REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Integrated Pest Management or IPM, is a method used to control pests in an

environmentally responsible manner. By reducing our dependence on pesticides, IPM
protects the environment and our health. It also saves money. IPM can be applied
wherever pests are found: on and in farms, schools, homes, hospitals, restaurants, golf
courses and home gardens.
IPM combines different techniques to prevent pest damage without harming the
environment. Pests can include insects and mites, rodents and certain birds, plant diseases
and weeds. IPM practices include monitoring, modifying pest habitat, protecting natural
enemies and when needed, the use of pesticides.
Biological control can be defined as- “any condition under which, or practice whereby,
survival and activity of a pathogen is reduced through the agency of any other living
organism (except man himself) wit the result that there is a reduction in the incidence of
disease caused by the pathogen” (Garret, 1965). Broadly speaking, it is a principle of
cultural control of plant pathogens that principally involves alteration of biotic and
abiotic environments from one favours disease/pathogen to one that discourages
accumulation of infective or parasitic material and reduces the activity of the pathogen.
Biological control was defined by Baker and Cook (1974) as the “reduction of inoculum
density or disease producing activities of a pathogen of parasite in its active or dormant
state, by one or more organisms, accomplished naturally or through manipulation of the
environment, host, or antagonists, or by mass introduction of one or more antagonists”.
Subsequently, they (Cook and Baker, 1983) revised the definition to ‘biological control
is the reduction of the amount of inoculum of disease producing activity of pathogen
accomplished by one or more organisms other than man.’
BIOCONTROL AGENTS
Biocontrol agents are microorganisms that adversely affect the population of
another (e.g. target pathogen) growing in association with them. Generally biocontrol
agents have potential to interfere in the life process of plant pathogens. Biocontrol agents
include virtually all classes of organisms e.g.- fungi, bacteria, nematodes, protozoa,
viruses and seed plants.

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 Fungi are by far the most extensively researched group of biocontrol agents and
they have been used against aerial, root and soil microbes. These potential biocontrol
fungi are mostly saprophytic in nature and proliferate abundantly in various natural soils.
Interest in their use for control of aerial plant pathogens has developed more slowly than
in the case of root pathogen and this probably reflects the relative dearth of information
on the ecology of microorganisms on the aerial surfaces in comparison with those in the
soil (Mukhopadhyay and Mukherjee, 1998). The important genera of fungi used as
biocontrol agents against plant pathogens are – Trichoderma, Gliocladium, Aspergillus,
Penicillium Neurospora, Chaetomium, Dactylella, Arthrobotrys, Catenaria,
Paecilomyces, Glomus, etc.
The use of bacterial flora for management of plant diseases and yield improvement
started in the early part of 20th century. A number of bacterial strains have so far been
tried as biocontrol agents. These are – Agrobacterium, Actioplanes, Alcaligenes,
Arthrobacter, Azotobacter, Bacillus, Enterobacter, Erwinia, Flavobacterium,
Pseudomonas, Pasteuria, Rhizobium, Serratia, Streptomyces, etc. The most widely
researched bacterium as a biocontrol agent is Pseudomonas fluorescens.
Inte grate d Pe s t M anage me nt
Raman et al. (2003) discussed the applications of biotechnology in integrated pest
management, specifically covering the following: induction of resistance in crops through
genetic transformation (with emphasis on Bt [Bacillus thuringiensis] transgenic plants);
agronomic benefits of transgenic crops (rice, maize, soyabean and potato) in developing
countries; main approaches for the production of new biological control agents using
genetic engineering; new diagnostic tools based on monoclonal antibodies and molecular
markers; DNA markers, mapping, and application for developing resistant plants; policy
issues affecting access to new biotechnologies; pest resistance management; regulatory
policy options for resistance management strategy (licensing and labelling); use of IPM
to delay pest resistance; public-private linkage considerations and future prospects for
biotechnology in IPM
ZhenYing et al. (2003) studied the development of IPM (from 1950 to the early 1970s,
from 1974 to 1982, and from 1983 to the present), IPM organizational structure, IPM
research and practice (pest monitoring and forecasting, cultural control, biological control

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and pest resistance) and examples of successful IPM application (rice, wheat and maize)
in China.
Santha-Govind and Perumal, (2004) stated that the production of rice mainly depends
upon the management of pests and diseases, which takes a major share in the total
production cost. Integrated pest management (IPM) is the eco-friendly solution to
overcome the pest management problems. A study was undertaken to identify the
constraints faced by the farmers in the adoption of IPM practices and to suggest
appropriate corrective measures to make farming a viable and profitable enterprise. The
major findings on the constraints faced in the adoption of IPM technologies among IPM
and Non IPM farmers are analysed.
Krishnamurthy et al. (2005) studied in five districts (Mandya, Mysore, Shimoga,
Hassan and Bangalore Rural) of Karnataka, India, the impact of farmers' field schools
(FFSs) on knowledge and measured the attitude of farmers and extension personnel in
respect to IPM practices in rice farming. The respondents consisted of 60 trained and 60
untrained rice farmers and 60 trained and 60 untrained extension personnel. Results
revealed that 53% of the trained farmers and 48% of the trained extension personnel had
a high level knowledge on IPM practices in rice cultivation. The study also revealed that
43% of the trained farmers and 37% of the trained extension personnel had a more
favourable attitude towards IPM practices in rice cultivation. Further, it also revealed that
36% of the farmers and 42% of the extension personnel had a low level of knowledge
regarding IPM practices for rice, whereas 33% of the farmers and 46% of the extension
personnel had a less favourable attitude towards IPM in rice cultivation.
Patel et al. (2006) tested Isolates of Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin for
biological control of rice stink bug, Oebalus pugnax (F.) in the laboratory, in small-plot
field experiments compared with conventional insecticides, and in a large-plot
experiment to determine the spread and persistence of the fungus. The overall impact of
B. bassiana was moderate on O. pugnax nymphs and minimal on adults in the small-plot
experiments. A single application of B. bassiana reduced rice stink bug nymphs on six of
nine sampling dates and adults on two of nine sampling dates from 2-10 d after
application in the three small-plot experiments, and prevalence of the fungus was higher
in the B. bassiana treatment than in controls for nymphs on four dates versus none for

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adults. A single application of chemical insecticide reduced total rice stink bug numbers
more than B. bassiana for at least 7 d in small-plot experiments, whereas a double
application was more effective than B. bassiana for 10 d against nymphs. Beauveria
bassiana was nearly as effective as a single application of chemical insecticide in
suppressing rice stink bug numbers 7-8 d after application. Mixtures of B. bassiana and
chemical insecticide provided better control of rice stink bug than a single application of
either material alone. Thus, B. bassiana has potential for integrated management
programs of O. pugnax in rice, because it was moderately effective against nymphs and
had an additive effect with insecticides.
Peshin and Kalra (2006) selected a sample of 150 farmers (135 of which were trained
in integrated pest management or IPM and 15 were untrained) in Ludhiana district,
Punjab, India to study the extent and level of adoption of IPM practices in rice crop.
There was not much difference in the adoption of different cultural practices between
IPM and non-IPM farmers, but the IPM farmers had adopted resistant cultivars in a large
scale. IPM farmers had applied lesser number of pesticide sprays (1.36 per season)
compared to non-IPM farmers (2.47 per season). Ten percent of the IPM-trained farmers
did not apply any insecticide. To have desired impact of IPM, the employment of farmers
is necessary, which was not the case in all villages.
Sithanantham, et al. (2007) added that Thrips are an important group of sucking insects
causing substantial yield losses in several tropical crops, as direct pests and/or as virus
vectors. The emerging interest at national level in organic farming and export
agriculture calls for development of appropriate and wide range of eco-friendly and
biological products for thrips management. Entomopathogens (like Verticillium lecani)
have shown promise for augmentative biological control of Scirtothrips dorsalis, and
there was scope for identifying more adapted and virulent strains of the
entomopathogens, There was need to focus on research and development (R&D) with
public-private partnerships, for widening the range and refining the technology options as
well as the integration of different biological control agents with other pest control
technologies, besides linking them to the crop management practices so as to evolve
holistic Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategies.

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Kaur et al. (2007) demonstrated bio-intensive pest management of leaf folder and stem
borer on basmati rice at village Karni Khera (District Ferozepur), Punjab over 60 hectares
during 2002-2005. Bio-intensive management package included one application of cartap
hydrochloride, (Padan @ 25 kg/ha) and seven weekly releases of Trichogramma chilonis
and T. japonicum @ 100000/ha each starting from 30 days after transplantation. The
mean per cent leaves folded (2.02), dead hearts (3.05), white ears (5.45) and yield (43.99
q/ha) in BPIM were on par with chemical control, (mean per cent leaves folded (1.77),
dead hearts (2.62), white ears (4.48) and yield (44.83 q/ha)), and both the treatments were
significantly better than control. The cost: benefit ratio was 1:4.01 and 1:4.68 for bio-
intensive management practice and chemical control, respectively.
Alka et al. (2007) examined pesticide use pattern and adoption of integrated pest
management (IPM) practices in rice, vegetables and cotton. Estimated values of farmers'
willingness to pay for pesticide hazard reduction indicated that a marker exists for
environmentally friendly pesticides in the study areas.
Alka et al. (2008) studied adoption of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) practices on
paddy in Haryana and assessed the impact of key socio-economic and institutional factors
on adoption. A survey was conducted in 2003-04 on 83 farmers cultivating paddy in the
Karnal and Kaithal districts of Haryana. The study shows that technology awareness
through formal crop-specific IPM training provided by farmers' field schools was
extremely important for wider adoption of IPM in the study area. The study has found
mixed evidence about the relationship between farm-size and adoption of IPM practices.
In the case of paddy, a negative relationship was observed.
Chen et al. (2008) studied efficacy and economic benefits of 4 rice pest control methods
in Zhejiang, China. Damage in rice fields due to the insect pests was severe, and the
economic benefit decreased when pesticide was not sprayed during the rice growth
period. Standard spray and farmers' spray exhibited similar control efficacy against
planthoppers (Nilaparvata lugens, Sogatella furcifera and Laodelphax striatellus) and
leaf roller (Cnaphalocrocis medinalis). Grain agronomic character, rice yield and
economic benefit were also similar for these treatments. However, the incidence of wilt
sheath shoot rate caused by the striped stem borer (Chilo suppressalis) was highest for
farmers' spray. The biological control system based on duck-rice interaction +

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biopesticide spray was effective against insect pests, but this treatment resulted in lower
rice yield than the standard spray (55.15% of the yield for this treatment) and farmers's
spray (59.60%). However, higher economic return was obtained with the biological
control system (by ~80-120 yuan/667 m2) than with standard spray and farmers' spray.
Lal et al. (2008) conducted an experiment in Bhagalpur, Bihar, India, to determine the
constraints in adoption of IPM in rice cultivation. The overall percentage regarding the
constraints pertaining to technology was 67.80, constraints pertaining to extension was
73.33 and constraints pertaining to service, supply and marketing was 70.25 and
constraints pertaining to transfer of technology was 66.85 in the adoption of IPM in rice
cultivation.
Ramandeep et al. (2008) conducted experiment on the management of rice leaf folder
and stem borer in two rice varieties, viz., PR 116 and Basmati 386, in the organic field
by comparing three treatments, viz. organic, recommended and integrated practices.
Organic practices and integrated practices (seven releases of Trichogramma chilonis and
T. japonicum @ 100000 each at weekly interval starting 30 DAT) proved to be effective
in the management of rice leaf folder and stem borer in both the rice varieties.
Mariyono, (2008) studied Integrated pest management (IPM) technology disseminated
since 1989 in Indonesia to cut down pesticide use, but the adoption and diffusion of the
technology were still debated. This study aimed to estimate the models of demand for
pesticides and to analyse the impact of IPM technology on pesticide use. There was an
indication that IPM technology has been adopted by farmers. This is evidence that the
IPM programme in Indonesia was successful in this area.
Tripathi et al. (2008) stated that integrated pest management (IPM) is the integrated use
of pest control strategies in a way that not only reduces pest population to satisfactory
levels but is sustainable and non-polluting. IPM in India was as receiving high priority
since about three decades, under the ICAR set up, the AICRP on IPM are in operation in
collaboration with SAU. The goal of the IPM development is not just to maximize yields
but also to increase farmer's income and welfare. Therefore, the socio-economy and
culture of the local farmers need to be studied to determine proper strategy for extension
and training of IPM technology. Farmers play an important role in the development and
implementation of IPM. A project initiated in the Philippines based on the principle of

