 8
Enriching 6
Affective factors 34 18
Lack of confidence / experience / training 23
Stress 11
Pedagogical concerns were the most frequently mentioned aspect with 60% of responses.
Learning English grammar and practical things connected to

556
conducting the lesson were mentioned by 16 respondents each. These were also
frequently mentioned on the first occasion. Planning / overplanning was mentioned by 15
respondents.
Grammar was an area which caused concern and which was mentioned by many
respondents: ‘especially if a grammar point came up or something needed to be
explained grammatically.’
Lack of guidance / support was mentioned by 17 respondents. Even in schools with an
official support system such as coordinator, some respondents felt there could never be
enough support:
I get all the support I can under the circumstances. As a new teacher you
can never get enough, and I’m careful not to ask too much.
Another who came from school teaching felt:
people assume you have more experience than you do and I felt I would be
imposing on the coordinator to go through the lessons and I didn’t ask for as
much support as I needed.
Another said that although there was a coordinator system:
everyone was too busy and I was responsible for my own teaching and we
had to write down what we’d done at the end of each week so there’d be no
clash of materials.
Keeping interest levels / motivation high was mentioned by 15 respondents.
Keeping interest levels and motivations high was a concern because it led
me to get out and find other experienced teachers and get ideas on what I
could do, and I started using

557
communicative games. It must have been a concern for me to look for help.
Syllabus problems caused problems maintaining the interest levels of students:
Keeping the interest levels of students especially with five hours a day, and
no syllabus and for the two hours in the afternoon we were always scratching
around for something because the rationale of the school was to keep the
students interested and entertained.
Lack of familiarity with materials / lack of materials was mentioned as a concern by 13
respondents. This was identified as a syllabus problem in the first question and also rated
highly.
Problems with the method was mentioned by 10 respondents. In some cases, this related
to inexperience:
Methodology and I remember looking at notes from the lectures to see if
there were any hints.
Another respondent found the method of the day tedious:
I had problems with the method, listening and repeating and substitution
drills.
Another found the method used in one of the chain schools limiting, but had had other
training: “I felt its limitations - that’s why I didn’t get involved”.
Positive comments: affective factors (22% of responses)
Positive comments received an enthusiastic endorsement by Sydney TESOLs: for
example, “I like the colleagues, the atmosphere in the EFL staffroom”, which 28
respondents agreed with. Some found it a welcome change after school teaching:
558
In primary school I rarely met anyone who would be a friend - I have a lot
more in common with my colleagues in EFL than in primary - they are more
open minded, and have travelled and are more like myself.
and another said it was
a more relaxed atmosphere in the EFL classroom to the one I’d left in the
high school, which was one of siege.
Another found the colleagues:
very positive and supportive ... who go out of their way to say complimentary
and good things and it’s amazing how well it works and adds to the ease of
doing work compared with high school teaching where there’s the idea of
grinding your confidence down and here they seem to be good and helpful
and build up your confidence.
Others felt a companionship with other colleagues who were from a similar background:
they had all been travelling, they were verbally witty, with a similar lifestyle
spectrum.
The other positive comments also rated fairly highly: “I feel much more confident” with
eight respondents, and ‘it’s been enriching from the personal point of view’ by six
respondents. These both relate to the gradual feeling of gaining confidence and longer
term feelings, but were on the list as they were mentioned by Geneva respondents.
Sydney respondents similarly related to them, in some cases teachers who were still in the
initial phases: “I feel much more confident” after only five weeks of continuous teaching.
559
Affective factors (18% of responses)
Twenty-three respondents felt they had a “lack of confidence / experience / training”.
Some felt the four week Certificate course was insufficient, leading to a feeling of lack of
confidence: “it was a drop in the ocean really”. One felt confident in the classroom,
having had previous teaching experience, but felt less confident outside the classroom:
the only thing I felt mainly inadequate about was this whole huge area of
language teaching and theory ... it seemed a vast area of knowledge.
Stress was mentioned as a concern by 11 respondents. This was attributed to various
concerns, such as lack of guidance:
Stress for reasons I mentioned before; poor working conditions, not knowing
what I’m supposed to be doing, unfamiliarity with materials. The awful
feeling you get when you’re an inexperienced teacher like a pizza waiter,
when all you can do is run from one end of the room to the other and keep
things ticking over.
Another found stress related to “the pressure of a full timetable”.

560
APPENDIX J

TESOL LIST OF DOUBTS
The 32 Sydney respondents were asked to consider and to respond to a list of motives
for leaving compiled from the Geneva TESOL interviews. These responses were
combined with those from the first part of the question and respondents were asked to
add any they had not already mentioned.
Here is a list of concerns expressed by TESOLs overseas in moments of doubt. Which
concerns do you share? Have you resolved them? If so, how? Do you have any to add?
Motive for wishing to leave TESOL (derived from Geneva TESOL study)
Because of money and working conditions
Yes, positive motive: for a career move; didn’t want to work; TESOL is a stepping stone, a
stop gap; want to travel with husband
It’s stressful, I was bored / talents underused / teaching’s a lonely job
Lack of confidence in my ability
Institutional reasons: method or student conditions
Table J.1 shows the number of respondents adding this motive to their list, the
number who mentioned it spontaneously for comparative purposes and those
specifically stating that it was not a concern. The spontaneous responses are those
mentioned before respondents were shown the list.

561
Table J.1: Motives for leaving : (Geneva TESOL list): Sydney TESOL comments (n=32)
Responses*
Motiv e Spontaneous Combined Not a
n=22 n=64 concern
n=29
Extrinsic rewards 22 35 18
Because of money 2 14 6
Because of working conditions 6 9 8
Institutional reasons: method or - 6 -
student conditions
Yes, positive motive: TESOL is - 5 4
a stepping stone, a stop gap
Security - 1 -
Yes, positive motive: for a career 14 - -
move
Intrinsic rewards - 29 11
It is stressful - 9 5
Talents underused - 5 -
Lack of confidence in my ability - 5 -
Boredom (bad class, bad day) - 5 -
Yes, lack of promotion / - 3 -
opportunities within TESOL
Loneliness of the job - 2 6
Extrinsic motives
The motives for leaving were more extrinsic than intrinsic. Money was the major
extrinsic motive for leaving with 14 responses, while only two

562
respondents in the spontaneous list mentioned money as a reason for doubting. Nine
respondents added because of working conditions. Some of those mentioned
moments of doubt experienced overseas, not in Australia, but fourteen of the 16
mentioning money referred to Australia. Several of the respondents compared their
salary with that of other professions:
when I compare what I earn with what my daughter earns I ask questions.
She’s a lawyer..
It could be that respondents were reluctant to mention material concerns when
initially questioned. However, six respondents said they thought that money was not
a concern:
By and large in Australia I’m happy with the money and working conditions so
it wouldn’t be a reason to leave.
One respondent was concerned that she wouldn’t get a pension, but felt she might
move to the public sector rather than the private one, where security was better. Six
respondents agreed they had considered leaving for institutional reasons, many
interpreting this as meaning working conditions, or lack of career opportunities.
Five respondents also mentioned TESOL being a stepping stone, or stop gap as a
reason for leaving, although none of them was certain this was true:
I might see TESOL as a stepping stone. I would like to stay in it. Last year I
was teaching industrial relations at TAFE. Teaching’s what I like - it doesn’t
have to be TESOL. It might be a stepping stone or it might not.
Four respondents said it was not a stepping stone:

563
But I didn’t see TESOL as a stepping stone. It was my career for that time.
And one specifically mentioned job security as a concern in moments of doubt.
Intrinsic motives
Intrinsic motives for leaving mentioned were not thought of spontaneously, and
addressed aspects of boredom and stress. Nine respondents agreed that it’s stressful,
while five said it was not. Of those saying it was stressful, some modified their answer
to indicate only mildly stressful. Some attributed the stress to factors other than the
job itself, and another felt that although teaching was stressful, it was not necessarily
a reason to leave. In the final analysis only three answered definitely that it was
stressful. And five said their talents were underused.
I was bored was also mentioned by five respondents. Of these, several said that they
might leave if they got bored in the future but were unsure what other options there
were.
Lack of confidence in my ability was mentioned by five respondents. Some of these
were long-standing professionals:
Somehow I think after 25 years in TESOL I should be the perfect teacher and
shouldn’t have a lack of confidence.
Three respondents said that lack of promotional opportunities within TESOL could
make them want to leave. One respondent said:
(More) use TESOL as a part time filler and think of changing and certainly in
the private sector people are career oriented, and are teaching out of choice,
but it’s not only a glass ceiling, it’s linoleum.
Finally, two respondents said teaching’s a lonely job, while six disagreed.
564
Overall, therefore, except for three items, all the motives for leaving were distinct for
Sydney TESOLs in the spontaneous list. Many of the motives of the Geneva TESOLs
were subsequently added to the list, although some disagreed. Money and working
conditions were the major concerns for Sydney respondents in their moments of
doubt. Respondents also considered a career move in moments of doubt, but many
were uncertain what they would move into.

565
APPENDIX K
DEFINITION OF THE TERM “PROFESSIONAL

DEVELOPMENT” BY SYDNEY TESOLS
Interview question number 15 for Sydney TESOLs:
Define the word “professional development”.
The findings are reported in Table K.1
Table K.1: Definition of the term: “professional development” by Sydney TESOLs
Responses
Professional dev elopment is ..... n=96* %
Other duties / div ersification 19 20
Promotion or diversifying / teaching and other 10
Learning about areas you don’t know about 7
Training other teachers 1
Developing course materials 1
Gaining more experience 14 15

Broadening one’s knowledge and experience / developing new 11
skills / learning
Developing practical classroom skills / getting practical 3
experience

Inservice training, workshops 10
Courses on specific topics 3
Improv ement / progression / adv ancement 12 13

Interaction w ith colleagues / support 10 10
Talking to colleagues / sharing ideas 7
College liaison 2
Support systems 1
566
Table K.1 (continued)
Reflection 10 10
Observations 5
Reading 3
Encouraging reflection / self appraisal 2
Further studies 8 8
Other 3 3
Professional development should be ongoing 1
Seeing where the field fits in the political spectrum 1
Talking about new resource books 1
Conferences 1 1
Diversification in teaching and other duties rated highest with 20% of responses. The
second highest rating related to gaining more experience: 11 respondents felt professional
development meant to broaden your knowledge and experience / develop new skills /
learning. Respondents mentioned broader aspects of professional development, such as:
for me it’s becoming better and a more experienced teacher generally and in more
areas, not just in General English.
it’s something that gives me practical skills to move beyond where I am at the moment.
Inservice training represented 14% of responses, and improvement or advancement
represented 13% of responses. Ten percent of responses related to talking to colleagues,
which was one of the most frequently mentioned types of professional development in the
next section. Other aspects of interaction with colleagues included a system of support in an
institution and liaison with other colleges.