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IPM is expected to help farmers increase vegetable yields while decreasing the use of
potentially harmful pesticides. The project, was based on a successful small scale
experiment carried out with farmers in the Philippines, where vegetable yields rose and
total production costs fell by 20%, as farmers reduced expenditure on chemicals.
Government of India launched IPM programme with FFS approach in 1992 on small
scale for rice and cotton crops as the pesticides used for these crops contributes to more
than 75% of total consumption. This introduction of IPM programme was well timed as
chemical control against some pests such as Heliothis and red-hairy caterpillar (Amsacta
sp)] had become ineffective and there was a desperate search for other alternatives.
Among all these constraints, unavailability of location specific IPM package was a major
constraint. This had to be developed by extension functionaries by involving farmers and
scientists. In recent years farmers, non-government organizations, scientists and
governmental and international institutions are engaging in joint efforts to replace
chemical- intensive farming methods with alternative agro-ecological approaches.
Singh et al. (2008) conducted a field experiment in Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, India, during
the kharif season of 2005 to study the effects of cartap hydrochloride 4 G at 0.75 kg
a.i./ha, Beauveria bassiana at 2.5 kg/ha, Bacillus thuringiensis at 1.5 kg/ha, imidacloprid
17.8 SL at 0.05%, Trichogramma japonicum at 100 000 eggs/ha, Neem Gold at 5 ml/litre
and Neem Gold at 3 ml/litre + T. japonicum at 75 000 eggs/ha on yellow stem borer
(YSB; Scirpophaga incertulas) and rice leaf folder (Cnaphalocrocis medinalis) infesting
rice (cv. Basmati), and their predators (spiders). The biological pesticides were superior
over the synthetic insecticides in conserving the spider population. The release of T.
japonicum with botanicals reduced the populations of both pests and conserved the spider
population. The cost: benefit ratio was highest with imidacloprid 17.8 SL (1:10.13) and
lowest with Bacillus thuringiensis (1:1.90).
Sharifi et al. (2008) developed Integrated pest management (IPM) as one of
sustainable agricultural development components, based on synergy of empowering
farmers, environmental friendly technology and integrated farm management. Effective
IPM extension needs identification and analysis of related principal components with aim
to policy making and planning by farmers' participation. The statistical population
included 1145 of rice farmers. A sample of 90 farmers was selected by the use of

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proportional random sampling method. The result of factor analysis showed that three
components were extracted of IPM practices. The first factor called the optimal
cultivation practices that explained 26% of the total variance and others were biological
practices and physical- mechanical practices.
Mohapatra et al. (2009) adopted Indigenous pest control practices by tribes at 7
locations in Tamil Nadu, India and studied the efficacy of the most popular practices
(including the application of plant extracts and organic amendments) which were
evaluated against pests of rice, groundnut, pulses, vegetables and stored grains under
field and laboratory conditions. These practices were effective against the pests.
Patel et al. (2009) conducted a field experiment during the kharif season from 2000 to
2004 in Nawagam, Gujarat, India, and evaluated the efficacy of integrated pest
management (IPM) against C. medinalis on rice. Pooled data indicated that IPM
exhibited a lower incidence of C. medinalis (3.60%) than farmers' practice (7.0%). Spider
population ranged from 10.50 to 21.00 spiders/m2 for IPM, and from 2.30 to 9.50
spiders/m2 for farmers' practice. IPM also resulted in higher grain yield (4845 kg/ha), net
return (15 103 rupees/ha) and cost benefit ratio (1:1.14) than farmers' practice (3845
kg/ha, 9486 rupees/ha and 1:0.69, respectively).
Raikar et al. (2009) conducted field experiment in Mugad, Karnataka, India, during the
kharif of 2005 and 2006 to study the effects of nutrient The application of 50% RDN
through farmyard manure + 50:50:50 kg NPK/ha combined with the integrated pest
management system resulted in the highest seed yield (3806 kg/ha).
Insect Management
Garg and Baranwal (1998) used an improved Basmati rice variety Taraori, a neem-
based pesticide, the parasitoid, Trichogramma japonicum and insecticides were used
against leaf folder (Cnaphalocrocis medinalis) and Yellow Stem Borer (Scirpophaga
incertulas), in an IPM approach during the 1994-1995 kharif seasons in Haryana, India.
The results revealed that IPM technology was as effective as the pesticidal approach in
controlling pests and increasing rice yields. Furthermore, it was environmentally safe and
economically viable.
Chai et al. (2000) reported the pathogenicity of 37 isolates of Metarhizium anisopliae to
Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus and the sensitivity of L. oryzophilus at different stages to M.

31
anisopliae were tested. The results showed that 6 isolates of M. anisopliae parasitized
over 90% of L. oryzophilus. L. oryzophilus was more sensitive to the infection of M.
anisopliae at the reproductive stage, and intermediate at the overwintering stage and less
sensitive at the emerging stage.
Chen et al. (2000) studied Metarhizium anisopliae to control rice water weevil,
Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus at the pre-oviposition stage in the field [in China]. Results
showed that the adult population of L. oryzophilus was reduced by 92.5% 13 d after
spraying at a rate of 1014 spores/ha. Larval and adult populations in the coming
generation decreased to 2.12 and 0.30 per hill, while those in the check the populations
were 8.40 and 4.17 per hill, respectively.
El-Khayat (2000) evaluated the effects of some plant extracts (Thuja orientalis leaves
and fruits and Melia azedarach fruits extracted with petroleum ether) and also of two
bioinsecticides (Dipel [Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki] and Biofly [Beauveria
bassiana]) at two concentrations (5, 10 mg/50 g) in the laboratory against three stored
grain pests, Sitophilus oryzae and Rhyzopertha dominica adults and Trogoderma
granarium larvae. The results indicated that Thuja extracts of leaves and fruits were more
effective against the three insects causing 80.6, 68.2 and 53.3%, 56.7 55.0 and 56.2%
mortality to S. oryzae adults R. dominica adults and T. granarium larvae, respectively,
after 3 weeks of treatments. The treatment with Dipel and Biofly at the higher
concentration (10 mg/50 g grains) gave moderate mortality rates of the three insects.
These biocontrol agents showed more effect on S. oryzae than on R. dominica and/or T.
granarium. The plant extracts gave good protection to wheat grains against the three
insect pests during the period of storage (3 months). The bioinsecticide (Dipel) gave
accepted degree of protection to wheat grains during the 3 months of storage.
Legaspi et al. (2000) evaluated Beauveria bassiana (strain GHA) against the Mexican
Rice Borer, Eoreuma loftini, which causes damage in south Texas estimated between $10
and $20 million annually. They performed bioassays against the sugarcane borer,
Diatraea saccharalis, the key pest in other sugarcane growing areas. In the bioassays, E.
loftini was substantially more susceptible to B. bassiana than D. saccharalis, based on
both 5-day LD50 values and survival times. A commercial oil-based formulation of B.
bassiana was evaluated in the field using the following treatments: oil alone (control), B.

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bassiana + oil, and B. bassiana + Silwet L-77 carrier at an application rat of 5 x 1013
spores per hectare. Neither numbers of E. loftini per stalk, nor stalk damage (~20% bored
internodes) were significantly affected by treatment. The application of B. bassiana +
Silwet significantly affected the numbers of internodes showing high damage, but not
those with low or medium damage. Analysis of yield data and juice quality showed to
significant treatment effects.
Carballo et al. (2001) studied the various B. bassiana isolates against control of pepper
weevil (Anthonomus eugenii). Several concentrations of the fungus in water and oil
suspension were evaluated to determine the half-lethal concentration (LC 50) using
immersion and aspiration application methods. All isolates were pathogenic to the
weevil, with the greatest % mortality, lowest lethal time (LT 50) and greatest yield of
conidia on rice determined for the isolates 447, RL9-1, 113, 9205, 9218, 9006, 35 and
290.

Dainingstar (2001) evaluated the efficacy of aqueous and methanolic leaf extracts from
Ageratum conyzoides, Artemisia nilagirica, Eupatorium riparium and Lantana camara
(50, 100, and 200 mg/ml) to inhibit the feeding activity of O. hyla hyla. Rice leaves were
dipped into the extracts before being fed to adult grasshoppers for 6 days. Aqueous
extracts were less effective than methanolic extracts in inhibiting the feeding activity of
O. hyla hyla. Variation in the inhibitory action of the aqueous extracts at various
concentrations was not significant. The aqueous extract of E. riparium showed the
greatest feeding inhibition. Unlike the aqueous extracts, all methanolic extracts inhibited
feeding completely with the increase in concentration and treatment duration. The
methanolic extracts of A. conyzoides and E. riparium were most potent.
Dal Bello et al. (2001) tested the virulence of ten different fungal isolates of: Beauveria
bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae, Verticillium lecanii and Paecilomyces farinosus to the
rice weevil Sitophilus oryzae. A fungal mix of the most efficient isolates, B. bassiana
ARSEF 5500 + M. anisopliae ARSEF 2974, which caused the highest mortality, was
assayed in combination with fenitrothion at a concentration lower (3 ppm) than the
normal 6 ppm. Fungal inoculation of insects was conducted by spraying conidial
suspensions of each fungus on wheat. Insecticide formulations were added by spraying
wheat. Treated and untreated insects were incubated on durum wheat. Insects were kept

33
in a climatized chamber for 30 days and observations were module at 7, 14 and 30 days
to record insect mortality. Highly significant differences were demonstrated for B.
bassiana 5500 and 5501 and for M. anisopliae 2974. The level of mortality produced by
treatments was: 6 ppm insecticide = 97.50%, B. bassiana ARSEF 5500 + M. anisopliae
ARSEF 2974 + 3 ppm insecticide = 74.17%, B. bassiana ARSEF 5500 + M. anisopliae
ARSEF 2974 = 50% and 3 ppm insecticide = 37.50%. There was a statistically
significant difference (p < 0.05) among treatments.
Govindan et al. (2001) tested the entomopathogenic fungus, B. bassiana was against the
rice weevil S. oryzae. Bioassays were conducted by introducing 25 adult insects on 50 g
of B. bassiana-mixed rice in glass jars maintained at 28 + or - 2 degrees C and 70% RH.
Mortality was monitored at 5-day intervals until 25 days. At higher rates (7.6 log
conidia/ml), B. bassiana produced a higher percentage of mortality up to 75.8% and F 1
adult emergence was reduced by 86.2%. At lower concentrations, B. bassiana was not
effective against S. oryzae. The study suggested the need for higher numbers of conidial
inoculation for maximum mortality.
Kulagod et al. (2001) evaluated insecticides against Yellow Stem Borer [Scirpophaga
incertulas] and Leaf folder [Cnaphalocrocis medinalis] on rice was in Uttara Kannada,
Karnataka, India, during the Kharif 2008: fipronil 5 FS (2.5 ml), indoxacarb 14.5 SC (0.5
ml), thiodicarb 75 WP (1.0 g), Bacillus thuringiensis (1.0 g), novaluron 10 EC (0.1
ml/litre), cartap hydrochloride 50 SP (1.0 g/litre), spinosad 45 SC (0.2 ml/litre),
chlorpyrifos 20 EC (2.0 ml/litre), flubendiamide 480 SC (0.2 ml/litre) and azadirachtin
(5000 ppm). At 5 days after spraying (DAS), the chemical treatments were on a par and
superior to B. thuringiensis, azadirachtin and control in reducing dead heart incidence;
almost a similar trend was observed at 10 DAS. At 15 DAS, cartap hydrochloride 50 SP,
fipronil 5 FS and flubendiamide 480 SC registered the lowest percent dead heart. Cartap
hydrochloride 50 SP (4.83%), fipronil 5 FS (4.99%), flubendiamide 480 SC (4.12%) and
thiodicarb 75 WP (5.58%) recorded the lowest percent white ear. The treatments were at
par in terms of damaged leaves at 5 DAS. At 10 and 15 DAS, flubendiamide 480 SC,
spinosad 45 SC, indoxacarb 14.5 SC and fipronil 5 FS resulted in the lowest percentage
of damaged leaves. Cartap hydrochloride 50 SP gave the lowest percent dead heart and

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white ear incidence, and the highest grain yield. However, this treatment was on a par
with fipronil 5 FS, flubendiamide 480 SC and thiodicarb 75 WP for these traits.