567
And six respondents felt it meant keeping abreast, up to date:
I’m always interested in new methods and I love to see new techniques used.
Reflection attracted 10% of responses and included observations, self appraisal and reading
books and journals. One teacher commented on observations that:
there’s nothing wrong with quality control and I don’t know why teachers get upset.
They’ve been trying to introduce it at School X, but it falls between the holes in the wall,
there’s never any time so only the new teachers get observed.
Being observed was frequently mentioned by respondents in the question on what was useful
for them now; however, it was seen more as a development tool than as quality control.
These responses were generally in keeping with the responses given to how professional
development relates to TESOL as described in the next section. They were also in keeping
with the professional development in the analysis of interviews, except for responses of
inservice training. Defining professional development first appears to have broadened their
conceptualisation of professional development in responses to later questions.
568
APPENDIX L

TESOL LIST OF PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
RATED AS USEFUL
Interview question 17 for Sydney TESOLs:

Here is a list of professional development activities mentioned by TESOLs overseas. Do you
share these ideas? Any to add?
Professional development activities mentioned by TESOL teachers in Geneva (list derived
from Geneva TESOL study)
Workshops / seminars
Practical
Theoretical
Reflection
Self appraisal
Discussion with colleagues
Reading books / journals
Observing others
Conferences
Specific course / seminar
Keeping up to date
Doing something different
To keep evolving
Nothing
Wish list
Courses / conferences / workshops
Talk to expert / guru
To have done it earlier
When teachers were shown the list of professional development preferred by Geneva
TESOLs, and this was then combined with those previously mentioned
569
by Sydney respondents, the types of professional development were similar, but the
frequency of mention varied. Table L.1 records the findings of this part of the interview.
Reflective types of professional development increased substantially, attracting 35% of
responses, but only 15% of responses initially, while inservice training attracted 20% of
responses, but 28% initially. Diversification and discussion with colleagues rated 11% and
12% of responses respectively, while diversification rated 19% of responses spontaneously.
As was suspected, therefore, reflection was not necessarily perceived to be professional
development by many until they identified it on the list.

570
Table L.1: Sydney TESOLs’ responses to the Geneva TESOL list of professional development
rated as useful
Responses
Spontaneous Combined
Type of professional dev elopment n=75 % n=223 %
Reflection 11 15 77 35
Observing others 5 21
Reading books / journals 5 17
Self appraisal - 15
Reflection 1 14
Being observed - 10
Inserv ice training 21 28 44 20

Specific course / seminar 7 15
Theoretical workshops - 15
Practical workshops - 10
Workshops 11
Learning about computers 3 4
Discussion w ith colleagues 9 12 27 12

Liaison with teachers from other colleges 3 4
Div ersification 14 19 24 11
Doing something different - 10
Diversify / try new areas / experience 11 8
Doing duties in addition to teaching 2 5
Writing books / courses 1 1
Keeping up to date 8 11 19 9
Conferences 5 7 16 7
571
Table L (continued)
Doing further studies 7 9 7 3
Training other teachers 4 5 4 2
Other 3 4 3 1
Ongoing professional development 1 1
Travelling 1 1
Goal setting 1 1
Understanding and motiv ating the 2 3 2 1

students
Understanding the customers better 1 1
Keeping interest and motivation high 1 1
Reflection
This category attracted 35% of responses. Observing others was a popular response and six
respondents said it would be good if they had the opportunity, but ‘it’s impossible unless the
DOS teaches my class.’ Many respondents felt that being observed by trainees was useful as
it could lead to self-appraisal:
Being observed was useful for my teaching and even now I’m thinking about what the
person said. I realise my shortcomings.
Two respondents mentioned the difficulty of being observed by their peers.
It’s too hypothetical because we don’t interact and are not observing each other but if
there were more practical workshops you could get better appraisal by your peers.
Reflection itself as a single item was mentioned by 14 respondents in the combined list,
whereas only one respondent mentioned it spontaneously.
Reading books / journals was next, mentioned by 17 respondents. Three respondents said
reading if I had time:

572
I would dearly like time at the end of my working hours to do that, but given the current
corporate culture, it’s extremely unlikely.
And a further three respondents said they did not read journals or books:
I don’t do that - I don’t know if it’s useful - it doesn’t appeal.
Self appraisal was mentioned by 15 respondents, and was not mentioned at all in the
spontaneous list. Several commented that they had omitted it when asked the question
previously: ‘ but it happens naturally anyway’; ‘although one does that informally.’
These last two points demonstrate that respondents perceived professional development as
concrete activities, such as workshop and seminars, rather than the more reflective ones.
Following this observation, a separate analysis was performed using evidence from interview
one to track the more unconscious forms of professional development, which were not
mentioned by respondents in this section, but which they identified in the narrative of their
careers. This is reported in Chapter VI.
Inservice training
Workshops / seminars continued to be rated highly. This item was divided into theoretical
and practical, with 15 respondents preferring theoretical workshops, and 10 respondents
preferring practical workshops. And 15 said they would like to do a specific course or
seminar. Not many were specific concerning which topics they would like for courses or
workshops. One respondent mentioned computers or vocabulary, and another a re-
evaluation of EFL methodology.
Discussion with colleagues was mentioned by 27 respondents (12% of responses), while
diversification was mentioned by 24 respondents (11% of responses), including
diversification in teaching, having other duties and writing materials. Keeping up to date
represented 9% of responses overall.

573
Going to conferences was mentioned by 16 respondents, which was a significant increase, as
only five respondents mentioned it initially. However, it only represented 7% of total
responses. This is possibly because they had not thought initially of including professional
development, which was difficult to do as funding was needed. Some preferred the contact
with other members of the profession, rather than the content of the conference itself:
I’ve attended quite a few conferences but I don’t know if they were useful, but the
contacts and discussion with colleagues were useful rather than the actual conference
itself.
Three respondents with less than five years’ experience didn’t know if they were useful as
they hadn’t been to any yet, while some respondents also said that conference-going was
unevenly distributed with the same staff members being able to go.
Section summary
The main differences were the number of respondents adding reflection and self appraisal
to their original list, and numbers of respondents increased substantially for each item.
When prompted, respondents were keen to list many additional items of professional
development.
574
APPENDIX M
BACKGROUND PROFILE OF TRAINERS /

ADMINISTRATORS
This appendix gives a summary of the background of the trainer and / or administrator
respondents from both TESOL studies, as well as an analysis of their roles and the
institutions in which they worked. Sydney TESOL respondents were asked direct interview
questions about their background profile, while Geneva TESOL respondents gave the data
in the course of the interview without specific questions.
Interview questions for Sydney TESOL study:

18 What experience /qualifications did you have before taking up adult TESOL? (job titles,
19 What TESOL-related qualifications do you have; where and when did you do them?
20 How many years’ adult TESOL experience do you have, when and where?
21 What teacher training and / or administrative positions have you held, when and where?
22 How long have you been in your current position, and what is your title? (if less than
three years how long were you in your previous position?)
23 Describe your current role as trainer and/or administrator
24 The following training roles were mentioned by administrators / trainers in Geneva. Are
there any others you would add?
List of training roles (list derived from Geneva TESOL study)
Attending conferences and seminars
Consultancy or one off training seminars /workshops etc
Organising training programs for schools
Writing articles
Presenting at international conferences
Writing journal articles/books
Formal training programs (DTEFLA, CTEFLA)

575
Formal and informal support and guidance for teachers
Providing informal guidance to teachers
Observing teachers
Providing formal guidance to teachers (through appraisal)
The following administrative roles were mentioned by the trainers / administrators in
Geneva. Are there any you would add?
Administration of training courses
Placement tests
Program administration
Budget management
Visiting new company clients
Ordering materials
GENEVA TESOL STUDY
Background profile of respondents

There were 10 respondents in the Geneva study, of whom only two were full-time
administrators and not interviewed as teachers. Nine of the respondents were female and
one was male. Eight of the respondents were over 40, while two were in their early 30s. The
youngest was male and in one of the most senior positions in Geneva in TESOL.
As the Table M.1 indicates, of the 10 respondents, six had stable full-time contracts; two
worked within the international organisation system; two at School A and two at School B.
The other four were freelance teacher trainers.

576
Table M.1: Summary of distribution of roles and worksites of Geneva trainers / administrators
(n=10)
Respondents
Main function of respondent Schools (n=8) International
Organisation (n=2)
Freelance trainers (n=4) 4 -
Full-time teachers (n=3) 2 1
Full-time administrators (n=2) 1 1
Full-time trainer (n=1) 1 -
Table M.2 gives a detailed summary of the background profile of trainers / administrators.
577
Table M.2: Geneva TESOL trainers / administrators: background and roles
Title Countries Age/ Worksite Qualifications Roles Current teaching/training

taught gender breakdow n
TESOL in*
Freelance trainers
Trainer GB Female School A; DTEFLA CTEFLA administration, Writes journal articles, presents at
Title: CH 40s School B; external assessment, tutor; conferences
sometimes external DTEFLA tutor; professional
Course Director consultancies development workshops; 70% teaching; 30% training
of CTEFLA trainer and teacher in many (sometimes 100% training)
sites
Trainer: CH Female School B Failed DTEFLA CTEFLA trainer; 95% teaching; 5% training
No title 40s professional development
workshops and teacher

578
Table M.2 (continued)

Trainer: CH Female School B; DTEFLA and DTEFLA trainer and 90% teaching; 10% training
No title 50s international studying MEd in assessor; helping establish (often more involved in training)
organisation; TESOL Distance new bridging professional
School outside course in England development course;
Geneva; other professional development
seminars at international
organisation; teacher
Trainer: Germ Female School outside DTEFLA. professional development Had co-authored successful TESOL
No title CH 30s Geneva seminars and teaching series / currently on maternity break
95% teaching; 5% training
(only beginning to train)

579

Full time trainer
Trainer: GB Male School B DTEFLA Oversees and participates in Presentations at conferences, and
Director of CH early 30s teaching and training journal article writing.
Training programs; CTEFLA trainer 100% training
Full time teacher w ith other duties

Teacher with FR Female School A No qualifications Admin: testing, placing Teaching about 20 hours
other duties: CH 40s students; company
No title, coordination; assisting 80% teaching; 20% training
unofficially company coordinators
overseeing Training: observing
company teachers, ‘off the cuff’
coordination assistance
No title or CH Female School A School teacher; as above Teaching about 20 hours
‘coordinator’ 50s DTEFLA 80% teaching; 20% training

580

No title CH Female International School teacher No teacher training, ‘purely (Teaching 12 hours)
50s organisation administrative role’, ordering 75% teaching; 25% resource
resources, exam admin etc management, assisting new teachers
Full time administrators

Administrator: CH Female International MA in Applied To facilitate training, to 100% administration
Officer-in- 50s organisation Linguistics identify needs and provide
charge training. Purely
administrative eg budget
management
Administrator: GB Female School B DTEFLA, MA ELT Training, consultant, budget Administration and guest lectures /
Director CH 50s management. consultancy in training / writing
articles
95% administration; 5% consultancy
* GB = Great Britain; CH = Switzerland; Germ = Germany; Fr = France

581
Freelance trainers
All the freelance trainers had a DTEFLA, except one who had failed her DTEFLA and was
not a graduate (see Table M.2), while the others were graduates, and one was studying a
MEd. Two were trained school teachers of other subjects.
The main role of freelance trainers was teaching. There was insufficient training to enable
them to earn a living as the training role ranged between 5-30%, with 70-95% teaching.
The freelance teacher trainers and professional workshop leaders were mainly involved with
a range of training, both for pre-service (CTEFLA) and in-service (DTEFLA), and professional
development workshops. They worked at different sites including schools both in and out of
Geneva, as well as the international organisation. Other activities they were engaged in
included writing journals, books, and giving presentations at conferences. As can be seen
from the breakdown proportions of teaching and training, there were periods where they may
be involved in conducting a course and may combine teaching with training, while at other
times they may be mainly teaching with some consultancy training.
Full-time trainer
The full-time trainer was a trained school teacher and had a DTEFLA. His role was one of
supervising and assisting the teachers, performance appraisal of teachers and trainers and a
CTEFLA trainer (Table M.2).
Full-time teachers with some training / administrative duties

Three full-time teachers with training / administrative duties were also interviewed (see
Table M.2). They taught for 75-80% of the time, performing only 20-25% of their role as
trainers or administrators. Two were trained school teachers of other subjects, one had a
DTEFLA and the other two had no officially recognised international TESOL qualification.
None had an official title recognising their additional duties, and two taught what would be
considered a full-time teaching load (20 hours a week) in Australia as well as assuming
additional duties.
582
Both were unclear of what their exact role was as one respondent indicated:
I’m the English department coordinator, or head of the English department, I think
the Director says I’m a coordinator and X is a coordinator, and we have different
responsibilities and it’s for us to work things out, and to keep things clear between
us.
The other respondent described how she had gradually assumed more responsibilities,
including helping teachers responsible for company classes:
From the last year I'm supposed to help any company coordinator who didn't know
what they were supposed to be doing ... And I was spasmodically involved in
teacher training - but I didn't have the role of teacher training, it was an off-the-cuff
thing.
As was evident, there was a reluctance to allocate titles in the profession, because
recognition of roles implied higher salaries and different duties.
the biggest contradiction is that x wants us to have a certain number of hours
teaching, about 20 (laughs), which is rather high and is being reduced by a few
hours a week in order to do other things. The theory is that I have private students
who often cancel out, which will make me freer, so now we have to see the practice
- we have till the end of term to see how things go.
Full-time administrators
Both full-time administrators had masters qualifications (Table M.2). One was a trained
TESOL teacher and the other was an administrator, but not trained as a teacher. The
Director discussed her role as administrator, affirming that it was becoming more budget-
managing than academic management.

583
As soon as I was an administrator I saw it more broadly - a teacher’s career path
leading to pure academic administration has long gone, most now manage a
budget.
In summary, only three respondents had recognised titles and roles. The three full time
teachers had no official recognition of their other duties. Only two of the respondents had
purely administrative roles. Therefore, people holding senior positions continued, in the
main part, to have a substantial teaching load.
Profile of roles: Geneva respondents

The types of roles Geneva TESOL respondents described ranged from organising and / or
delivering programs of seminars and workshops; formal training programs; observing teachers
in their classrooms, off-the-cuff advising of teachers and structured appraisal programs.
Training roles
Nine out of the 10 respondents interviewed for this chapter had training roles and seven of
the respondents had administrative roles. Training roles were far more frequent than
administrative ones. The most frequently mentioned activity was attending conferences and
seminars (seven respondents), while only three presented at international conferences.
Consultancy or giving one-off training was the next most frequently mentioned activity by six
respondents. Five respondents were involved in internal activities such as observing
teachers, providing informal guidance to teachers or organising training programs for schools
(Table M.3).
584
Table M.3: Pedagogical and training roles: Geneva respondents
Responses
n=57*
Training roles 42
Attending conferences and seminars 7
Consultancy or one off training seminars /workshops etc 6
Organising training programs for schools 5
Providing informal guidance to teachers 5
Formal training programs (DTEFLA, CTEFLA) 5
Observing teachers 5
Writing journal articles/books 4
Presenting at international conferences 3
Providing formal guidance to teachers (through appraisal) 2
Administrative roles 15
Administration of training courses 3
Placement tests 3
Program administration 3
Budget management 2
Visiting new company clients 2
Ordering materials 2
Four respondents wrote journal articles or text books. Two were involved in formal appraisal
schemes. Altogether, trainers were active professionals, covering a large range of inservice
training, both formal and informal, as well as making public appearances or publishing
outside the confines of Geneva.
The administrative roles included activities within the institution for teachers such as
organising the training, placing students, program administration, ordering materials, and
external activities such as visiting company clients. Budget management was undertaken by
the two more senior administrators.

585
SYDNEY TESOL STUDY
Background profile of respondents
Interview questions
A completely different group of Sydney TESOL respondents was interviewed for this part of
the study. This section reports the findings from interview questions 18-22.
Table M.4 shows the experience, qualifications, overseas experience and roles undertaken
by the 11 respondents.
586
Table M.4: Sydney TESOL trainers & administrators: background and roles
Title / Respondent Worksite / ag Years of experience Pre-TESOL experience Qualifications Countries taught
/ gender TESOL in
Trainers
Director of Teacher School A 14: TESOL: • Teacher training • South America
Training. Female 8: teaching • Certificate TESOL (Peru, Bolivia,
Late 30s 9: training • Dip TEFLA Brazil)
• MA ELT • England
• 2 week management course • Portugal
• Turkey
• Australia
Assistant Director School A 13.5: TESOL 3 years public service • CTEFLA • Indonesia
Teacher Training Male 6-7: training • DTEFLA • Japan
Late 30s • MA Applied Linguistics • Australia

587

Coordinator, University 12: TESOL 6 years public service in • Grad Dip TESOL • Australia
Language Teacher Language 5: teaching Australia and overseas • MA Applied Linguistics • China
Education Centre 7: training • PhD Applied Linguistics (in progress)
Male
Late 40s
Administrators
Educational University 9: TESOL 16 years teaching in schools, • Dip Ed • Australia
administrator Language 2: administration and teacher training • M. Ed.
(currently seconded Centre • Cert TESOL
to university support Female • Grad Dip TESOL
40s • Doctor of Education (in progress)
Head of University 13: TESOL 2 years teaching in schools • Dip Ed • Italy
Department, Migran Language 5: administration and odd jobs • DTEFLA • Australia
Education Centre • MEd
Male
Late 30s
588

Head of University 19: TESOL • MA Sociology • Belgium
Department, Language 15: administration • CTEFLA • Italy

ELICOS / Offshore Centre 12: training • DTEFLA • UK
projects Female • MA Applied Linguistics • Australia
Mid 40s • China
• Indonesia
• Thailand
Head Teacher School B 13.5: TESOL about 9 years odd jobs; • CTEFLA • Malaysia
Male 4: administrator musician, sales etc • DTEFLA • Algeria
40s • England
• Australia
Director of Studies School A 10: TESOL 2 years teaching English in • CTEFLA • Japan
Female 8: administration schools in Sudan • DTEFLA • Australia
30s • MA Applied Linguistics
• MBA (in progress)

589

Head of Departmen University 21: TESOL 6 years teaching schools; staf • Dip Teaching (Primary) • Australia
Language 1: administrator development in TAFE • Grad Dip TESOL