Misra et al. (2001) evaluated in the field experiment twenty-seven rice cultivars for
growth performance, and pest and disease resistance in Uttar Pradesh, India during
2000. Nilaparvata lugens and Nephotettix virescens were below moderate levels on all
cultivars except Suryu-52, IRRI-137, MTU-1001 and Nagarjuna. Yellow stem borer
(Scirpophaga incertulas) incidence was low to moderate in Pusa-basmati, IRRI-123,
Basmati and Nagarjuna, but was trace to low in all other cultivars. Incidences of brown
leaf spot (Drechslera oryzae [Cochliobolus miyabeanus]), bacterial leaf blight
(Xanthomonas campestris), Cercospora leaf spot (Cercospora oryzae) and false smut
(Ustilaginoidea virens) were also observed. The occurrence of biological control agents
and natural enemies in these cultivars was also recorded.
Padmaja and Kaur (2001) recorded for the first time the pathogenicity of
entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae (Metsch.) Sorokin has been on rice
leaf folder, Cnaphalocrocis medinalis (Guenee) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). Effective
control of the pest was recorded under field conditions after application of spore
suspension of Metarhizium anisopliae in gelatin (1%) at 1x10x spores/ml on the infested
rice crop. Between 5 to 7 days after treatment, 60 - 70 per cent mortality was recorded.
Vijila et al. (2001) evaluated in laboratory bioassays the mortality of rice weevil,
Sitophilus oryzae (L.) caused by Metarhizium anisopliae (Metschnikoff) Sorokin alone
and in combination with a neonicotinoid insecticide, acetamiprid . Spray application of
M. anisopliae alone at a spore concentration of 6x107 conidia/ml required 6 days to cause
10 percent mortality whereas 4x107 conidia/ml required 8 days to cause 10 percent
mortality. Acetamiprid alone at a concentration of 30.00 micro g/dl required 96 h to cause
10% mortality and at 20.00 micro g/dl required 120 h to cause 20% mortality. In
combination with acetamiprid, M. anisopliae killed S. oryzae significantly faster than
without acetamiprid. M. anisopliae at a spore concentration of 3x107 conidia/ml with
7.50 micro
Niazi et al. (2002) studied the Beauveria bassiana and Paecilomyces amoeneroseus
against rice green leafhopper Nephotettix virescens. In the first experiment, adult
leafhoppers were separately sprayed in 2 batches with spore suspension. In the second

35
experiment, 4 rice seedlings (cv. TN-1) were separately sprayed with spore suspension.
The in vivo effect of the entomogenous fungi on the survival of leafhoppers were also
studied by allowing the leafhopper to feed for 22 h on spore suspension mixed with 10%
sucrose solution enclosed in parafilm M membrane (stretched 4x). In the first experiment,
P. amoeneroseus (100% mortality in 20 days) was more effective than B. bassiana.
Treatment of rice seedlings with B. bassiana spore suspension, in the second experiment,
was most effective (100% mortality in 20 days).
Alice et al. (2003) revealed that natural mycosis occurred in the pests of rice during Rabi.
In rice, the leaffolder (Cnaphalocrocis medinalis) and the skipper (Pelopidas mathias)
were infected and mummified by the fungus. The cadavers were covered by a white
powdery mycelium. Mortality was highest in the first and second larval instars.
Microscopic examination of the dead larvae showed a large number of spores. Spores
were single-celled borne on zigzag conidiophores found in clusters. The pathogenic
fungus was identified as Beauveria bassiana.
Amaugo and Emosairue (2003) conducted field experiment during the 1999 and 2000
wet season at the National Cereal research Institute, Amakama sub-station, Umuahia,
Nigeria to evaluate the efficacy of aqueous and acetone extracts of some indigenous
medicinal plants for the control of upland Rice Stem Borers. The treatment consisted of
2.55, 5 and 10% each of aqueous and acetone extract of seed kernels of neem
(Azadirachta indica, A. Juss), nutmeg Mondoora myristica (Gaertn.) Dunal, Physic-nut
(Jatropha curcas, L.), castor – oil (Ricinus communis L.) synthetic insecticides:
monocrotophos and the untreated check. The result showed that the monocrotophos and a
number of the plants seed kernel extract treatment significantly (P<0.05) reduced the %
deadhearts and % whiteheads caused by stem borer. The yield of the rice culture in the
two years trails were significantly (P>0.05) higher in monocrotophos treated plants and in
a number of the plants extracts treated plant than the control. Comparatively, neem seed
and physic – nut seed kernel extracts were superior to the other plant extract in
controlling stem borers and influencing yield of the crop. The result suggest, that aqueous
and acetone extract of neem seed kernel and physic nut seed kernel can be sued by upland
rice farmers to control stem borers and obtain higher crop yields.

36
Keller and Tuor (2003) isolated 50 different fungal strains from the soil by dilution plate
and Galleria mellonella baiting methods. A few strains (Nomuraea sp.) were isolated
from naturally infected Spodoptera found on sugarbeet. Using a bioassay with
Helicoverpa armigera larvae, 4 promising strains (2 strains of Metarhizium sp., one strain
of Nomuraea sp. and one strain of Beauveria sp.) were selected on the basis of mortality
(>70% in 7 days) for further large scale production and field trials. The biochemical
characterization with regard to cuticle degrading enzymes, effect of different
environmental conditions on the spore germination, and growth on solid substrates, such
as beaten rice, sorghum, wheat and barley for maximum sporulation, were also studied.
Rao et al. (2003) studied efficacy of various insecticides and biopesticides in controlling
Cnaphalocrocis medinalis infesting rice cv. Pusa 834. The treatments included: phorate
at 0.5 and 0.75 kg a.i./ha; thiamethoxam at 12.5 g a.i./ha; thiamethoxam + Dispel L
(Beauveria bassiana) at 12.5 g a.i./ha + 1000 ml; profenofos at 750 g a.i./ha; profenofos
+ Biobit DF (Bacillus thuringiensis) at 750 + 750 g a.i./ha; lambda-cyhalothrin at 25 g
a.i./ha; lambda-cyhalothrin + Biobit DF at 25 + 750 g a.i./ha; flufenoxuron at 100 g
Biobit + flufenoxuron at 750 + 100 g a.i./ha; Dispel at 1000 ml; Biobit DF + Dispel L at
750 g + 1000 ml; Vitex negundo leaf extract at 1%; neem oil at 1%; Datura sp. whole
plant extracts at 1%; Chukrasia velutina [Chukrasia tabularis] seed extract at 1%; solvent
+ emulsifier; and the control. The lowest leaf folder damage was observed with
flufenoxuron and lambda-cyhalothrin treatments, but these insecticides adversely affected
the predator populations (Coccinellids and spiders). Biobit treatment resulted in a leaf
folder damage of 17.55% folded leaves, and in the highest predator population in the
range 4.33-5.33 predator/five hills.
Shahid et al. (2003) applied the Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) at 250 kg/acre and CAMB
fungi (Metarhizium anisopliae) at 250 kg/acre, applied alone or in combination, for
controlling stem borer (Scirpophaga incertulas) and leaf folder (Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis) infesting rice in field trials in Pakistan. Bioassays were also conducted in the
laboratory to investigate the pathogenicity of the fungal suspension or bt formulation on
Helicoverpa armigera larvae after 48, 72 and 96 h of exposure. Bioassay results showed
that the larval mortality was 65, 75 and 100% after 48, 72 and 96 h, respectively. In field
trials, CAMB pesticides reduced insect population on rice from 1 to 9 days after spraying.

37
Yasodha and Narayanasamy (2004) isolated three entomopathogenic fungi viz., Mucor
hiemalis, Fusarium moniliforme [Gibberella fujikuroi] and Scopulariopsis sp. from the
yellow rice borer (Scirpophaga incertulas), Leaffolder cutworm (Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis) and Yellow hairy caterpillar moths of rice ecosystem.
Geng and Zhang (2005) studied the effects of low concentration buprofezin and M.
anisopliae var. acridum on N. lugens nymphs (young and old) and adults. The treatments
included: buprofezin at 2.5 micro g/ml; fungi at 107 conidia/ml; and combination of
buprofezin + fungi. The combination of insecticide + fungi was effective in increasing
insect mortality.
Nguyen et al. (2005) conducted the experiments in the greenhouse and field to evaluate
the efficacy of some new isolates of Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana
against Rice Ear Headbug (REB), Leptocorisa. acuta. The results in greenhouse showed
that all of 12 selected isolates of M. anisopliae and B. bassiana which have been isolated
from naturally infected insects during 2003-2005 were found to be pathogenic to the
tested Rice Ear Headbug (REB). The mortality percentage of L. acuta caused by B.
bassiana and M. anisopliae isolates ranged from 57.5 to 77.7% and from 74.7 to 87% at
10 DAT, respectively. In field experiments, all of 12 selected isolates of M. anisopliae
and B. bassiana were found to be effective for controlling REB; the efficacy could be
seen from 7 DAT and reached to its highest peak at 14 DAT. The field mortality of L.
acuta caused by B. bassiana and by M. anisopliae isolates ranged from 45.3 to 74.9%
and from 63.6 to 86.6% at 10 DAT, respectively. M. anisopliae showed better efficacy
against REB as compared to B .bassiana. Among 12 new selected isolates of M.
anisopliae and B. bassiana have been tested, M.a (OM3 -BD), M.a (HG3 -B) and M.a
(HG5 -BD) exhibited higher efficacy against the REB as compared to the rest.
Rupesh et al. (2005) evaluated efficacy of B. bassiana against D. armigera infesting rice
(cv. Taraori Basmati) in a pot experiment. B. bassiana suspension (106 conidia/ml) was
sprayed to seedlings, and 10 adults of D. armigera were released per pot at 0, 12, 24, 36
and 48 h after spraying. Adult mortality was evaluated at 3, 6, 9 and 12 days after
releasing the insects. The efficacy of B. bassiana decreased with the increase in the
period between fungal inoculation and adult release. On the 12th day, mean percent
mortality was highest for adults released at 0 (93.3%) and 12 h (83.3%) after spraying.

38
The lethal time mortality of D. armigera caused by B. bassiana was lowest (5.50 days)
when adult release was simultaneous with fungal inoculation.
Anandhi and Pillai (2006) revealed that the percentage of infection by
entomopathogenic fungi, Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana, varied
significantly in relation to the age of the rice crop. Mortality of the black bug,
Scotinophara coarctata, due to infection by M. anisopliae and B. bassiana was first
observed at 16 days after transplanting (DAT) and peaked at 72 DAT.
Gindin et al. (2006) reported that the red palm weevil (RPW, Rhynchophorus
ferrugineus) (Olivier) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) was one of the most severe pests of
various palm species, including date palms. While examining the susceptibility of RPW
to two entomopathogenic fungi, Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana, strains
of the former were found to be more virulent than those of the latter, achieving 100%
larval mortality within 6-7 days. The most virulent strains of M. anisopliae were then
tested on RPW eggs and adults. Incubation in a substrate treated with M. anisopliae
spores increased egg mortality and reduced their hatchability. The total percentage
mortality of eggs and hatched larvae was 80-82%, compared with 34% in the controls.
RPW adults were challenged with two types of fungal formulation: dry powder and
aqueous suspension. Cumulative adult mortality of 100% was achieved in 2-3 weeks for
the dry rice-based formulation and in 4-5 weeks for the spore suspension.
Patel et al. (2006) tested the isolates of Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin tested
for biological control of rice stink bug, Oebalus pugnax (F.), in the laboratory, in small-
plot field experiments and compared with conventional insecticides, and in a large-plot
experiment to determine the spread and persistence of the fungus. Isolate RSB was found
in a naturally-infected O. pugnax in a rice field near Crowley, LA, and isolates LRC28
and LRC21 were obtained for their relatively good growth at high temperatures. The soil-
derived isolate LRC28 was more virulent to O. pugnax adults than isolate RSB in a
laboratory experiment. The fungal isolates, applied at 5.0-5.7 × 1012 conidia/ha, did not
differ from one another in reducing insect numbers or in infecting rice stink bugs in the
small-plot experiments, although isolates LRC28 and RSB, but not LRC21, occasionally
differed from the control.

39
Rao et al. (2006) tested the various combinations of insecticides (phorate at 0.5 and 0.75
kg/ha, thiamethoxam 12.5 g/ha, profenofos at 750 g/ha, lambda-cyhalothrin at 25 g/ha
and flufenoxuron at 100 g/ha), botanicals (Vitex negundo 1%, neem oil 1%, Datura sp.
1% and Chukrasia velutina 1%) and biopesticides (Biobit [Bacillus thuringiensis subsp.
kurstaki] at 750 g/ha. and Dispel (Beauveria bassiana) at 1000 ml/ha.) for their effects on
Rice leaffolder (Cnaphalocrocis medinalis) and its coleopteran predators (Paederus
fuscipes and Ophionia indica [Casnoidea indica]).
Sarao and Mehal (2006) evaluated the effectiveness of different level of nitrogen with
the insecticide against insect pest of rice during kharif 2005 and 2006 at village balloke
(Ludhiana). The pooled mean of both the year showed that leaf folder infestation (10.88),
dead heart (4.73%), white year (4.98%) infestation and plant hopper population were
significantly more in dose of higher level of N (375kg urea/ha), grain yield in case of
225, 275 and 325 kg urea per ha was 70.18-74.60 q/ha.
Ambethgar et al. (2007) evaluated pathogenicity of 42 local isolates of
entomopathogenic fungi including Beauveria bassiana (twenty two), Meturhizium
anisopliae (three), M. fluvoviride (one), Nomuraea rileyi (four), Paecilomyces sp. (one),
Aspergillus spp. (five), Fusarium spp. (three), Zoophthora radicans (two) and
Entomophthora sp. (one) originating from a range of insect species against third instar
larvae of Cnaphalocrocis medinalis. All the isolates tested were pathogenic to the pest at
varying degrees. In single-dose (1x107 conidia/ml) time-mortality assay, only five
isolates of B. bassiana, viz., BbCm KKL 1100, BbCm TVR 0101, BbCm ADT 0101
(isolated from C. medinalis), BbMp KKL 1195 (isolated from Marasmia patnalis) and
BbOn KKL 0597 (isolated from Oxya nitidula), were superior to all other isolates with
BbCm KKL 1100 having the lowest LT50 value of 7.81 days. In the multiple dose assays
(ranging from 1 × 104 to 1 × 109 conidia/ml), the Karaikal isolate of B. bassiana (BbCm
KKL 1100 isolated from C. medinalis) was found to be the most virulent. The LC50
value estimated at 13 days post-inoculation from three independent bioassays for this
isolate was 2.8 x103 conidia/ml.
Majidi-Shilsar (2007) collected fungal pathogens of the rice striped stem borer, C.
suppressalis, from dead larvae in rice fields in Guilan province, Iran. The isolated fungi
were incubated with larvae placed on wet sterile filter paper, and incubated at 25 (+) 2 ˚C