Centre • MA Applied Linguistics (in progress)
Female
50s
Director of Overseas School B 11: teaching, training Journalist and writer • Diploma in Suggestopaedia • Japan
Projects Male and administration • CTEFLA • Australia
30s • DTEFLA • Travel and TESOL
• Diploma in Marketing consultancy in Asia
Principal School C 18: TESOL Odd jobs • CTEFLA • France
Female 6: administration • DTEFLA • Egypt
40s • MEdAdmin • China
• Australia
590
Trainers
The two trainers had 12-14 years’ experience in total each, including 6-9 years’ training
experience.
Administrators
The eight administrators ranged from 9-21 years’ total experience in TESOL, including 1-15
years of administration experience with a mean of 5.5 years’ experience. All respondents
had full-time positions. Four of the respondents’ titles were Head of Department, while other
titles included a Director of Studies, a Principal, a Head Teacher and a Director of Overseas
Projects.
Pre-TESOL experience
Two respondents had no experience other than TESOL, while eight had, including teaching
English in schools (4), odd jobs (3) and a career in the public service (2), and writer/journalist
(1).
Qualifications
All respondents were qualified with a first degree. Four respondents had teacher training
qualifications for school teaching. All respondents were therefore minimally qualified at
diploma level. In addition to this, nine respondents had a masters level qualification, and
three were undergoing further postgraduate study at the time of the interview (two doctorates,
and one MBA). One had a diploma in marketing.
The three trainers were qualified in applied linguistics or TESOL, and the administrators had
a range of qualifications, including six with masters level qualification in applied linguistics,
education, educational administration, business administration (in progress), and one with a
diploma in marketing. The other two were fully qualified in TESOL.
Experience overseas
The respondents had wide-ranging experience in TESOL overseas, mainly as teachers. The
opportunities for travel were revealed in the wide range of countries respondents had taught
in including:
• Europe: UK, Italy, Belgium, France, Portugal

591
• Asia: Japan, Indonesia, Malaysia
• Africa: Algeria, Egypt
• South America: Peru, Bolivia, Brazil
• Australia
The countries respondents had TESOL training / administrative experience overseas in were:
• China, UK, Belgium, Thailand, Indonesia (one respondent)
• Portugal and Turkey (one respondent)
• Japan and contracts in other parts of Asia (one respondent)
• Australia (11 respondents)
As can be seen from the information above, most had acquired their training / administrative
experience in Australia.
Gender
The gender balance among senior staff members was more evenly balanced than in the
teaching part of the study. Five males and six females were interviewed.
Profile of roles: Sydney respondents

This section reports the findings from interview questions 23 and 24. Table M.5 lists the
roles undertaken both as trainers and administrators. As can be seen, there was a crossover
of roles, with trainers also responsible for managing their programs and administrators
responsible for providing professional development for staff. Administrative roles were more
frequently mentioned than trainer roles.

592
Table M.5: Training and administrative roles: Sydney respondents
Responses
n=113*
Administrative roles 74
Pedagogical management roles 31
Program administration 8
Ordering materials 5
Curriculum development 5
Organising placement tests 4
Administration of training courses 3
Writing journal articles / books 3
Academic management 2
Assessment of other courses 1
General management 20
General management in schools 3
Quality control 3
Full responsibility academically and administratively 2
School policy 2
Building management 1
Budget management 9
External liaison role 12
Attending and presenting at conferences and seminars 9
Visiting clients 3
Managing staff and students 6
Counselling trainees 3
People management (staff and students) 2
Supervision of homestay and counselling students 1
Marketing 5
593

Training roles 39
Organising training programs for schools 9
Providing informal guidance to teachers 7
Observing teachers 7
Providing formal guidance to teachers 6
Consultancy or one-off training programs 5
Conducting formal training programs 5
Pedagogical management roles were the most frequently mentioned, representing 31
responses. Program administration was mentioned by eight respondents, including roles such
as:
the day to day nuts and bolts, the resourcing and staffing, management of the
program budget, recruiting and inducting new staff - so the smooth running. Making
sure teachers are where they should be and classes are what they should be, and all
within the budget.
Another mentioned:
planning and analysis of enrolments, staffing needs, premises needs, … and the
bigger picture organising staff, students, managing job descriptions of other staff.
Other roles mentioned included ordering materials by five respondents, although often this
was delegated, organising placement tests when students arrived, mentioned by four
respondents, and curriculum development, mentioned by five respondents. Examples of
program management included:
making sure the students are in the right courses and have learning pathways, to
other schools, or other campuses, make sure their learning needs are met in an
efficient way and providing counselling services and

594
all the extra services, and working in conjunction with the admin staff. Keeping
abreast with ELICOS admin developments, and changes of forms, and working with
overseas agents.
Another respondent mentioned:
ensuring the academic integrity of the program - things like evaluation, program
evaluation, monitoring quality. Curriculum development - ensuring we are meeting
the requirements of funding bodies and students.
Other roles of program administration included: writing journal articles / books mentioned
by three respondents. General management was the next most frequently mentioned
category of administrative duties, including quality control and budget management, which
was the most mentioned administrative role. Nine respondents were responsible for their
section, and one for the overall management of the school:
The Director sits down with her calculator, but I have considerable responsibility
resourcing and developing new programs and developing new costings, monitoring,
not just counting costs, but I know the level of funding we have and remain within it
and counting numbers is the Director’s domain.
Building management was mentioned by one respondent as being an unusual role:
all the building projects fall on my plate and it’s unusual for other Head Teachers.
External liaison role included attending and presenting at conferences and seminars
mentioned by nine respondents.
Marketing the program was mentioned by five respondents, which in some cases included
marketing the program locally, but which usually referred to marketing overseas.
595
Training roles
The main training role undertaken by respondents was organising training programs for
schools, mentioned by nine out of eleven respondents. These ranged from the
administrative side: organising workshops and making people aware of professional
development opportunities to the training side: organising formal training programs and
being involved in conducting them.
Another role mentioned by seven respondents was that of providing informal guidance to
teachers. Informal guidance ranged from observing teachers, and generally supporting
them:
I provide informal guidance all the time and I’m observing teachers all the time, so I
do formal support too. I’m a very pivotal person and everything comes to me.
Sometimes I answer three questions on the way to the toilet. And there are the tricky
ones of teachers that are not coming up to scratch and how to deal with those.
Observing teachers was carried out in all the centres involved in the study, mainly as a tool
for determining the suitability for continued employment. Observations involved giving
feedback, and were therefore also seen as a professional development tool.
Formal guidance (through appraisal) was mentioned by six respondents. Some understood
this as being observing teachers for suitability, while others read it as making staff aware of
formal study programs. Formal guidance was also interpreted as being the coordinatorship
system providing guidance to teachers.
Consultancy or one-off training programs and conducting formal training programs were
mentioned by five respondents each.
Other roles mentioned by fewer respondents, but which many undertook and which could
also fall under other categories already mentioned included managing staff and students.
596
Section summary
All Sydney TESOL respondents were employed full-time with official titles recognising their
training / administrative roles, while only six of the Geneva TESOL respondents were full-
time and only three with officially recognised titles. Sydney TESOLs had travelled far more
extensively teaching TESOL than Geneva TESOLs. Sydney TESOLs mentioned a greater
range of training and administrative roles than Geneva TESOLs, which is to be expected as
Sydney TESOLs had better working conditions with time officially allocated for training and
administrative duties.
597
APPENDIX N
PROFILE OF INSTITUTIONS AND PROFESSIONAL

DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS
Respondents from both TESOL studies were interviewed about the professional
development programs they had been involved in. Sydney respondents were also shown
the Geneva TESOL list of professional development for comment.
Interview question 13 for Geneva TESOL study
What professional development programs have you been involved in, and how successful
were they?
Interview questions 25 and 26 for Sydney TESOL study

25 What professional development programs have you been involved in in your current or
not?
26 The following types of professional development programs were mentioned by trainers
and / or administrators in the Geneva study. Some programs were led by respondents, and
in some they were participants. Are there any you would like to comment on? You may also
refer to your past.

598
respondents (lists derived from the Geneva TESOL study)
Type of program mentioned Program description

Pre-Service and Inservice methods
1970s-1980s
Speed reading with Ferguson (1970s) “Meaningless prescriptive method”
“mechanical, militaristic”
SGAV (1970s) Structural Global Audio Visual
All’s Well (1970s) “It was the whole way of looking at teaching that
involved a lot of other aspects, not just linguistics,
body language, drama etc”
NLP techniques (current) Neuro Linguistic Programming
Silent Way (Gattegno) (1980s) Introduced in the international primary school
Communicative approach (1980s) Getting students to learn through interaction.
Focus on functional aspect
These are the types of professional development programs trainers and administrators are

599
respondents
Program leading to certification

CTEFLA (mid 1980s on): Pre-service
DTEFLA (1980 on): In-service
Bridging program between CTEFLA and DTEFLA (pilot scheme): Early in-service
training
Workshop:
Organising 2-week training prog. in Sept.
Organising workshops:
guest speakers, weekend workshops
Series of seminars (pilot bridging professional development program for Cambridge)
Leading workshops:
FORUM - teachers professional association (famous names mainly)
Going to conferences
Consultancy elsewhere
Fly in fly out type
Basic academic skills management
Appraisal
GENEVA TESOL STUDY
Profile of institutions
Respondents were drawn from three main institutions in Geneva; two private language
schools and the international organisation’s language training unit.
School A
School A had several training systems routinely available: Friday afternoons were set aside
for training during the teaching session and a two-week session in September before the start
of the new teaching year, particularly for new teachers. In addition to this, there was off-the-
cuff support and guidance available. Attendance at training sessions was free for teachers,
but teachers were not paid

600
for the time they spent attending. Currently there were two teachers who had been given
training duties in addition to teaching full-time.
School B
School B was a training centre and conducted CTEFLA courses. It also frequently had
workshops on specific topic areas, charging outsiders to attend. There was also a formal
appraisal system in force in the school with the intention of facilitating professional
development. The Director of Training affirmed the usefulness of this, but casually
employed teachers and trainers participated in their own time unpaid.
School B was a part of one of the biggest chains of British-based teaching and training
institutions:
An interesting development is that a tighter eye is kept on institutions by UCLES
(University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate) because it’s a big provider
and there’s a move towards almost policing centres - they’ve got the joint chief
assessors’ system right now, and they get reports sent with strong and weak points of
centres, and the centre gets warned if they have weak points more than once.
Trainers were also monitored to check they develop:
They are a way of watching the professional development of certain tutors in those
centres too, whether it’s taking place or not. There’s been a lot of cleaning up going
on of trainers and trainees, forcing trainees to develop, I’ve seen a lot of very static
ones and new ones not trained properly.
This only applied to School B as they were part of an English chain of schools, while others
were outside this system.
International organisation
One respondent was in a purely administrative role and organised the training, while the
other respondent was a teacher with a small administrative role.