40
and relative humidity of 85 (+) 5 %. The fungal colony was formed on dead larvae within
48 - 72 h, and sporulation started after 5-7 days. The fungi appeared on the larvae as
white or green colonies. The fungi were identified as B. bassiana and M. anisopliae. The
spores of B. bassiana were hyaline, and globose to subglobose (2 - 3.5 × 2 - 3 micro m),
while the spores of M. anisopliae were cylindrical to oval, often slightly narrower in the
middle, and truncate at both ends (3.5 - 9 × 2 - 4 micro m).
Rabindra and Ramanujam (2007) reported that the sucking pests cause serious damage
to several agricultural, horticultural and plantation crops either by direct feeding or by
transmitting plant viral diseases. Since sucking pests like plant and leaf hoppers, aphids,
whiteflies, scale insects, thrips and mites to have developed resistance to insecticides,
biological control using microbial pathogens, particularly fungal pathogens like
Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae, and Verticillium lecanii, has been explored
for a number of pests. Several commercial formulations based on entomopathogenic
fungi were developed for the control of sucking pests in different countries. Mycotrol and
Botanigard based on B. bassiana, Mycotal based on V. lecanii and PFR-97 and Pae-Sin
based on Paecilomyces fumosoroseus were developed for the control of whiteflies, aphids
and thrips.
Dhuyo et al. (2008) evaluated two isolates (274 and 373) with concentrations ranging
from 105 to 109 spores ml-1 of the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana (Bal.)
Vuill for pathogenicity against immature stages of yellow rice stem borer, Scirpophaga
incertulas (Walker) under laboratory conditions at Rice Research Institute, Dokri, Sindh
Pakistan. Not only the highest rates of mortality of S. incertulas were recorded at higher
concentrations of spores, ml-1 but also reduced percentage egg hatching of yellow rice
stem borer. Log dose (spores/ml) of the fungus B. bassiana isolate No. 274 and isolate
No.373 on egg, larva and pupa of S. incertulas was recorded as 5.12, 5.46, 6.10 and 6.23,
8.33, 8.33, respectively. The isolate No.274 was more pathogenic than the isolate No.373
to control of S. incertulas.
Jin et al. (2008) studied the effect of fungal isolates for microbial control of brown
planthopper (BPH) Nilaparvata lugens (Stal), to which little attention has been paid in
the past two decades. Results: Thirty-five isolates of Metarhizium anisopliae
(Metschnikoff) Sorokin and M. flavoviride Gams & Rozsypal from different host insects

41
worldwide were bioassayed for their lethal effects against third-instar BPH nymphs at 25
˚C and a 14:10 h light:dark photoperiod at ca 1000 conidia mm-2. On day 9 post-
treatment, mortality attributable to mycosis ranged from 6.5 to 64.2% and differed
significantly among the tested isolates with no apparent relationship to their host origin.
Only two BPH-derived M. anisopliae isolates from the Philippines (ARSEF456) and
Indonesia (ARSEF576) killed >50% of the nymphs. Both isolates were further
bioassayed for time-concentration-mortality responses of the nymphs to the sprays of 19-
29, 118-164 and 978-1088 conidia mm-2 in repeated bioassays. The resultant data fitted a
time-concentration-mortality model very well. Their LC50 values were estimated as 731
and 1124 conidia mm-2 on day 7 and fell to 284 and 306 conidia mm-2, respectively, on
day 10. Conclusion: The two M. anisopliae isolates are potential biocontrol agents of
BPH for further research. This is the first report of the lethal effects of global
Metarhizium isolates on the rice pest.
Sher et al. (2008) studied the effects of cartap hydrochloride 4 G at 0.75 kg a.i./ha,
Beauveria bassiana at 2.5 kg/ha, Bacillus thuringiensis at 1.5 kg/ha, imidacloprid 17.8
SL at 0.05%, Trichogramma japonicum at 100 000 eggs/ha, Neem Gold at 5 ml/litre and
Neem Gold at 3 ml/litre + T. japonicum at 75 000 eggs/ha on yellow stem borer (YSB;
Scirpophaga incertulas) and rice leaf folder (Cnaphalocrocis medinalis) infesting rice
(cv. Basmati), and their predators (spiders). Cartap hydrochloride 4 G and imidacloprid
17.8 SL resulted in the lowest incidence of yellow stem borer and leaf folder, but had
adverse effects on spider fauna. Bacillus thuringiensis and Beauveria bassiana were the
most effective against both pests. The biological pesticides were superior over the
synthetic insecticides in conserving the spider population. The release of T. japonicum
with botanicals reduced the populations of both pests and conserved the spider
population. The cost: benefit ratio was highest with imidacloprid 17.8 SL (1:10.13) and
lowest with Bacillus thuringiensis (1:1.90).
Ambethgar et al. (2009) studied the compatibility of Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo)
Vuillemin (isolate BbCm KKL 1100) with twelve insecticides and three neem
formulations on agar plate to develop suitable combinations for the management of insect
pests in rice fields. All chemical and botanical insecticides inhibited mycelial growth of
B. bassiana either partially or completely depending on their concentrations (10X, 1X

42
and 0.1X, where X=treated concentration). Chemical insecticides completely inhibited
the mycelial growth of B. bassiana, while the neem formulations inhibited 70-86%
biomass production of the fungus at 10X concentration. At 1X concentration, carbofuran
caused total inhibition, but all other insecticides caused 47.4 - 75.5% inhibition.
However, at 0.1X concentration, only neem seed kernel extract, chlorpyriphos and
dimethoate exhibited 22.2%, 27.3% and 32.6% mycelial inhibition, respectively, and
these could be used with B. bassiana in the field condition.
Kalita et al. (2009) evaluated the bioefficacy of six new biopesticides (three
entomopathogenic fungi and three neem formulations) viz., Beauveria bassiana
(BiopowerReg.), Metarhizium anisopliae (BiomagicReg.), Verticillium lecanii (Verticel),
NimbicidineReg., MultineemReg. and AchokReg. against insect pests of rice during
2007 and 2008 at ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Sikkim Centre, Tadong
with monocrotophos as check. All the insecticides were found effective in suppressing
pests population and consequently increase in yield (33.99 to 43.94 q/ha). In comparison
to check (monocrotophos), biopesticides were inferior in reducing pest population.
Among the biopesticides, NimbicidineReg. @ 3 ml/1 was found most effective followed
by Achook at same dose in managing stem borer, whorl maggot and leaf folder. M.
anisopliae (BiomagicReg.) and B. bassiana (BiopowerReg.) were found effective against
gundhi bug, damaged grain 4.89% and 5.15% respectively in comparison to untreated
control (13.06%).
Karthikeyan and Jacob (2009) studied the efficacy of the white muscardine fungus,
Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin and the entomopathogenic nematode,
Heterorhabditis indica (Poinar) against adult and grubs of rice blue beetle, Leptispa
pygmaea Baly. B. bassiana caused a cumulative adult mortality of 56.67 - 80.00 % at
105-109 spores ml-1 and the LC50 value was 2.26 × 104 spores ml-1. The
entomopathogenic nematode, H. indica caused a cumulative mortality of 66.67 - 91.67 %
at concentrations of 5IJs to 9IJs in the grubs of L. pygmaea. The cumulative LC50 value
was 3.83IJs. The mortality of L. pygmaea was found to increase with reducing dose and
increasing exposure period of both B. bassiana and H. indica.
Dharmadasa et al. (2010) reported the coffee berry borer Hypothenemus hampei
(Ferrari) was the most frequently occurring and destructive pest of coffee (Coffea spp.) in

43
Sri Lanka. The fungus Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin was found naturally
infecting coffee berry borer in Sri Lanka. The possibility of using B. bassiana in
management of H. hampei was studied under laboratory and in the field conditions. The
estimated LC50 and LT50 of B. bassiana for H. hampei were 1.4x106 conidia/ml and 2.6
days respectively. The mass production of B. bassiana was tested in different varieties of
cooked rice namely, red rice, white rice and parboiled rice. Results showed that the
conidia production in white rice was significantly higher than other two rice varieties.
Conidia production in all rice varieties was increasing even after 35 days of inoculation
of fungus. Application of B. bassiana conidia to bearing coffee trees in the field resulted
in higher death of coffee berry borers with mycosis than that of untreated trees.
Li et al. (2010) tested the effectiveness of four biological and two man-made pesticides,
and mixtures of these compounds, in controlling sympatric populations of Nilaparvata
lugens (Stal) and Sogatella furcifera (Horvath), in rice fields. The results show that, of
four biological pesticides tested, matrine (0.36% AS 1 500 ml/ha.), veratridine (0.5% WP
3 000 g/ha.), abamectin (1.8% EC 900 ml/ha.) and Beauveria bassiana (4.0 × 1010
spores/g WP 1 800 g/ha.), abamectin was the most effective with control efficiencies 7
and 14 days after spraying of 73.3% and 82.3% respectively. These results were
significantly higher than those achieved by the man-made pesticides, chlorpyrifos (48%
EC at 1 500 ml/ha.) and buprofezin (25% WP at 750 g/ha.).
Smitha et al. (2010) observed the occurrence of an entomopathogenic fungus, Hirsutella
sp. (Fungi: Imperfectii) on root mealy bugs, Geococcus coffeae and Geococcus citrinus
infesting banana variety, Nendran. The fungus was isolated in laboratory and
pathogenicity confirmed through Koch's postulates. Different solid media tested for the
growth revealed that SMA + Y media was the most suitable for laboratory multiplication.
Large scale multiplication in the half-cooked sorghum grains produced significantly
higher number (9.38 × 106 spores g-1) of spores followed by rice grain (9.13 × 106
spores g-1 ) at 45 days after inoculation.
Kulagod et al. (2011) evaluated the insecticides against Yellow Stem Borer
(Scirpophaga incertulas) and Leaffolder (Cnaphalocrocis medinalis) on rice in Uttara
Kannada, Karnataka, India, during the Kharif season of 2008, fipronil 5 FS (2.5 ml),
indoxacarb 14.5 SC (0.5 ml), thiodicarb 75 WP (1.0 g), Bacillus thuringiensis (1.0 g),

44
novaluron 10 EC (0.1 ml/litre), cartap hydrochloride 50 SP (1.0 g/litre), spinosad 45 SC
(0.2 ml/litre), chlorpyrifos 20 EC (2.0 ml/litre), flubendiamide 480 SC (0.2 ml/litre) and
azadirachtin (5000 ppm). At 5 days after spraying (DAS), the chemical treatments were
on a par and superior to B. thuringiensis, azadirachtin and control in reducing dead heart
incidence; almost a similar trend was observed at 10 DAS. At 15 DAS, cartap
hydrochloride 50 SP, fipronil 5 FS and flubendiamide 480 SC registered the lowest
percent dead heart. Cartap hydrochloride 50 SP (4.83%), fipronil 5 FS (4.99%),
flubendiamide 480 SC (4.12%) and thiodicarb 75 WP (5.58%) recorded the lowest
percent white ear.
Wei et al. (2011) studied the efficiency of five biological pesticides for controlling
Cnaphalocrocis medinalis in order to screen a biological pesticide which could be used
as an alternative to chemical pesticides for controlling C. medinalis. Method: Three levels
(high, moderate and low treatment) of biological pesticides (spinetoram SC, Bacillus
thuringiensis SC, abamectin WDG, proclaim or and powder of Beauveria bassiana
WDG) were used as treatment to compare their effects with recommended levels of
common chemical pesticides and controls. Result: After 12 days of pesticide treatments,
the control efficiency of spinetoram SC (6%), Bacillus thuringiensis (B.t.) SC (8000 IU/
micro L), abamectin WDG (10%), proclaim or (banleptm) (2%) and powder of Beauveria
bassiana WDG (40 billion spores/g) was recorded in range of 97.45 - 98.89 %, 81.31 -
91.68 %, 77.27 - 90.61 %, 79.62 - 89.21 % and 75.62 - 86.54 %, respectively.
Conclusion: Compared with chemical pesticides, five tested biological pesticides showed
similar or higher efficiency in controlling C. medinalis. Instead of chemical pesticides,
these bio-pesticides may be used to control C. medinalis in rice fields.
Suasa-Ard et al. (2012) reported that the green muscardine, Metarhizium anisopliae was
used to control the sugarcane longhorn stem borer, Dorysthenes buqueti, in infested areas
of sugarcane fields in Thailand. Fields were treated by dispersing a fresh culture of M.
anisopliae colonising cooked rice (2.7 ×108 spores/g). Single applications of M.
anisopliae at the rate of 80 kg/ha were made in three locations at Suphanburi and
Kanchanaburi Province in 2008. The effect of green muscardine on the larvae of
longhorn borer as well as on sugarcane production was evaluated. The results revealed
that, after applying the fungi, the green muscardine killed on average 35.09 (+) 8.68 % of

45
the borer larvae in all treated plots and 4.49 (+) 1.64 % in all non-treated plots. The
highest average percent of infested larvae was 41.67 (+) 36.03% at Rang Sa Ri district,
Kanchanaburi Province. The sugarcane production averaged 135.61 (+) 4.67 t/ha in
treated plots while, in non-treated plots, yields averaged 72.11 (+) 10.51 t/ha. These
findings indicate that the M. anisopliae was an effective biological control agent in
controlling sugarcane longhorn stem borer in Thailand.
Disease Management
Gnanamanickam and Mew (1992) evaluated different isolates of Pseudomonas and
Bacillus spp. associated with rice plants, and reported that strains. 7-14 of P. fluorescens
was the most effective when screened for antagonism to Pyricularia oryzae. Crude
extract from this strain.gave 70-100% inhibition of conidial germination at 1 ppm. and an
extract preparation protected seedlings of cv. IR 50 against infection by P. oryzae.
Evidence suggested that a sidero phore was unlikely to be involved in the activity of str.
7-14 against P. oryzae. An in vitro test showed that the inhibition of P. oryzae by str. 7-
14 was not reversed by Fe amendments.
Saravanan et al. (1996) conducted a detailed experiment to find out the effect of
Pseudomonas fluorescens on rice seed infection and seed germination. The results
revealed that seed treatment with P. fluorescens reduced the seed infection and increased
seed germination due to various fungal pathogens like Helminthosporium oryzae,
Alternaria tenuis, Fusarium moniliforme and Curuvlaria lunata.
Dubey and toppo (1997) observed the efficacy of a new fungicide, tricyclazole,
against rice blast (Magnaporthe grisea), which was compared with carbendazim, copper
oxychloride, hexaconazole, mancozeb, chlorothalonil, iprobenfos and thiophanate-methyl
in field experiments at the Bisra Agricultural University, Ranchi, Bihar, India, during
kharif 1993-95. The rice cultivar HR-12 was used and the fungicides, alone or in
combinations, were sprayed when symptoms first appeared and then repeated twice at 15-
day-intervals. All the fungicide treatments resulted in significant disease control and
higher grain yields in comparison with the control. Three sprays of tricyclazole (0.015%)
in combination with mancozeb (0.125%) was the most effective treatment in which
minimum disease intensity (6%), node (3%) and neck (2%) infections were recorded with
the highest grain yield (30.1 q/ha). Mixtures of mancozeb with thiophanate-methyl

46
and mancozeb with carbendazim ranked second; these 2 treatments being more cost
effective than tricyclazole with mancozeb.

Nayar and Vidhyasekaran (1997) developed a talcum powder-based formulation of the

bacterial strain Pseudomonas fluorescens strain p1 and studied its efficacy in controlling
blast, brown spot, bacterial blight and sheath blight diseases caused by the pathogens viz,
Pyricularia oryzae under greenhouse conditions. Caused the highest inhibition of growth
of foliar pathogens of rice (Pyricularia oryzae [Magnaporthe grisea], Helminthosporium
oryzae [Cochliobolus miyabeanus], Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae and Rhizoctonia
solani) in vitro Seed inoculation with the product at 4 g/kg (1.4 x 10 9 colony forming
units (c.f.u.)) was effective in controlling these diseases. As the dosage of the product
increased the protection due to p1 also increased. Seedling root dipping in 0.5% (1.8 x
109 c.f.u./1) of the product was effective in controlling all these diseases. Appreciable
control was obtained with foliar spray at 0.1% (3.6 x 109 cfu/1). Combined application of
the product by seed treatment, seedling root dipping and foliar spray, induced 60-70%
control of X. oryzae pv. oryzae in the field. There was also a significant increase in yield
due to the treatment. The protective effect of the product against these diseases varied
from 15-60 days depending on the mode of application.
Gouramanis (1998) evaluated biological and chemical methods for the control of rice
blast(Pyricularia oryzae).Biological control of the fungus infection was attempted using
Ferimzone (TF-164), which inhibited the mycelia growth by more than 90% at
concentrations of 5µg/ml and above, Flutolanil 25 with 2-2.5µ g/g in the leaf blast
causing about 75% inhibition, such as the antagonists Trichoderma harzianum/CPO-80
and Chaetomium globosum/ N76-1, which gave 70-88% inhibition of mycelial growth
and conidial germination. In another field experiment, the fungicides carbendazim,
pyroquilon, triophanate methyl and chlobenthiazone reduced leaf but not neck blast; on
the contrary, Otricyclazole was effective against neck blast. In Northern Greece, the
environmental conditions for blast development were favorable, particularly because the
mean air temperature was between 21-28°C and wind speed 0.7-1.6 m/sec. On the
contrary, relative humidity (54-84%) was adverse on the infection and disease
development by the blast fungus Pyricularia oryzae.

47
Bora et al. (1999) conducted an in vitro trial in which Trichoderma harzianum was used
against Rhizoctonia solani, the causal pathogen of sheath blight disease of rice, as seed
treatment both alone, and with different media (methyl cellulose, gur (sugars) and gum)
or thiram in pot experiments. In vitro, a higher percentage of seed germination was
obtained when a food base medium was incorporated with the antagonist than when it
was used alone. In the pot test, lower disease incidence was observed in the Trichoderma
harzianum + methyl cellulose, followed by the Trichoderma harzianum + sugars
treatment. Sublethal dose (0.05%) of thiram with the antagonist showed lower disease
incidence than treatment with its lethal dose (0.3%) alone.
Das and Hazarika (2000) studied the influence of seed treatment of rice with two
antagonistic fungi viz., Trichoderma viride and T. harzianuma lone and in association
with 2% (w/v) methyl cellulose and /or 0.1 M MgSO 4 against sheath blight. The seeds
treated with Trichoderma viride andTrichoderma harzianum showed significant
reduction in sheath infection. Both antagonistic fungi exhibited higher efficacy in
reducing sheath infection and increased grain yield, when they were treated with either
2% (w/v) methyl cellulose or 2% (w/v) methyl cellulose and 0.1 M MgSO 4 . Trichoderma
harzianum was found to be more effective than Trichoderma viride in reducing sheath
infection and increase in yield.
Anwar et al. (2002) evaluated different fungicides against sheath blight and blast of rice.
Three sprays of carbendazim (0.1%) and mancozeb (0.1%) and seed treatments proved to
be effective and brought down incidence of sheath blight and neck blast with
corresponding increase in the yield.
Nagaraju and Naresh (2002) reported that pre-application of spore suspension of bio-
agents (Trichoderma harzianum and Trichoderma viride) protected paddy plants against
challenge infection of Drechslera oryzae [Cochliobolus miyabeanus], showing reduction
in disease severity in paddy from 59.21 to 12.40%. Biochemical analysis of treated leaves
showed increased level of total soluble protein exhibited 11.19-85.21% and -10.06-
66.57% and total phenol content from -8.62 to 79.31% and 9.43 to 96.23% over diseased
and healthy plants, respectively. Correlation coefficient between soluble protein and
disease severity showed negative correlation (r=-0.43 to -0.47). Similarly, total phenol
content also showed negative correlation (r=-0.32 to -0.38) with disease severity.

48
Increased amount of soluble protein and total phenol resulted from the activity of bio-
agents indicated their involvement in the induction of host defence in paddy.
Prasad et al. (2002) conducted a field trial in Meghalaya India during the kharif seasons
of 1997-99 to determine the resistance of 2 upland rice cultivars viz., IET 13459 and IET
13783 to the pathogen. Disease occurrence was less in IET 13459 compared to IET
13783. In plots where fertilizers were not applied, the severity of brown spot was higher.
Application of normal doses of fertilizers (60:60:40 NPK) along with three sprays of
carbendazim reduced the incidence of brown spot disease.
Cortesi and Giuditta.(2003) studied efficacy of the new compounds and compared the
efficacy of tricyclazole and tricyclazole + propiconazole applied at beginning of stem
elongation and at late booting. Severe epidemics of rice brown spot and rice blast were
seldom observed. Brown spot was always observed on leaves, while rice blast appeared
only on flag leaf of japonica rice cv. Balilla in 2000. Neck blast was observed
approximately two weeks after heading, but disease incidence never exceeded 15%.
Panicle blast was due to infections of C. miyabeanus and M. grisea, and symptoms were
not visually distinguishable. Panicle blast incidence increased exponentially in late
August, when kernels were in dough stage, and by harvest was found on almost 80% of
the panicles with a severity of 68% on Balilla in 2000. Fungicide efficacy against brown
spot was low and varied between 25% on Balilla and 60% on tolerant cultivars
Thaibonnet, or L202, and Fragrance. Two treatments of azoxystrobin and trifloxystrobin
at 250 and 125 g/ha, respectively, were more effective than tricyclazole at 225 g/ha.
However, the difference of efficacy between two treatments of strobilurins and one
treatment of tricyclazole at 450 g/ha was not significant. Both strobilurins and
tricyclazole were highly effective against leaf blast and neck blast and reduced incidence
and severity by 90-100% and by 75-90%, respectively. Tricyclazole at 225 g/ha, applied
at beginning of stem elongation alone or in a mixture with propiconazole at 125 g/ha did
not significantly improve efficacy against brown spot and blast. Acibenzolar-S-methyl
did not sufficiently control brown spot and blast. The yield increase for fungicide-treated
plots ranged between 0 and 8%, with the exception of Balilla in 2000, which reached
40% because of early epidemic of panicle blast. Fungicide treatments increased the
average milling quality by 2.5%, while the percentage of grain discoloration did not

49
increase significantly. Because severe epidemics are infrequent, fungicide treatments are
cost-effective only when the risk of epidemic at late booting is high. Therefore, when
severe epidemics are predicted, they suggested two treatments at late booting and at
heading with azoxystrobin or trifloxystrobin at 250 and 125 g/ha, respectively, or one
treatment with tricyclazole at 450 g/ha followed by one treatment with strobilurin
Yoshihro et al. (2003) tested Bacillus subtilis strain IK-1080 for practical use as a
biological control agent against rice blast disease. When the anatagonist B. subtilis IK-
1080 was cultured with the rice blast fungus on potato sucrose agar plates, hyphal growth
was greatly suppressed. Blast fungal spores (103 spores/ml) were added to suspension
solutions of B. subtilis IK-1080 at 1.0 x 106 , 5.0 x 107 , 1.0 x 108 and 5.0 x 108 cfu/ml and
left to germinate on cellophane on a water agar plate. The rate of both germination and
appressorial formation began to be suppressed at 1.0 x 108 and 5.0 x 107 cfu/ml of B.
subtilis, respectively. At 5.0 x 108 cfu/ml of B. subtilis, germination and appressorial
formation (62.3% and 11.2%, respectively) were much lower than those of the controls
(96.3% and 56.4%, respectively). When 5-ml suspensions of B. subtilis IK-1080 at the
same concentrations as those stated earlier were sprayed on plants at the 4.5-leaf stage of
rice cultivar Koshihikari followed by spray inoculation with a suspension of blast spores
(1.0 x 104 spores/ml), leaf blast was significantly suppressed by the antagonist at 5.0 x
107 cfu/ml or higher. The reduction in disease severity was strongly correlated with the
suppression of appressorial formation (r = 0.9374, p<0.01). When a suspension of B.
subtilis IK-1080 was applied to blast disease lesions that had formed on the leaves 14
days after the inoculation with fungal spores, the mean length of the lesions at 7 days
after application of the bacteria (13 mm) did not differ from that of lesions on control
plants without bacteria.
De et al. (2003) observed the antagonistic potential of Trichoderma harzianum and
Gliocladium virens against lentil wilt fungus Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lentis.
Trichoderma harzianum and G. virens showed 43.5 and 47.9% growth inhibition of lentil
wilt fungus respectively. In pots, pre-sowing seed treatment with Pseudomonas
fluorescens and carboxin resulted in 62.3% wilt control. Seed treatment with
carbendazim and thiram and with G. virens, Pseudomonas fluorescens, carboxin in

50
combination were effective in the field conditions in managing 48.8 and 44.2% lentil
wilt, respectively.
Malathi and Doraisamy (2004) evaluated effect of seed priming with Trichoderma on
seed borne infection of Macrophomin aphaseolina and seed quality in groundnut. All the
Trichoderma spp. Including Trichoderma viride, Trichoderma hariznum, Trichoderma
hamatum, T. longibrachiatum, T. koningii and T. pseudokoningii inhibited the pathogen
growth significantly and the maximum antagonistic activity was shown by Trichoderma
harzianum -5. Seed pelleting with Trichoderma spp. protected seeds from M. phaseolina
infection and maximum reduction of infection (79.6%) was also shown by Trichoderma
harzianum –5. It also improved seedling vigour, dry matter production and prevented loss
of oil content up to six months of storage.in combination on crop growth, sheath blight
disease and grain yield in rice. Increased root and shoot lengths, dry weight and plant
height were recorded following treatment of plants with Pseudomonas fluorescens and
Trichoderma viride. Application of Pseudomonas fluorescens and Trichoderma viride
resulted in a significant reduction of disease incidence and was comparable to the
treatment with a systemic fungicide, carbendazim. The number of productive tillers, grain
per panicle and grain test weight were also significantly increased in the treated plots
with commensurate increase in grain and straw yields when compared with control.
Santos et al. (2000) studied the efficacy of fungicides for the control of the main
pathogens of irrigated rice in the field in to cantins, Brazil, during November 1998 March
1999. Most of the fungicides reduced the incidence of neck blast and the best control of
this disease was obtained with tricyclazole alone or in mixtures with
difenoconazol, mancozeb or myclobutanil. The lowest incidence of sheath blitht was
observed with thiofanate methyl mixed with myclobutanil or mancozeb plus tricyclazole.
The lowest incidence and severity of grain spot was observed with tricyclazole as the
firstspray, followed by a mixture of difenoconazol and tricyclazole. Yield was increased
by most of the tested fungicides.