601
Professional development was virtually non-existent in the international organisation for 10
years, but recently the administrator had revived professional development, mainly in the
form of guest lectures and workshops.
In the past there was a rotating Head Teacher position, which has now been abandoned.
The teaching load was reduced when additional administrative duties were assigned. And
some teachers had been reassigned management, computer or other specialist training
roles.
Profile of professional development programs:
Geneva respondents
Respondents were asked the following question in an attempt to identify their perceived
satisfaction with the professional development programs on offer:
In this section the findings from interview question 13 are reported, and some of the
respondents reflected, drawing on their past experience. Some respondents answered in the
capacity of trainer and teacher, and thereby provided a profile of training from the 1960s on
(see Table N.1). Until the mid-1980s there was no internationally-recognised teacher
training qualification available, and most teachers started with no training or with the in-
house method of the school.

602
Table N.1: Types of professional development programs mentioned in chronological order by

trainers / administrators: Geneva TESOL study
Type of program Program description Respondents

mentioned (n-10)
Pre-Serv ice and
Inserv ice methods
1970s-1980s
Speed reading with ‘Meaningless prescriptive method’ 2
Ferguson (1970s) ‘mechanical, militaristic’
SGAV (1970s) Structural Global Audio Visual 1
All’s Well (1970s) ‘It was the whole way of looking at teaching 4
that involved a lot of other aspects, not just
linguistics, body language, drama etc’
NLP techniques (current Neuro Linguistic Programming using 3
techniques in language teaching
Silent Way (Gattegno) Introduced in the international primary 1
(1980s) school
Communicative Getting students to learn through 1
approach (1980s) interaction. Focus on functional aspect
Program leading to
certification:
CTEFLA (mid 1980s on) Pre-service 4
DTEFLA (1980 on) In-service 3
Bridging program Early in-service training 2
between CTEFLA and
DTEFLA (pilot scheme)
The recognised minimum qualifications today are those accepted by the British and
Australian TESOL accreditation schemes at the Certificate and Diploma level.

603
Before 1980, there was a series of audio-visual and other methodologies, and some still
have an avid following. This training was now often referred to as ‘fringe methodology’, and
in some cases pervaded other aspects of life, not just language teaching as it embraced a
particular philosophy. These included the following: All’s Well (1970s) (also known in
Australia), which was particularly popular in Geneva and was developed in Paris; Silent Way
(developed by Gattegno); Speed Reading introduced by Ferguson in Geneva, NLP (Neuro
Linguistic Programming) referred to throughout the study by several respondents who still
actively pursue this. Richards and Rodgers (1986) give an historical perspective on different
approaches and methods in TESOL.
In the following section, a more detailed description of the types of TESOL training is
provided, drawn from the responses given:
Training in the 1970s
No training - ad hoc training from the school / school method

In the early 1970s there was very little training available, and most schools trained people in
their method, or teachers were left to their own devices:
When I first taught EFL, I remember sweating - I hated it - I was too nervous in front of
people - I had stage fright - why? I had no methodology, no preparation, I was
hoping through good will it would be OK.
Sometimes people were thrown in at the deep end, like this respondent:
Now, in ... 1972 ... there was an ad for the Coop who were looking for English
teachers, and I thought why not? I can teach English. I started teaching British
English ...I would call this period ‘groping in the dark’, except I have never doubted
my knowledge of English.
Another respondent trained in the method of the school:

604
Then one day I saw an ad in the paper - an audiovisual language school needed
teachers, they trained you to teach adults. ... There was no writing, they'd do the
language lab every day ... It was a mechanical military method and didn't suit my
personality.
Speed reading
Several respondents mentioned having had a negative reaction to speed reading. Methods
at this time were prescriptive:
I hated every minute of it because I was under pressure, it had to be done this way,
these were the rules, and it has to be exactly like this.
SGAV (Structural Global Audio Visual)

A very popular method in France in the 1970s was SGAV. Many of the current leaders in the
TESOL field were in Paris at the time:
I trained in the method of the time which was SGAV. That's going back 20 years ... It
gave me the basics of adult teaching so that when I went into the classroom I had an
idea of what I was supposed to be doing.
All’s Well
This was an audio-visual course based on using film strips. School A provided training in this
method during the period 1974 to 1976. One respondent remembered the positive aspects
of All’s Well:
I was totally convinced and 100 % into it ... it was the whole method / way of looking
at teaching that involved a whole lot of other aspects, not just linguistics, body
language, drama etc, and to have it connected to language teaching was so
exciting.
Another respondent only remembered the negative aspects of methods of the time:
I had no training and was given the method All's Well and had to use it, ... but the
problem was, TESOL was in the cushion throwing era, pretend you're a cabbage, tell
your partner you love them, all this touchy feely stuff. I
605
swallowed the whole thing hook, line and sinker and had engineers lying on the
floor, pretending they were cactuses.
The following comment demonstrates the lack of guidance in this era and the changing
nature of EFL in the 1980s:
(School A) made more of an attempt to give guidance than anywhere else. The
vogue was changing and EFL was saturated with materials, the materials were
confused as it was changing from audiovisual and I had nothing to underpin it and
couldn't find my feet. It was all so confusing.
Training other than CTEFLA and DTEFLA in the 1980s

Training in the 1980s consisted of ‘fringe methodology’ using a humanistic approach and
combining beliefs from disciplines such as psychology applied to language teaching.
“Fringe methodology” continues to be popular among certain sectors of language teachers.
Silent Way
Several respondents were enthused by the various fringe methods. One was introduced to
Silent Way through the International School where her child was studying (1982-1984):
Gattegno (Silent Way) ... worked with maths and language seminars ..... Gattegno
was more interested in action in the classroom and the reactions of students and
believed in it 100 %. I did not adopt it 100 % for myself, but I believed in it, it was
coherent and there was contact with the person who developed it, which was magical
too.
Neuro Linguistic Programming (NLP)

NLP was another fringe method which is still popular among some teachers:
NLP started in 1988 or so - again I think the reason it worked for me, I started out
thinking it was for teaching but it was a whole attitude to being, like All's Well.
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Communicative approach
The communicative approach was still very popular in many institutions, and current
methodology was still based largely on these principles:
I felt very motivated and it got me interested in the humanistic side of things.
Whilst ‘fringe methodology’ was popular with some, the two respondents from the training
institution, School B both expressed reservations. The main reason given was the perceived
inflexibility:
I’m wary of the fringe methodology, where you have to be a believer and then it
works. And you can’t criticise it or challenge them because then it won’t work for you.
I’m worried about what it’s based on and how it allows for different learning styles.
Training in the mid 1980s - 1990s
There are currently training courses available which are recognised worldwide as being of
value to the field. The leaders are the CTEFLA and DTEFLA (now called the CELTA and
DELTA), which only became available in Geneva since the mid-1980s. They were also
British-based and so not necessarily popular with the American teachers, who preferred to do
a masters. All the newer recruits in the study had entered with a CTEFLA.
Two respondents commented on the status of TESOL in Geneva. One felt that it was
improving due to people being increasingly qualified:
Well, certainly teachers in general have a respected profession. EFL teachers are
often not seen as part of the teaching profession in that many EFL teachers in the
past have not been qualified. This is changing now.
Another respondent felt that TESOL was striving to be a profession now that CTEFLA was a
requirement:
607
when I started TEFL, it was only just becoming a profession, I think, there was always
something shoddy about EFL because people could get away without qualifications.
Now I'm part of the movement making sure that's happening, that CTEFLA is really
an entry into a profession - we're striving to be a profession.
Accredited pre-service training and in-service training courses
CTEFLA - pre-service qualification
In Geneva, according to one trainer, a ‘CTEFLAish thing’ dated from 1985. The CTEFLA
was a one month full-time course or five month part-time course. One respondent felt that
CTEFLA was sufficient as initial training, so long as there was a support structure after the
course:
It’s sufficient as an initial training course as long as the teacher when they start work
has support from another teacher, has somebody who is there to help advise.
Another problem raised was the lack of reflection time built into the short courses:
The courses are going towards excessive input, but can’t cram in the necessary time
for reflection.
Eleven of the respondents had taken the CTEFLA. Many people in Geneva only did a
CTEFLA, and had no further formal training.
DTEFLA
A total of 12 teachers had taken the DTEFLA: one with less than five years’ experience, and
11 with more than five years’ experience. The DTEFLA was a two-month intensive or nine
month part-time course suitable for teachers with two years’ experience post-certificate level
who were interested in further professional development or in furthering their career.