Krishnamurthy et al. (2001) conducted a survey in 7 districts of Karnataka, India, [date

not given], to determine the incidence of brown spot pathogen Drechslera
oryzae [Cochliobolus miyabeanus] in rice cultivars Jyothi, Jaya, IR-64 and IR-20. Hot
water treatments (at 50, 55 and 60 degrees C for 10 minutes), fungicide treatments (with
51
Carbendazim [carbendazim], Hadron and Benlate [benomyl] at 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3g/100 g
seed) and biological control treatments (Trichoderma pseudokoningi, Trichoderma
arzianum and Pseudomonas fluorescence) were evaluated for the control of the pathogen.
Leaf extracts of Azadirachta indica, Clerodendron inermae [ Clerodendrum
inerme], Thuja orientalis, Catharanthus roseus,Tridax procumbens, Coleus
aromaticus [Plectranthus amboinicus], Ruta graviolens and Leucas aspera were also
evaluated for the control of the pathogen. Among the paddy seed samples, cv. Jaya
showed high incidence of Drechslera oryzae. The severity of the pathogen was expressed
in seedling symptoms like yellowing, brown necrosis, spots, streaks and decaying. The
rate of symptom expression was more in artificially coated samples than its
corresponding control. Hot water treatment at 60 degrees C remained the most effective
in suppressing the colonization of Drechslera oryzae. However, 55 degrees C treatment
was found to enhance the seed germination and seedling growth. Of the three fungicides,
Hadron at 0.1% level reduced the incidence of target pathogen and enhanced seed
germination and seedling growth over control. Trichoderma pseudokoningii was found to
be the most useful among the antagonists not only in controlling the incidence
of Drechslera oryzae but also in increasing the percentage of seed germination and
seedling growth over the control. Aqueous leaf extracts of Thuja orientalis proved a
better treatment compared to the other plant extracts for the minimization of Drechslera
oryzae, which in turn enhanced the seed germination and seedling growth compared to
the control treatment.

Krishnamurthy et al. (2001) evaluated fungicides viz., carbendazim, hadron and benlate
at different concentrations and biocides viz., Trichoderma harzianum, Trichoderma
pseudokoningii and Pseudomonas fluorescens as seed treatment in paddy. Carbendazim
and benlate suppressed the establishment of Drechslera oryzae at 0.3% however, hadron
a newly formulated compound @ 0.1% concentration was superior and minimum
occurrence of Drechslera oryzae was found in T. pseudokoningii followed by
Trichoderma harzianum and Pseudomonas fluorescens. However, higher seed
germination (97%) was found in Trichoderma harzianum.
Mathivanan et al. (2005) investigated the effect of talc formulations of Pseudomonas
fluorescens and Trichoderma viride gray applications either alone or in combination on
52
crop growth, sheath blight disease and grain yield in rice. Increased root and shoot
lengths, dry weight and plant height were recorded following treatment of plants with
Pseudomonas fluorescens and Trichoderma viride. Application of Pseudomonas
fluorescens and Trichoderma viride resulted in a significant reduction of disease
incidence and was comparable to the treatment with a systemic fungicide, carbendazim.
The number of productive tillers, grain per panicle and grain test weight were also
significantly increased in the treated plots with commensurate increase in grain and straw
yields when compared with control.
Surulirajan and Kandhari (2005) conducted a study in Delhi, India, to assess the
disease severity, percent disease incidence (PDI) and yield parameters (grain yield, straw
yield and 1000-grain weight) against sheath blight (Rhizoctonia solani) of rice through
different combinations of treatments in the field in 1999-2000 and 2000-01. Treatments
comprised: Trichoderma viride 3235 (Tv3235) spore suspension spray; 0.1%
carbendazim; 1% farmyard manure (FYM); 1% sawdust; Tv3235 + carbendazim; Tv3235
+ FYM; Tv3235 + sawdust; carbendazim + FYM; carbendazim + sawdust; FYM +
sawdust; Tv3235 + carbendazim + FYM; Tv3235 + carbendazim + sawdust; Tv3235 +
FYM + sawdust; carbendazim + FYM + sawdust; Tv3235 + carbendazim + FYM +
sawdust; and an untreated control. Among all the treatments, Tv3235 + carbendazim +
FYM + sawdust showed the maximum reduction in sheath blight severity, PDI and the
highest grain yield over the control.
Khan et al.(2005) evaluated Trichoderma harzianum for its effects on emergence and
vigour of rice seedlings through seed or soil treatments. All doses of T. harzianumin both
the experiments significantly increased seedling emergence, root and shoot length, fresh
and dry weight of root of rice seedlings, as compared to check. Maximum increase in
seedling emergence (44.6796t was observed when bio-agent was applied as soil treatment
with the bio agent @ 8 gm/kg soil bio-agent. There was similar trend of increase in root.
And shoot length, root and shoot weight from soil and seed treatments; higher doses of
the antagonist exhibited maximum increase in seed germination and seedling vigour.
Poudyal et al. (2005) conducted a field study in 2002 and 2003 to determine the effect of
seed treatment and foliar fungicides on Helminthosporium leaf blight (HLB) and
performance of wheat. Pre sown seed infection by the pathogen was determined in a

53
laboratory test. Seed was treated with vitavax 200 B,( Carbendazim) carbendazim in
2002 and carbendazim in 2003. one and two foliar sprays with opus, allegro, horizon and
tilt were tested. Seed treatment were not equally effective. Vitavax 200 B increased
germination by up to 43% in both years and reduced seedling infection by Cochliobolus
sativus in 2003 than other treatments. The foliar fungicides reduced HLB severity and
increased grain yield.
Srinivas and Ramakrishnan. (2005) screened fungal isolates from the native
environment of rhizosphere and phylloplane of rice and reported that six isolates showed
promising efficiency as biological control agents against rice seed borne pathogens in
vitro and in vivo. The biological control agents were able to inhibit mycelial growth and
spore germination of pathogens in vitro. Seed pelleting treatments with Aspergillus
terreus, AF, Penicillium oxalicum, SL and Trichoderma viride resulted in maximum
reduction in the seed infection by Heliminthosporium oryzae [Cochliobolus miyabeanus]
(90.4%). Sarocladium oryzae seed infection was completely reduced by A. fumigatus,
Asp, P. oxalicum, SL8 and Trichoderma viride, while A. terreus, AF2, A. fumigatus, Asp,
P. oxalicum, SL8 and Trichodermaviride completely inhibited Trichoconis padwickii
[Alternaria padwickii] seed infection. Highest control of brown spot incidence was
noticed in Aspergillus terreus, AF treatment with a reduction of 43.5% of disease severity
under field conditions.
Sunder et al. (2005) conducted field experiment in Kaul, Haryana, Indian, during the
2000/01 Kharif season, and observed a significant reduction in both leaf spot and stalk rot
phases of the disease with increase in N fertilizer levels from 0-180 kg/ha. Mancozeb
reduced the leaf spot by 86.2 and 78.7% and stalk rot by 71.5 and 6.35% accompanied
with an increase of 14.6 and 14.2% in grain yield, respectively followed by mancozeb
and edifenphos.
Srinivas et al. (2005) conducted a trial on efficacy of antagonists against different
pathogenic fungi. The biological control agents were able to inhibit mycelial growth and
spore germination of pathogens in vitro. Seed pelleting treatments with Aspergillus
terreus, AF, Penicillium oxalicum, SL and Trichoderma viride resulted in maximum
reduction in the seed infection by Heliminthosporium oryzae [Cochliobolus miyabeanus]
(90.4%). Sarocladium oryzae seed infection was completely reduced by A. fumigatus,

54
Asp, P. oxalicum, SL8 and T. viride, while A. terreus, AF2, A. fumigatus, Asp, P.
oxalicum, SL8 and T. viride completely inhibited Trichoconis padwickii [Alternaria
padwickii] seed infection. Highest control of brown spot incidence was noticed in
Aspergillus terreus, AF treatment with a reduction of 43.5% of disease severity under
field
Biswas et al. (2005) evalueted fungicides for their efficacy to control brown leaf spot
(Drechslera oryzae [Cochliobolus miyabeanus]) and blast (Pyricularia oryzae) diseases
of rice during 2001, 2002 and 2003 in Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India. Thiram 75% WP (at
2.0 g/kg seed) as seed dresser and ziram, Ridomil MZ [mancozeb+metalaxyl] 72% WP,
Companion, Indofil M-45 [mancozeb+thiophanate-methyl] (each at 2.0 kg/ha), Topsin M
[thiophanate-methyl] 70% WP (at 1.5 kg/ha), Fytolan [copper oxychloride] (at 3.0 kg/ha),
Carbendazim [carbendazim] (at 1.0, 0.75 and 0.5 kg/ha) as spray fungicides (3 sprays)
were evaluated. The first spraying was performed after disease initiation and the
subsequent sprayings at 10 days interval. The control plots were sprayed with water only.
The seed treatment with Thiram along with 3 foliar sprays of Ridomil MZ or Companion
was found the best in reducing the disease intensity of brown leaf spot with significant
increase in yield. The seed treatment with Thiram and foliar spray with Container or
Carbendazim (1.0 kg/ha) was found the most effective in reducing the blast disease. Only
the seed treatment was the least effective in controlling both diseases.
Satija et al. (2005) conducted laboratory experiments to determine the effect of different
abiotic inducers of resistance, i.e. Bion 50 WG, beta -amino-n-butyric acid, calcium
chloride, digitonin, methyl salicylate and salicylic acid, against Bipolaris oryzae in rice
cv. PR 116. Digitonin proved significantly superior to the other chemical compounds in
reducing disease severity. Significant interaction was found between the chemical
compound and plant age. Foliar sprays of digitonin at 75 days after transplanting was the
most effective treatment in reducing disease severity. Among the different methods of
application, seed treatment + foliar spray proved to be the best as it resulted in the lowest
disease severity followed by foliar spray alone and seed treatment alone.
Harish et al. (2007a) tested six phylloplane micro-organisms against the virulent isolate
of Helminthosporium oryzae. Among them Cladosporium spp. was very effective in
inhibiting the mycelial growth and spore germination of Helminthosporium oryzae

55
followed by Penicillium spp. and Aspergillus flavus while Bacillus subitlis was least
effective in inhibiting the mycelial growth and spore germination of H. oryzae.
Harish et al. (2007 b) tested eight antagonistic organisms, our oil cakes and fifty plant
extracts against Bipolaris oryzae (breda de haan.), the brown spot pathogen. In- vitro
studies indicated that Trichoderma viride (TV2) was significantly effective in inhibiting
the mycelial growth (62.92%) and spore germination (77.03%) of the brown spot
pathogen followed by Trichoderma harzianum (Th5) and Trichoderma reesei (Tr3).
Biswas et al. (2008) tested bio-agent Trichoderma harzianum, Trichoderma viride,
bioformulation of Pseudomonas fluorescens and Trichoderma harzianum and botanicals
like garlic extract and achook against brown spot and sheath blight pathogens in vitro and
also as seed dresser. In dual culture test, Trichoderma harzianum and its bioformulation
reduced mycelial growth by 55.3%, 58.1% of Drechslera oryzae and 42.7%, 43.0% of
Rhizoctonia solani respectively. The maximum 92% germination was recorded in seed
treatment with bioformulation of Trichoderma harzianum followed by spore suspension
of Trichoderma harzianum (89.3%).
Kumawat et al. (2008) reported that pre-application of spore suspension of bioagents
(Trichoderma harzianum and Trichoderma viride) protected paddy plants against
challenge infection of Drechslera oryzae [Cochliobolus miyabeanus], showing reduction
in disease severity in paddy from 59.21 to 12.40%. Biochemical analysis of treated leaves
showed increased level of total soluble protein exhibited 11.19-85.21% and -10.06-
66.57% and total phenol content from -8.62 to 79.31% and 9.43 to 96.23% over diseased
and healthy plants, respectively. Correlation coefficient between soluble protein and
disease severity showed negative correlation (r=-0.43 to -0.47). Similarly, total phenol
content also showed negative correlation (r=-0.32 to -0.38) with disease severity.
Increased amount of soluble protein and total phenol resulted from the activity of
bioagents indicated their involvement in the induction of host defence in paddy.
Mukhatar (2008) evaluated three species of Trichoderma viz., Trichoderma harzianum,
Trichoderma viride, T. koningii for three potential regulatory effects as seed treatment on
seed germination in okra. Trichoderma harzianum was found to be highly effective in
enhancing the germination. Trichoderma viride and T. koningii were also significantly
effective as compared to control. Okra seeds also gave the highest germination index

56
value with Trichoderma harzianum which confined to better germination. Seed treatment
with Trichoderma harzianum is useful to enhance the germination % of okra seeds as
well as reduce loss due to delayed germination.
Sallam et al. (2008) evaluated the ability of fifteen isolates of Trichoderma spp. isolated
from the Rhizosphere of bean plants to inhibit mycelial growth of Rhizoctonia solani and
Fusaium oxysporum f. sp. phaseoli, the causal agents of damping – off and wilt of bean,
respectively. Trichoderma harzianum (Th 1), Trichoderma viride (Tv 1) and T. spirale
(Ts 3) isolates showed different inhibitory effect against growth of both tested pathogens.
Th 1 and Tv 1 showed the greatest antagonistic effect to the pathogens followed by Ts 3
isolate and also enhanced green yield of bean plants compared to infected control,
especially, Th 1 formulation gave equal green yield compared to healthy control.
Sankarasubramanian et al. (2008) tested fifty plant extracts, four oil cakes and eight
antagonistic organisms against Bipolaris oryzae (Cochliobolus miyabeanus), the causal
agent of brown spot disease of rice. In vitro studies indicated that two leaf extracts,
Nerium oleander and Pithecolobium dulce exerted the higher percent inhibition to
mycelial growth (77.4, 75.1%) and spore germination (80.3, 80.0%) of B. oryzae. Among
the four oil cake extracts tested in vitro against B. oryzae, neem cake extract showed the
maximum inhibition percent to mycelial growth (80.18%) and spore germination
(81.13%) of the pathogen followed by mahua cake extract, castor and gingelly cake
extract. Trichoderma viride (Tv2) was significantly effective in inhibiting the mycelial
growth (62.92%) and spore germination (77.03%) of the pathogen followed by
Trichoderma harzianum (Th5) and Trichoderma reesei (Tr3). The promising leaf
extracts, oil cake extracts and antagonistic microorganisms were further evaluated for
their efficacies in disease management under glasshouse and field conditions. In
glasshouse studies, post-infectional spraying of rice plants with neem cake extract, N.
oleander leaf extract and T. viride (Tv2) was significantly effective in reducing the
incidence of brown spot of rice by 66, 52 and 45 percent respectively. Two rounds of
spraying of rice plants with neem cake extract, N. oleander leaf extract and T. viride
(Tv2) in the field at initial appearance of disease and 15 days later reduced the incidence
of brown spot (70, 53 and 48% disease reduction respectively) and increased the yield by
23, 18 and 15 percent respectively.

57
Singh et al. (2008) conducted a trial on integrated management of leaf blight complex of
wheat caused by Bipolaris sorokiniana and Alternaria triticiana. The treatments used
different doses of NPK fertilizers, seed treatment and foliar sprays of fungicides, neem-
based pesticide and bio-agent Trichoderma harzianum. The foliar sprays with
propiconazole @ 0.1% reduced the disease incidence and increased the grain yield. The
use of neem based pesticide and Trichoderma harzianum was effective in reducing the
disease incidence.
Jeyalakshmi et al. (2010) assessed effect of different methods of application of
Pseudomonas fluorescens (commercial formulation) under direct seeded wet sowing rice
against bacterial leaf blight (Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae) incidence, growth
promotion and yield improvement under field condition. Among the different methods
tried, the combination of seed treatment, soil application and foliar spray with P.
fluorescens recorded the minimum disease incidence of bacterial leaf blight with
maximum yield in comparison with the chemical treatment and control.
Singh et al. (2010) assessed the combined application effect of fungal and bacterial
antagonists (Trichoderma harzianum and Pseudomonas fluorescens-27) applied as
seedling root dip and foliar spray against the sheath blight of rice caused by Rhizoctonia
solani under glass house conditions. Seedling root dip with Trichoderma harzianum +
Pseudomonas fluorescens-27 and foliar spray with Trichoderma harzianum was the most
effective in reducing the disease severity 45.8- 48.0 % and disease incidence (60.1- 61.5
%) followed by seedling root dip with Trichoderma harzianum + Pseudomonas
fluorescens-27 and foliar spray with P. fluorescens-27 which resulted in the reduction of
disease severity (43.0- 43.4%) and disease incidence (56.7-56.9%), respectively. Among
all the integrated treatments, reduction of sheath blight was lowest in combination of
seedling root dip with Trichoderma harzianum + Pseudomonas fluorescens- 27 with
disease severity of (26.9-28.3%) and disease incidence of (31.5-34.7%).
Dehkaei and Mina (2007) tested the effects of 12 antagonistic bacteria which included
Bacillus circulans (6 isolates), B. subtilis (1 isolate), B. megaterium (2 isolates), Bacillus
sp. (1 isolate) and Pseudomonas fluorescens (2 isolates) in controlling rice blast disease
(Pyricularia grisea Sacc.) on a susceptible cultivar (Binam). It was carried out in a
randomized block design with 4 replications in the field for two years. Plants were

58
sprayed with 48-h old culture of each of the bacteria in carboxymethyl cellulose solution
(1g/l) at the first occurrence of rice blast in the field, 15 days after that and heading stage.
Under natural infection the percentage diseased leaf area (DLA%) on each of the leaves
of 25 tillers and panicle blast (%) were scored at 15 days after each bacterial application
and maturity stage, respectively. It was found that at each time of evaluation, some
isolates significantly decreased blast disease in comparison with control, but their effects
were lower than fungicide treatments. More durable control of leaf and panicle blast was
achieved with B. circulans .
Gamal et al. (2007) investigated the mechanisms of action by which T. harzianum
antagonizes Bipolaris oryzae in vitro, and the efficacy of spray application of a spore
suspension of T. harzianum in control of rice brown spot disease under field conditions.
The antagonistic behavior of T. harzianum resulted in the overgrowth of B. oryzae by T.
harzianum, while the antifungal metabolites of T.harzianum completely prevented the
linear growth of B. oryzae. In vitro Light and scanning electron microscope (SEM)
observations showed no evidence that mycoparasitism contributed to the aggressive
nature of the tested isolate of T. harzianum against B. oryzae. Under field conditions,
spraying of a spore suspension of T. harzianum at 108 spore ml−1 significantly reduced the
disease severity (DS) and disease incidence (DI) on the plant leaves, and also
significantly increased the grain yield, total grain carbohydrate, and protein, and led to a
significant increase in the total photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll a and b and
carotenoids) in rice leaves.
Joshi et al. (2007) evaluated efficacy of two antagonists, namely, Trichoderma
harzianum and Pseudomonas fluorescens against brown spot of rice under field
conditions. Three sprays of P. fluorescens (Talc based) at weekly interval @10g/l ,
proved effective in reducing the disease severity and increasing the yield. It reduced the
severity from 35.8 per cent to 24.5 per cent in case of rice variety PR116 and from 20.1
per cent to 8.5 per cent in case of Basmati rice 386.
Dagora et al. (2007) conducted a field experiment in UP, India, during 2003 and 2004
kharif seasons on rice cv. Pusa Basmati-1 for the integrated management of sheath blight
(Rhizoctonia solani) and sheath rot (Sarcocladium oryzae) using Trichoderma viride (2.0,
3.0, 4.0 and 5.0 kg/ha) and validamycin (1.5 and 2.0 litres/ha). Treatment with 5.00 kg

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Trichoderma viride + 2.0 litres validamycin/ha gave the lowest sheath blight and sheath
rot severity, which resulted in the highest crop yield.
Prashant et al. (2007) determined the effect of pre-storage treatment with bio-pesticides
for the control of seed-borne fungi in rice. The seeds were treated with three plant
extracts, one phytochemical, two fungicides (vitavax 200 and carbendazim 50WP) and
two antagonists Trichoderm aharzianum and Aspergillus niger Kalisena SD). Seed
treated with Trichoderma harzianum and kalisena maintained high germination.
Shalini and Kotasthane (2007) conducted in vitro screening of seventeen Trichoderma
strains against Rhizoctonia solani. All strains including Trichoderma harzianum,
Trichoderma viride, and Trichoderma aureoviride inhibited the growth of Rhizoctonia
solani.
Sivalingam et al. (2007) studied efficacy of Trichoderma virens [Gliocladium virens], T.
harzianum , Pseudomonas fluorescens, T. harzianum + P. fluorescens and carbendazim,
applied as seed treatment or seed treatment + seedling root dip (immersion of the roots in
biological control agent and fungicide suspensions at 0.3 and 0.1%, respectively, for 10
minutes before transplanting), against R. solani on rice. All the seed treatments except T.
virens significantly reduced the disease incidence over the control. However,
carbendazim and T. harzianum + P. fluorescens resulted in the lowest disease incidence
(9.0 and 13.1%). Dipping of the roots of seedlings in biological control agent and
fungicide suspensions further reduced the disease incidence, and the treatments were on a
par with regard to efficacy. The biological control agents had significant effects on
seedling shoot dry weight and root dry weight. P. fluorescens and T. harzianum were the
most effective among the treatments in the enhancement of shoot dry weights (92.5 and
91.9 mg vs. 98.4 mg in the control).
Ibiam et al. (2008) evaluated seed-dressing fungicides (carbendazim, benlate, fernasan-
D, apron plus 50 DS and Dithane-M 45) applied as soaking and slurry methods at various
concentration, for the control of seed-borne fungi of rice in vitro. The results obtained
showed that all the fungicides significantly inhibited the seed-borne fungi.
Muthukumar et al. (2008) evaluated four fungal antagonist viz., Trichodermast. (NI),
Trichoderma viride, Trichoderma harzianum and Trichoderma hamatum and four
bacterial antagonists namely Pseudomonas fluorescens-1 (NI), P. fluorescens-2 (NI), P.

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fluorescens (Pf1) and Bacillus subtillis against Pythium aphanidermatum. Among the
fungal antagonists, Trichoderma sp. (NI) showed maximum inhibition of the growth of
pathogen followed by Trichoderma viride. Among bacterial antagonists, Pseudomonas
fluorescens-1showed maximum inhibition followed by Pseudomonas fluorescens-2. seed
treatment with Trichoderma sp. (NI) at 4g in combination with Pseudomonas
fluorescens-1 (NI) @ 10g/kg was found to be superior than all the treatments.
Sallam et al. (2008) evaluated the ability of fifteen isolates of Trichoderma spp. isolated
from the Rhizosphere of bean plants to inhibit mycelial growth of Rhizoctonia solani and
Fusaium oxysporum f. sp. phaseoli, the causal agents of damping – off and wilt of bean,
respectively. Trichoderma harzianum (Th 1), Trichoderma viride (Tv 1) and T. spirale
(Ts 3) isolates showed different inhibitory effect against growth of both tested pathogens.
Th 1 and Tv 1 showed the greatest antagonistic effect to the pathogens followed by Ts 3
isolate and also enhanced green yield of bean plants compared to infected control,
especially, Th 1 formulation gave equal green yield compared to healthy control.
chemical (Carbendazim) reduced disease severity 52% and 50% compared to the control.
Corresponding reductions in disease severity with the bio-pesticides ranged from 22% to
48% in 2005 and from 15% to 31% in 2006. Specifically with PGPR, the disease
reductions ranged from 14% to 38% compared to the control in both years. Grain yields
were assessed at 120 days after transplanting and significantly increased grain yields
(3,901 and 1,938 kg/ha) over control (2,690 and 1,550 kg/ha) were obtained with PGPR
in 2005 and 2006 respectively. the results showed that there is a scope for effective
management of sheath blight disease with the use of the currently available PGPR and
other products that are available under the conditions evaluated.
Mandal and Jha (2008) conducted a field trial in Bihar, India, during kharif 2007 to
determine the effective and economical chemical control of rice blast (Pyricularia
oryzae) and brown spot (Helminthosporium oryzae [Cochliobolus miyabeanus]) of rice.
Thirty-day-old seedlings of scented cultivar BPT-5304 were transplanted and subjected to
the following treatments: T1, farmer's practice (no fungicides); T2, carbendazim at 2 g/kg
seed; T3, carbendazim + one mancozeb spray at 2 g/litre water; T4, carbendazim + one
kasugamycin spray at 1 ml/litre water. All fungicide treatments were effective against
blast and brown spot diseases of rice. Among them, carbendazim + one kasugamycin

61
spray at 1 ml/l water was the most effective treatment, recording the lowest blast disease
severity and incidence in the leaves (9.8% and 23.8%, respectively) and in the panicles
(3.6% and 6.3%, respectively). carbendazim + one kasugamycin spray at 1 ml/litre water.
also recorded the lowest brown spot disease severity and incidence in the leaves (9.3 and
15.0%, respectively) and in the panicles (4.1% and 6.2%, respectively). For both
diseases, carbendazim + one mancozeb spray at 2 g/l water, carbendazim at 2 g/kg seed
and no fungicides treatments, followed in terms of control efficacy. All the treatments
recorded higher yields than the untreated control. Although carbendazim + one
kasugamycin spray at 1 ml/l water had the highest yield (45.46 q/ha), it was at par with
the yield of T3 (43.14 q/ha). The highest cost:benefit ratio was recorded with
carbendazim at 2 g/kg seed treatment (1:11.65) followed by carbendazim + one
kasugamycin spray at 1 ml/litre water (1:8.20). and maximum yield(2.36t/ha).
Biswas et al. (2008) tested bio-agents viz. Trichoderma harzianum, T. viride, bio-
formulation of Pseudomonas fluorescens and T. harzianum and botanicals such as garlic
extract and Achook against brown spot (Drechslera oryzae [Cochliobolus miyabeanus])
and sheath blight pathogens (Rhizoctonia solani) in vitro and also as seed dresser. In dual
culture test, T. harzianum and its bio-formulation reduced mycelial growth by 55.3% and
58.1% in D. oryzae, and 42.7% and 43.0% in Rhizoctonia solani, respectively . Seed
treatment with biocides provided good protection of seeds against seed-borne infection,
resulting in enhanced germination of paddy seeds. Maximum germination (92%) was
recorded in seed treatment with bio-formulation of T. harzianum followed by spore
suspension of T. harzianum (89.3%). The enhanced growth of paddy seedlings has also
been recorded as a result of the effect of seed treatment with biocides. The increase of
21.6 and 21.0% of shoot length and 25.8 and 25.1% of root length over the control was
recorded upon seed treatment with bio-formulation of T. harzianum and P. fluorescens,
respectively.
Pizzatti et al. (2008) evaluated the efficacy of fungicides applied at various rates through
different application methods in Italy. Leaf brown spot generally preceded leaf blast. At
maturity, disease severity in the flag leaf seldom exceeded 10-15%. Panicle blast
incidence reached 100% between the grain set and milk ripeness stages, but the severity
seldom exceeded 5%. Fungicide efficacy against C. miyabeanus on leaves varied