608
Need for a mid-way qualification between CTEFLA and DTEFLA
At a school just outside Geneva, several trainers had come together to provide what was
perceived to be needed. One trainer had approached Cambridge and was attempting to
establish a course mid-way to build a bridge between CTEFLA and DTEFLA. This would
consist of participants attending a series of workshops / seminars leading to certification.
Section summary
In summary, TESOL training has become more homogeneous in the 1990s. Prior to the CTEFLA
and DTEFLA being the accepted standard, teachers received ad hoc training along the way
or got training in a particular method of a school.
While some teachers were hired with little or no training, this was becoming more of a rarity.
Most were currently entering the field with a CTEFLA, and the major preoccupation of many
trainers was how to help with professional development post-CTEFLA with limited financial
budgets set aside for professional development and the mixed backgrounds and experience
levels of teachers.
Types of professional development programs currently

available in Geneva
Table N.2 summarises the types of professional development programs currently available in
Geneva.
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Table N.2: Types of professional development programs trainers and administrators were
Responses
CURRENT Location / type n=16
Workshop: 10
Two-week training program held annually Prog. aimed at new teachers 4
Workshops: School A; international 2
guest speakers, weekend workshops organisation
Series of seminars (pilot bridging Based on sound principles or 2
professional development program for theories to develop teachers
Cambridge) in the classroom; Schools
outside Geneva.
Leading workshops Eg: Teacher training for 1
teaching Cambridge exams
better
FORUM - teachers professional association Geneva, workshop 1
Going to conferences 3
Consultancy elsew here 2
Appraisal Formalised; School B 1
Workshops and seminars

Participants named a range of professional development programs they organised, led or
participated in. Workshops and seminars were perhaps the most common form of formalised
professional development schools engaged in, and represented 62% of responses. In the
following section, a profile of professional development programs is described and the
perceived relative success of each.
Workshops in School A
Before the beginning of each new teaching year, School A held a two-week training session
for new (and old) teachers.

610
I think our September training program generates enthusiasm and there are new
people and they can meet other teachers and they have a chance to discuss and
exchange ideas.
This feeling was echoed by some of the teachers in their responses to the question on
professional development. However, others felt it was too group-oriented, and did not allow
for individualised professional development:
The training and development is not always personalised, it tends to be group,
culture or school-oriented.
Workshops at International organisation

The administrator responsible for organising the training commented that partaking in a
workshop didn’t necessarily mean that the participants were absorbing much:
It's too early to tell how successful they were - there were positive comments, but how
it will translate into the classroom and what effect it will have is difficult to tell. The
positive thing is that it opened their minds, but it didn't reach everybody, some sit
and don't absorb very much, so we need to keep working on it.
The other teacher respondent echoed this feeling:
How successful - enjoyable, but whether revolutionise? They serve to bring the group
together a bit, I still feel in the group there's a sort of passiveness, in the way certain
people are sitting and they are sort of sitting heavily on their chairs..
It is important to recall that the international organisation had had virtually no training for
over ten years. The international organisation conducted seminars.

611
Private bridging program

There was a move by some Schools outside Geneva to try to develop professional development
courses for teachers, which highlighted a perceived need or interest in this area. Another
freelance trainer participating in the external program commented as follows:
The idea behind the program originally ... was ... we wanted a series of seminars
based on sound principles or theories to get teachers to develop in the classroom
- it was more teacher development than training seminars.
Several respondents found there was a problem with mixed abilities in these training
sessions due to the previously mentioned differences in training and development:
we were faced with a medley, a whole rag bag of people, some had a lot of
experience and were not ready for the Diploma and may never be.
Another respondent believed that in the one session, each individual would develop at his / her
own pace, and that it didn’t need to be a homogeneous group for people to benefit from it:
I don’t think you can take the whole range of teachers with their different backgrounds
and qualifications and professional interests and assume the same type of
development equally for all.
Professional Association of Language Teachers in Geneva. (FORUM )

This is an independent association. TESOLs from different walks of life came together to
exchange ideas and to see one-off workshops six times a year on a Saturday. It was the only
opportunity many teachers had to meet other teachers.
One of the international organisation respondents went to FORUM when no training was
available at her worksite. Her comments show the value of FORUM for isolated TESOLs:
612
I had a period when I went to the weekend FORUMs, and saw lots of good people,
and met a lot of people, and saw people whose books we were using, which gives
you another dimension to the book ... There were a lot of FORUM meetings during
these dark ages past.
Conferences
Conferences represented 19% of responses. Some trainers felt that while going to
conferences was often inspiring, sponsoring teachers to go was expensive and which could
not really be justified by the institution.
(Conferences are) the teachers’ equivalent of fly in fly out thing. They get a big
boost going to them, exchanging ideas, what they make out of them depends very
much on the individual. It’s more a global thing - adding to the background in which
they operate. I used to give them a high priority, but the cost is quite daunting and if
the school is sponsoring you have to be very sure you’re going to get a lot back.
Consultancy elsewhere
This represented 12% of responses. One respondent had visited other countries to give one-
off workshops. Her assessment of its relative success was that ‘it’s very interesting but ... I
question the value of fly-in fly-out stuff.’ She was also sponsored to give teachers in Poland
going into academic management a basic skills management course.
It was very successful and interesting to see people waking up to issues new in their
country and there’s a big lesson there for trainers.
Appraisal
Appraisal was central to the philosophy of School B and was mentioned by only one
respondent. It was a formal procedure undertaken by all staff members, including freelance
ones, and they discussed areas of concern and for development and developed strategies for
accomplishing these objectives. Some may wonder about the appropriateness of freelance
staff members
613
discussing their future plans when the work at that institution was only part-time or a few
hours a week.
Section summary
In summary, TESOL trainers were involved in training programs in the schools themselves, in
independent venues and outside Geneva in Europe. In School A, professional development
mainly took the form of workshops, while in School B it was more individual through
appraisal. The most frequently mentioned professional development type was the workshop
or seminar. Some trainers also maintained a high international profile, giving conference
papers.
The biggest impediment to consistent professional development schemes could be the high
casualisation in the field. However, in spite of this, professional development seemed to be
a high priority for many. Professional development was fairly successful according to most
respondents, although some were concerned about just how much change and development
would ensue, or about mixed abilities or the long-term benefits.
SYDNEY TESOL STUDY
Profile of institutions
The trainers and administrators were from the four institutions involved in the study.
School A
There were two trainers and one administrator from School A. This was the centre with the
most formalised professional development with regular inhouse workshops for their own staff
as well as workshops for teachers from other centres. Teachers were also given a professional
development interview. New teachers were regularly observed with feedback, support and
guidance, and more experienced teachers had trainees observing their classes. As there was
a teacher training program, some teachers had the opportunity to participate.
Other professional development included sponsoring people to attend conferences, and
subsidising people to take the Diploma level qualification.

614
University language centre

There was one trainer and four administrators from this institution. More respondents were
interviewed from this institution to balance the greater number of teacher respondents.
This centre conducted teacher training courses too, which allowed teachers the opportunity
to participate as ‘cooperating teachers’; involving them in taking a trainee under their wing
for the practical part of the course. Teachers could also contribute to other aspects of the
teacher training program.
Staff at this centre had a week’s holiday followed by a week off teaching to prepare for each
new term. However, one respondent felt teachers did not take advantage of the opportunity
to undertake professional development:
They want it delivered on a plate. They want their preparation weeks with not too
much so they have time to tidy the paper clips in their drawer, and one or two days
out of five is enough because they want to have lunch with their colleagues they
haven’t seen for a while.
Workshops were not conducted regularly, except for the occasional session during the
preparation week, and formalised professional development was more sporadic. This
institution also had study leave provisions for further study, and people were sponsored to
attend conferences. There was also a system of coordinators, who acted as mentors and
provided support and guidance, particularly to inexperienced staff.
School B
There were two respondents from School B, which had conducted regular workshops in the
past, and those had ceased but were expected to increase:
We put something on every week or two weeks, and a full 2-3 hour inservice every
month. We call them the Wams and Thams - Wednesday and Thursday afternoon
meetings where everyone brings in a lesson that worked and it’s a half hour and
everyone participates.
615
The success rates of these workshops was perceived to vary depending on the relevance for
those attending. One respondent felt professional development was underfunded at this
institution.
I map out the observation program for new teachers - the employment demonstration
lesson and they have two post-employment demo lessons. ... I think professional
development is probably underfunded in this institution - it could be given more
time, not necessarily buying talent to come in, but buying time for teachers.
Teachers were sponsored to upgrade their qualifications to Diploma level. ‘They are paid for
half of it and can have one day a week Leave Without Pay.’
School C
One administrator was interviewed from School C. This institution had mainly minimally
qualified teachers, often travellers on short stay visas. Teachers from School C were
encouraged to attend workshops and inservice training at School A, but many reported them
unsuitable to their needs. Many teachers found the specialised teaching program offered at
the school an opportunity to use other skills they may have, such as music, history of art etc,
and this was considered valuable development. The Director and Head Teacher offered
support and guidance and teachers were occasionally observed with feedback. Teachers at
this school appreciated the relaxed style, with few professional development requirements.
Profile of professional development programs:
Sydney respondents
Table N.3 summarises the professional development programs respondents were involved in
in response to interview questions 25 and 26:

616
Table N.3: Professional development programs respondents were involved in: Sydney TESOL
study
Responses
Type of professional dev elopment program n %
Workshops 19 41
Organising workshops for teachers 8
Fringe methodology programs 6
Training / workshops for experienced teachers 5
Formal training 8 17
Involvement in formal training 5
Undertaking postgraduate studies 3
Conferences 8 17
Going to conferences 7
Organising a conference 1
Appraisal / observ ation 6 13

Observations 4
Appraisal 2
Consultancy 4 9
Consultancy elsewhere 4
Writing materials 1 2
Developing distance package modules 1
Total number of responses 46 100
Workshops
As can be seen in Table N.3, 41% of responses related to workshops, which is consistent with
the responses in other parts of the study, where workshops were mentioned as the most
common professional development. Organising workshops for teachers was the most
frequently mentioned professional development by eight respondents. This was sometimes
judged as successful and sometimes not because of the varying stages of development
teachers may be at:

617
I gave the first workshop, and the feedback was quite positive but it’s difficult to judge
the level because I had no idea which level to pitch it at - there were some with little
experience, some with a broad range of experience, some with Diplomas, some with
MAs, some came interested in academic issues, others simply looking for classroom
tricks, so I don’t know how successful I was in meeting those diverse needs.
Some were critical of the idea of compulsory professional development, while another said
that if it wasn’t compulsory, many teachers wouldn’t attend. Several respondents felt that
some teachers had other priorities after teaching and were not interested.
a certain number feel they’re in this job because it suits their lifestyle, and they’re
very dedicated and very professional until 3pm when classes finish, and they have
other priorities - like going off to acting or picking up their children.
One respondent was confident as to the success of workshops:
Sometimes some are resistant to professional development and say they’re tired after
teaching and prep but certainly they are grateful and when they leave they say how
grateful they were for the staff development and support they had. And if they go
elsewhere they comment again and again how good the environment was with
growth taking place.
Fringe methodology programs were shown on the Geneva list to respondents for comment.
Six respondents had experienced them in the past or felt they were valuable to give a
different perspective:
it’s very valid to look at different approaches which can be incorporated - some are a
bit loopy but why not? It’s good to expose people to different things, to challenge
people.
618
One respondent predicted that audio visual methods would make a comeback in the future:
My prediction is that audio visual will make a big comeback because it will be linked
into the interactive techniques and the old filmstrips with bubbles ... it’s going to be a
huge explosion.
One respondent felt that
you could incorporate bits of it, but it’s dangerous too because some people take it
on wholesale.
One respondent had used many on the list and indicated continued enthusiasm for aspects
of them.
I was really into Suggestopaedia and wore orange clothes and joined an Ashram and
thought it was fabulous at the time. And I taught using the Suggestopaedia method
and it worked well. There were 12 in the class and there were one or two it didn’t
work for - but they’re the casualties of war you always have. It would work better with
a woman teaching it than a man, but I used to have my orange suitcase with puppets
etc.
Five respondents were involved in formal training programs. These included the CTEFLA,
DTEFLA and a bridging program conducted at another centre and training for overseas
teachers. And five were involved in training / workshops for experienced teachers. The
types of skills mentioned by respondents for more experienced teachers included
management and academic skills, using computers and word processors, and action
research.
Undertaking postgraduate studies was mentioned by three respondents as being a form of
professional development which was increasingly popular. One described it as ‘inhouse
culture’ and said:

619
it’s a thing that didn’t exist ten years ago, and seems to be specific to here. Ten
years ago if you said you were doing an MA, other teachers would have said: “why?
Are you thinking of becoming an academic?”
Another respondent felt
we should encourage it, it’s great and obviously you need to get a good grounding
first, the nuts and bolts of teaching, get the practical aspects first and then you can do
a MA in Applied Linguistics.
Going to conferences was mentioned by seven respondents. Most institutions had some
budgetary allowance to sponsor people to attend conferences, but in some cases there was a
lack of interest:
I’m surprised we never ever spend our budget because lots of people are doing
external studies and having babies and with all the changes, everyone’s tied up with
what they’re doing.
Observations were another form of professional development mentioned by four
respondents. One respondent also mentioned peer observation but admitted it was a
difficult area ‘because the cost is not to be underestimated.’ She felt
most people would say they learn from observation, and appreciate feedback. ... It’s
a lonely thing teaching in there with a class and no feedback unless you actively seek
it.
There appeared to be little formal appraisal in the schools involved in the study. Appraisal
was mentioned by two respondents as a form of professional development. One institution
held professional development interviews with staff:
They have a fairly set format, with a questionnaire to fill in before the interview ...
they’re teaching-related, what courses they’re teaching on, their strengths and
weaknesses, and we set goals for the next six months

620
to one year, and other areas of teaching or non-teaching interests they may have
within the company.
Four respondents had been involved in consultancy elsewhere; one conducting annual
workshops for teaching staff on giving conference papers and seminar presentations, and
another on examination preparation. Another was involved in consultancy with joint venture
partners. Finally, one respondent mentioned developing distance package modules with
professional development content on approaching grammar. He was currently in the process
of looking at how to make this useful.
Several respondents said that they felt rather concerned at the ad hoc nature of professional
development in their institution, and one was actively trying to resolve this problem:
Professional development is one of the areas I’m not so happy with because I’ve
been flat out the last couple of years, and I think it’s a very important aspect and
don’t think we have been approaching it as well as we should and it’s not bad but I’m
aspiring to and would like an excellent program. So I cringe a bit and it’s a question
of priorities.
The same respondent went on to enumerate the types of professional development
available in the institution and to evaluate its success:
I did a survey last year to find out the skills people wanted and how they learned
them and the majority get them through doing the job or talking to colleagues. The
most valuable time is when they sit down and discuss techniques with colleagues so
prep week is valuable because they have free time to discuss and reflect.
Another respondent felt that ‘they all say they want professional development but then only a
few turn up.’ She felt professional development came secondary to timetables and getting
students in classes.
621
Section summary
Levels of success seemed to be gauged on the numbers attending and ad hoc feedback
rather than on any formal evaluation of its success. And several respondents felt other
priorities prevented them from focusing on professional development.
Institutions had various ways of supporting professional development; by having a program of
inservice training and staff obliged to attend, by allowing study leave for further study, by
sponsoring staff to undertake certain types of further study, by sponsoring staff to attend
workshops offsite and conferences. Staff were also observed, but peer observation, while
considered very valuable, was too expensive to establish.

622
APPENDIX O
SYDNEY TRAINERS’ / ADMINISTRATORS’ RESPONSES

TO THE GENEVA TRAINERS’ / ADMINISTRATORS/ LIST
OF PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT RATED AS
IMPORTANT FOR TEACHERS
Professional development needed
Interview question 28 for Sydney TESOL study

administrators in the Geneva study. Are there any you would add? (derived from the Geneva
TESOL study)
Beginning teachers
Hands on techniques
Support with materials
Looking at student needs and learning styles
The ability to reflect on what went wrong with the lesson to improve
Seeing a wider range of options to work from
Later / generally
Keeping abreast of new developments, new methods, new ideas, new materials
Wide range of teaching experience
Observing other teachers, learning from classroom - self development, reflection, responding
to student evaluation
More indepth, personal development workshops, communication skills, management skills
Teachers actively involved: Networking, going to conferences, meetings, writing things
Look at the linguistic angle

623
Theoretical basis in professional development
In this section, therefore, the spontaneous responses are combined with the responses given
by trainers / administrators after being shown a list of professional development mentioned
by Geneva trainers. The teachers’ responses were also combined with the spontaneous
professional development mentioned and the professional development mentioned after
seeing a list of professional development mentioned by Geneva teachers.
Sydney study (less than five years’ experience)
Early on, many teachers seemed to have more knowledge of the field than trainers /
administrators gave them credit for, and were already ready for more reflective areas of
professional development. For teachers with less than five years’ experience, trainers /
administrators focused very much on the hands-on forms of professional development, with
inservice training, getting more experience and consolidating basic skills and training, with
ample guidance and support early on. Further formal basic study was also valued by trainers
/ administrators in the early years, but less so by teachers.
Teachers, however, mentioned reflection as the most important form of professional
development, with reading books and journals as very high on the list, observing others and
self appraisal, which were not mentioned by trainers / administrators. Teachers also felt
ready for conferences and specific courses by four years’ experience, which was not
acknowledged by trainers / administrators.

624
Table O.1 : Type of professional development needed for less than five years’ experience (Sydney
trainers’ / administrators’ combined list)
Type of professional dev elopment Trnrs / admrs * Teachers **

n n
Inservice / training 11 16
Support and guidance 8
Grammar / theory / basic skills / linguistics 8
Reflection 5 25
Keeping up to date with administration side 1
Everything 1
Keeping interest / motivation high 1
Areas of professional dev elopment mentioned by 7

teachers, not by trainers
Conferences 5
Other: travel, understanding customer 2
* Number trainers / administrators = 11; number teachers = 9
The responses of trainers / administrators in the spontaneous list and combined list did not
vary substantially in the order of importance of different aspects of professional development.
In both lists, inservice training and training were considered most important, followed by
diversification and experience. Support and guidance was the next most important in both
lists, followed by reflection. Teachers rated reflection higher than trainers / administrators.
Teachers also rated observing others very highly, but this was not mentioned by trainers/
administrators. Being observed was rated more highly by teachers than by trainers/
administrators, which was perhaps surprising too. This was a form of professional
development which was often not available, possibly because of the cost to the institution,
but possibly also because of a belief by trainers / administrators that teachers found it
threatening.
625
Combined responses
Sydney study (5-10 years’ experience)

For teachers with 5-10 years’ experience, trainers / administrators then felt they needed to
diversify more than any other area of professional development, with branching out and
specialising being the most mentioned. This was then followed by inservice training /
further training as the next most important, followed by a focus on linguistics and theory,
then interaction with colleagues.
Again, the more reflective forms of professional development seemed to be missing for
trainers / administrators, while teachers rated reflective types of professional development as
by far the most important, followed by inservice training / further training, then interaction
with colleagues. Diversification rated quite low, with only five mentions. Therefore, the
perceptions of trainers / administrators were quite different to teachers for this category of
experience. Some of the professional development mentioned by trainers / administrators,
such as branching out and specialising and further qualifications, arguably lead to reading
and reflection; however, reflection and reading were not specifically mentioned by trainers /
administrators.
626
Table O.2: Type of professional development needed for 5-10 years’ experience (Sydney trainers’ /
administrators’ combined list)
Type of professional dev elopment Trnrs / admrs * Teachers**

n n
Inservice training / further training 8 14
Theoretical side (linguistics), grammar 7
Career focus 3
Reflection 2 25
Conferences 2 6
Departmental meetings: goal setting 1
Again, there was no substantial difference between the order of mention of professional
development by trainers, administrators from the spontaneous to combined list.
Combined list
Sydney study (11+ years’ experience)

For teachers with more than 11 years’ experience, 23 responses focused on diversification
such as supervisory positions and specialised or new areas with further challenges. This
was followed by reflection and inservice training with five mentions each. Four other
responses related to respondents needing a new job or to develop a new hobby.
Teachers, however, focused their attention on reflective forms of professional development,
with 27 of the mentions, followed by diversification with 21 of the responses. Diversification
was next with 16 responses, followed by interaction with colleagues with eleven responses.
627
Table O.3: Type of professional development needed for 11-29 years’ experience (Sydney trainers’ /
administrators’ combined list)
Type of professional dev elopment Trnrs / adms* Teachers**

n n
Reflection 5 27
Other - personal 4 1
Exit the field 4
Various 3
Knowledge about roles of organisations 2
Keep abreast of developments 1 8
Conferences 5
Ongoing professional development 1
Interview question
Type of professional development wanted (list derived from Geneva TESOL study)
Practical, hands on for beginners: eg games, grammar, phonology, readers, drawing course
etc
Seminars on interpersonal skills, people skills
Something to get excited about / new ideas / gimmicky things, something amusing
Something not too time consuming
Designing programs themselves / more specialised teaching
Something challenging for more experienced teachers
628
Conferences
They are not interested as they are not paid to attend
Nothing - they feel they do not need it
The following section reports the combined responses of the Sydney TESOLs, both
spontaneous responses and those given after seeing the list of professional development
mentioned by Geneva TESOLs.
The order of importance for trainers / administrators was similar to the spontaneous list. As
before, the more reflective types of professional development were under-rated and the focus
was more on the hands-on tangible forms of professional development, such as practical and
theoretical workshops, keeping abreast of new developments, and seminars on
interpersonal skills. This is in contrast with the teachers, as reflection received 77 mentions.
Interaction with colleagues received 36 mentions by teachers, but only two mentions by
Thirteen trainer / administrator responses also related to teachers wanting something not too
time consuming or that they were not interested as they were too busy. Teachers, however,
did not mention a lack of interest in the Sydney study.
Teachers valued some of the forms of professional development mentioned by trainers /
administrators, and mentioned many others, but the value given to various professional
development varied considerably between the two groups, particularly in the area of
reflective types of professional development, which received only two mentions from the
Interestingly, teachers mentioned discussion with colleagues as the single most valuable
form of professional development, but only two trainer / administrators mentioned this,
followed by observing others, mentioned by one trainer / administrator. Self appraisal and
reading books and journals were mentioned by

629
teachers, but not by trainers / administrators. Going to conferences was also very popular
with teachers, but only mentioned by trainers / administrators. However, it should be
mentioned that conferences featured on the trainers’ / administrators’ ideal list, so it could be
that certain forms of professional development were not mentioned as they were not
considered possible to afford.
On the list from Geneva trainers/administrators was a category of nothing - they feel they do
not need it. Some trainers/administrators reacted strongly against this point: ‘anyone who
says that is not being very realistic.’ Another respondent went further saying that she gave
them the opportunity to talk about their career goals and interview and
I wouldn’t employ someone who gave that kind of impression at interview ... Also it’s
one of the criteria we use when assessing them for permanency and in the contract
it’s a written agreement they will undertake professional development and further
qualifications. Everyone needs professional development.
Another said ‘those are the sort of people we don’t want to employ.’
630
Table O.4: Professional development wanted as perceived by trainers/administrators (Sydney

trainers’ / administrators’ combined responses)
Responses
Trnrs / admrs* Teachers **
Type of professional dev elopment w anted n n
Not interested / too busy / no time 13
Depends on the stage 6
Keeping abreast of new developments 6 19
Career focus 3 1
Reflection 2 77
Administrative support 2
Conferences 2 16
We ask for ideas on this 2
Support and guidance 1
They want an element of choice 1
Other - personal 2
Other: Goal setting, understanding 2
customer, keeping motivation high

Section summary
It is surprising that diversification received so little mention in the list of perceived
professional development wants for teachers, when in the previous section diversification was
the uppermost type of professional development mentioned for teachers with more than five
years’ experience. While inservice training / further training were found to be important for
beginning teachers, the range became more varied for teachers with more experience.
However, in this section, inservice training / further training were the ones mentioned above
all others by
631
trainers / administrators, while teachers favoured reflection above all. Only two trainers /
administrators mentioned reflection. This was clearly a misperception by trainers /
administrators, who seemed to feel teachers were mostly interested in workshops or input
sessions, or they erroneously believed teachers were not interested at all. Teachers were, in
fact, interested in inservice training / further training, but also demonstrated a keen interest
in other areas.
Another area of misperception was that of discussion with colleagues, which was valued by
teachers and underrated by trainers / administrators.
Ideal professional development
Interview question
Wish list (derived from Geneva TESOL study)
Courses and seminars
Longer courses
Organise sessions with famous names on topics eg personal development, communication,
group dynamics, time management, team building (not pedagogical)
Sponsor people to go to conferences
Better researched presentations with theoretical basis
Organising the seminars
Having time, infrastructure and money to put on school events
Paying people to attend training, and free sessions. More like the real world
Market professional development courses to get homogeneous group
Reflection, individualised programs
Individualised programs
Teaching in blocks with time built in for reflection
Getting teachers together to observe each other
Materials development
632
Greater range of journals
Other non-TESOL related professional development
Time to relearn the language in your mother tongue country
Clarify aims of administration
Look at field other than teaching
Look at different fields of teaching eg state education, management teaching
Sabbatical year for further education
The combined responses were similar to the spontaneous ones in that inservice training /
further training continued to be the most frequently mentioned form of professional
development, but varied slightly from the previous one with spontaneous responses in that
reflection was mentioned by far more trainers / administrators. This indicates that trainers /
administrators did value reflection, but tended not to have it in the forefront of their minds as
teachers did.
633
Table O.5 : Sydney trainers’ / administrators’ ideal professional development for teachers
(combined responses)
Responses
Ideal professional dev elopment items Trnrs / admrs* Teachers **
n n
Reflection 19 77
School events 13
Conferences 9 16
Theoretical side (linguistics) for more 4
experienced teachers / grammar
Support and guidance 3 3
Consultation with teachers for professional 3
development preferences
Different things for different stages 2
Give teacher trainers time for own professional 1
development
Other: travel 1
Other 3

Combined
In summary, financial concerns were not so acute as in the Geneva study for conducting
professional development. Some institutions already had a fairly solid system in place, with
full time teachers attending during paid working time. Study leave and leave without pay
were also available in several institutions, and many were undertaking further study. Some
institutions also sponsored staff to undertake Diploma level qualifications.

634
One institution had preparation weeks built in for professional development, but one
respondent said:
I think our teachers get enough time for reflection - but they don’t use it for reflection.
So even with time allowed, teachers did not necessarily take advantage of it for professional
development.
Some respondents mentioned just having time for reading and research:
I’d like time out to keep up with reading in the field. I have no time to do it and it’s
very difficult in the real world where you’ve got to keep going and not discuss the uni
course and assignments. And I do like to keep up on professional journals.

PHD Thesis by Carol K Waites THE PROFESSIONAL LIFE-CYCLES AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF ADULT TEACHERS OF ENGLISH TO SPEAKERS OF OTHER LANGUAGES (TESOL)

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PHD Thesis by Carol K Waites THE PROFESSIONAL LIFE-CYCLES AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF ADULT TEACHERS OF ENGLISH TO SPEAKERS OF OTHER LANGUAGES (TESOL)

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THE PROFESSIONAL LIFE-CYCLES AND PROFESSIONAL

DEVELOPMENT OF ADULT TEACHERS OF ENGLISH TO

A dissertation in fulfilment of the requirements for

the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

at the University of New South Wales

THE PROFESSIONAL LIFE-CYCLES AND PROFESSIONAL

in the Huberman study.

teachers with more stable career paths.

professional development requirements of TESOLs. While there was no conclusive

evidence that professional

to have different professional development requirements from other phases. Personal,

professional and environmental factors also affect the professional development

requirements of TESOLs at any stage.

changes in people’s professional lives, requiring increasing mobility and adaptability in

development and other staff management programs will need to be explored.

My supervisor, Professor Fenton Sharpe, AM

My co-supervisor, Dr Robert Conners

My father, Professor Emeritus Geoffrey Waites

PHASES AND ITINERARIES IN THE PROFESSIONAL LIFE-CYCLE OF

Huberman’s study of secondary school teachers 132

Huberman’s study of secondary school teachers 245

LIST OF TABLES IN APPENDICES

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

Sydney represents an Anglophone environment with more stable working conditions

Need for the study

Professional life cycles of TESOLs

Job satisfaction and dissatisfaction

Professional Development or inservice training can be narrowly perceived to be the

Alternatively, the professional development of TESOL teachers can be considered to be

Professional life cycles

1. What motivated TESOLs to enter the profession?

Significance of the study for research and practice

The importance of studying careers in teaching

As affirmed by Richards (1994), a better understanding of the professional life-cycles of

Job satisfaction and dissatisfaction

Job satisfaction or dissatisfaction of TESOLs is an important topic for further exploration,

Acronyms used in the study

Adult TESOL (Teaching or Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages -

ADOS (Assistant Director of Studies)

CTEFLA (Certificate in the Teaching of English as a Foreign Language to Adults)

Cert TESOL (Certificate in TESOL)

DTEFLA (Diploma in the Teaching of English as a Foreign Language to Adults)

This is the inservice qualification offered by the University of Cambridge Local

EFL (English as a Foreign Language)

ELICOS (English Language Intensive Courses for Overseas Students) teachers

ESL (English as a Second Language)

This term is used mainly to refer to those learning English in an English-speaking

IATEFL (International Association for Teachers of English as a Foreign Language to

RSA (Royal Society of Arts)

TEFL or TEFLA (Teaching or Teachers of English as a Foreign Language) (to Adults)

TESL (Teaching English as a Second Language)

TESOL (Teachers or Teaching of English to Speakers of Other Languages)

TESOLs may include those teaching ELICOS or migrant students in Australia.

Stabilisation, experimentation and diversification

Stab ilisation corresponds to a definite commitment to the profession and to an

Challenges / new challenges

Limitations of the study

As there were a total of 73 respondents in the TESOL study compared to 160 in

Another approach to life-cycle research is that of life-span developmental psychology

iv) cognitive-developmental-stage theorists (Loevinger, 1966; Kohlberg, 1969 and

General career cycles

Years of Career phases / themes

Teacher career cycles