62
considerably (6-67%) with the fungicide, year and application strategy. The lowest
disease incidence was obtained with two treatments of azoxystrohin, or a tank mixture of
fenbuconazole and tricyclazole or iprodione and tricyclazole applied between the hooting
and flowering stages. The same fungicides gave good protection against panicle blast.
The two-treatment phenological strategy was not always superior to the one-treatment
phenological strategy.
Kumar and Rai (2008) evaluated seven fungicides to control brown spot of rice incited
by Drechslera oryzae (Breda de Hann) Subramanian and Jain. Out of seven fungicides
tested, Antracol 75 WP (1.5 g/l) and RIL-FA 200SC (2.5 ml/l) reduced the disease
severity and increased the yield. Among the bio-pesticides, Tricure (5 ml/l), Biotos (2.5
ml/l) and Achook (5 ml/l) were found significantly effective in checking the brown spot
severity and increasing the yield.
Kumawat et al. (2008) evaluated antagonists against Drechslera oryzae in paddy.Pre-
application of spore suspension of bio-agents (Trichoderma harzianum and Trichoderma
viride) protected paddy plants against challenge infection of Drechslera oryzae
[Cochliobolus miyabeanus], showing reduction in disease severity in paddy from 59.21 to
12.40%. Biochemical analysis of treated leaves showed increased level of total soluble
protein exhibited 11.19-85.21% and -10.06-66.57% and total phenol content from -8.62
to 79.31% and 9.43 to 96.23% over diseased and healthy plants, respectively. Correlation
coefficient between soluble protein and disease severity showed negative correlation (r=-
0.43 to -0.47). Similarly, total phenol content also showed negative correlation (r=-0.32
to -0.38) with disease severity. Increased amount of soluble protein and total phenol
resulted from the activity of bio-agents indicated their involvement in the induction of
host defense in paddy.
Karthikeyan and Gnanamanickam(2008) identified the efficient strains of bacterial
antagonists for Magnaporthe grisea through laboratory dual-plate assays. Two bacterial
strains of Pseudomonas fluorescens and two strains of Bacillus were tested against 30
isolates of M. grisea that cause Setaria blast for their inhibition of the fungus. On plates
spread with the fungus mycelium, 12 of the isolates had a zone of inhibition caused by
the bacteria that ranged between 2.5 and 3.0 cm in diameter. In the field trials, the
bacterial strains Pf-52 and KRU-22 suppressed disease by 86.64% and 87.87%

63
respectively, in Setariaitalica line 1, and 86.64% and 83.21% in line 2. The mixture of all
four strains afforded 88.87% (line 1) and 88.80% (line 2) blast suppression and this was
the highest level of biological blast control observed. In addition to disease suppression,
the bacterial strains significantly increased root and shoot length when compared with
untreated plants. Of the four strains, Pf-52, KRU-22 and the mixture of all four strains
showed significant increases of root length of 10.02, 7.44 and 13.29 cm (line 1), and 9.2,
5.7 and 13.11 cm (line 2) in the root growth stage. As in the case of root length, Pf-52,
KRU-22 and the mixture of all four strains showed significant increase of shoot length of
11.38, 10.42 and 11.99 cm (line 1), and 9.87, 11.44 and 12.11 cm (line 2) in the shoot
growth stage.
Gohel et al. (2009) evaluated the efficacy of fungicides, bio-agent and botanicals for the
management of rice blast caused by Pyricularia oryzae Cav., on highly susceptible .
Pankhali. All the spray treatments proved effective and reduce leaf and neck blast
intensity and significantly increased the yield parameters. Among the treatments,
tricyclazole proved significantly superior over rest of the treatments for all the attributes,
viz., leaf blast, neck blast, grain, straw yield and 1000 grain wt. at both the locations and
in pooled analysis. This followed by was Pseudomonas fluorescens but it was at par with
iprobenfos.
Akter et al.(2009) showed that fungicidal trial with rovral 50WP (iprodione) and Tall
25EC (propiconazole) were effective in controlling brown spot in the flag leaf and second
leaf and also reduced percent spotted grain significantly compared to control. Application
of Tall and Rovral reduced the total leaf spot over control by 90.5 and 84.7% in Boro and
85.0 and 80.0% in T. Aman season, respectively. Significant decrease in seed infection
with B. oryzae compared to control was also observed in Rovral treated plots and this was
followed by treatment with Tall. CP-Zim was also reduced the rate of seed infection
significantly over control. From the present results the fungicides Rovral and Tall may be
suggested to recommend for brown spot disease control. Rovral 50WP (iprodione) and
Tall 25EC (propiconazole) showed effective in controlling brown spot in the flag leaf and
second leaf and also reduced percent spotted grain significantly compared to control.
Application of Tall and Rovral reduced the total leaf spot over control by 90.5 and 84.7%
in Boro and 85.0 and 80.0% in T. Aman season, respectively. Significant decrease in seed

64
infection with B. oryzae compared to control was also observed in Rovral treated plots
and this was followed by treatment with Tall. CP-Zim was also reduced the rate of seed
infection significantly over control. From the present results the fungicides Rovral and
Tall may be suggested to recommend for brown spot disease control.
Kumar et al. (2009) conducted field trials during the rainy seasons of 2005 and 2006 in a
randomized block design with three replications to assess the commercially available bio-
pesticide products for their effect on sheath blight. Products evaluated were Achook
(Azadirachtin), Biotos (Plant activator), Tricure (Azadirachtin), Ecomonas (Pseudomonas
fluorescens) and Carbendazim (carbendazim) in 2005 and Biofer (Plant extract), Biotos,
Defender (Plant extract), Ecomonas, Florezen P (P. fluorescens), Trichozen
(Trichoderma viride) and Carbendazim in 2006. Products were applied three times as
foliar sprays after appearance of first symptoms initially and repeated at 10 days interval.
The disease severity was measured by adopting Highest Relative Lesion Height (HRLH)
at 90 days after transplanting. The
Sunder et al. (2010) evaluated six fungicides and reported that propiconazole (1 ml/l)
and hexaconazole (2 ml/l) proved most effective and reduced the leaf spot severity from
22.34 per cent to 5.19 & 7.98 per cent and stalk rot incidence from 51.13 per cent to
26.02 & 30.04 per cent, respectively alongwith significant increase in grain yield of rice.
Amongst 10 botanicals, Neemazal (3 ml/l) and Wanis (5 ml/l) provided about 26 per cent
reduction in leaf spot phase, and Neemgold, Achook, Tricure, Thuja leaves and garlic
cloves reduced stalk rot incidence by 16 to 19 per cent. Among nine non-conventional
chemicals, ferric chloride, sodium salenate and nickel nitrate reduced both the phases of
the disease considerably but the latter two chemicals had some phytotoxic effect on
leaves.
Chinmay et al. (2010) evaluated bio-agents, botanicals and chemicals against brown spot
of paddy.The pre-treatment with Trichoderma viride, T. hazianum, hydrogen peroxide,
calcium chloride, K 2 HPO 4 and leaf extracts of neem and datura reduced the number of
brown spot lesions per leaf as well as the per cent disease index. The reduction of disease
severity was highest by T. harzianum (70.8%) followed by T. viride (68.8%), calcium
chloride (67.1%), K 2 HPO 4 (64.5%), datura (61.7%), hydrogen peroxide (53.5%) and
neem (41.2%). With reduction of disease severity the inducer treatments also promoted

65
the crop growth. In 30 days old rice plants, the shoot length was increased by 31.5-
75.7per cent and the root length by 33.2-7 per centover the diseased check by different
inducer treatments.
Gomathinayagam et al.(2010) evaluated the efficacy of existing bio-control strains T.
viride for controlling paddy disease brown spot under in vitro conditions. They found the
significant growth and variation of pathogen and biological control agent in different
temperatures. The pathogen growth showing in different temperature from 25 o C to 34o C,
the dry weight of mycelium 1.0 mg to 7.6 mg in respectively. The bio-control agent
growth showing in different temperature from 25 o C to 34o C, the dry weight of mycelium
1.2 mg to 8.9 mg in respectively. The pathogen growth showing in different pH from 4.5
to7.5, the dry weight of mycelium 0.9 mg to 6.8 mg respectively. The biocontrol agent
growth showing in different pH from 4.5 to 7.5, the dry weight of mycelium 0.8 mg to
7.8.mg in respectively. The antagonistic growth of the pathogen Bipolaris oryzae against
Trichoderma harzianum shows that growth is maximum on third day (4.0 cm) and
diminished on sixth day (1.7 cm) and ninth day (0.6 mm).
Chaudhari et al. (2010) evaluated six selected homoeopathic drugs against brown leaf
spot of rice. Calcarea carb 30 was most effective in reducing brown leaf spot and was
statistically at par with Tecurium 30 but was significantly superior to the rest of the
homoeopathic drugs.
Tran. (2010) conducted surveys on food crops, industrial crops, vegetable crops and fruit
crops in the north and south of Vietnam and reported that Trichoderma are common and
can be isolated easily from soil, root and plant organic matters. Trichoderma viride, T.
harzianum, T. hamatum were predominant species in Viet nam. Laboratory and field
trials in Vietnam also proved that Trichoderma species had ability to suppress growth of
fungal plant pathogens and enhance plant growth and development. Experiments
conducted on several crops such as: peanut, tomato, cucumber and durian indicate that
selected Trichoderma strains could reduce significantly diseases caused by fungal
pathogens including: Phytophthora palmivora, Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium spp.,
Sclerotium rolfsii and Pythium spp. The efficacy of Trichodermaspecies on soil borne
fungal disease is higher than fungicides and maintain longer. The value obtained through
development, exploitation and use of Trichoderma products are not only plant disease

66
control but also gave the local people opportunities to reduce health risks, costs and
environmental damage due to over fungicide usages. Moreover, crop treated with
Trichoderma grown better and had higher yields to compare with the one without
application. There have been extensive efforts to commercial Trichoderma products for
managing plant diseases in the field in Vietnam.
Pandey et al. (2011) conducted experiment on the efficacy of bio-agents brown spot in
paddy. The potentiality of bio-agents viz.Trichoderma harzianum (Delhi), T. hazianum
(Kanpur), T. viride (Delhi), T. viride (Kanpur).G. virens (K), T. hamatium (K) against
Drechslera oryzae inhibited the growth of Drechslera oryzae. Maximum reduction
(98.8%) was recorded in T. harzianum (Delhi) isolate followed by T. harzianum (Kanpur)
(94.6%). Treatment of rice seeds with spore suspension of T. harzianum (Delhi) proved
significantly superior in enhancing the maximum shoot length and root length at 30 days
of seedlings. The foliar spray with crude extract of bio-agents were competence enough
to reduce the number of lesion from 13.49 to 3.15. Disease severity was varied
significantly from 14.1-58. Per cent in different treatments.
Singh et al. (2011) experimented with biological control agent and fungicides against
brown spot of paddy.The treatments comprised Tilt 25EC (propiconazole) at 1.4 kg/ha,
Contaf 5EC (hexaconazole) at 5 kg/ha, thiram 75WP at 13 g/m2 , Trichoderma harzianum
at 10 kg/ha, T. viride at 10 kg/ha and Pseudomonas fluorescens at 10 kg/ha. The disease
intensity, shoot length, root length, number of tillers and yield were recorded. Results
showed that all the treatments were significantly effective in reducing the disease
intensity when compared to the control. T. harzianum was the most effective in reducing
the disease intensity, followed by thiram.
Kalaiselvi et al. (2011) conducted trial on effect of antagonist against Sarocladium
oryzae. The test organisms were isolated from the paddy field where the disease
occurred. Results revealed that all the test antagonists effectively checked the growth of
the pathogen. The test antagonists grow faster than the pathogen and produced inhibition
zones thereby limiting the growth of the pathogen. In solid medium, Trichoderma
harizanum was the most antagonistic organism under the conditions of this study. The
culture filtrates of the test fungi also inhibited the growth of Sarocladium oryzae with
Trichoderma harizanum showing the highest percentage inhibition (79%) and T.viride

67
and T.lignorum(78%). T.harizanum culture filtrate showed the highest percentage growth
inhibition at 15 per cent concentration in Sarocladium oryzae while T.virideand
T.lignorum filtrates showed inhibition, at 25 per cent respectively
Anitha and Das (2011) observed the antagonistic activity of Trichoderma isolates
against Rhizoctonia solani. Biological control and hormonal inducers represents an
interesting strategy against pathogen especially when applied together. Rice plants
infected with R. solaniwere treated with bio-control agents along with arbuscular
mycorrhizal (AM) fungi and/or sprayed with hormonal inducers (Salicylic acid). Plants
were harvested on 14 and 28 days after pathogen infection growth rate of the plant was
measured. Plants treated with bio-control agents, alone showed moderate growth.
Likewise VAM alone treated plants showed very good result whereas combination of
VAM and salicylic acid did not show considerable growth response. Bio-control agents
Trichoderma and P. fluorescens when applied along with salicylic acid showed
appraisable increase in the biometric parameters in rice against R. solaniand decrease the
percentage of rate of infection compared with control and other treatments.
Ambikapathy et al. (2011) evaluated the efficacy of bio-control agents against the
pathogen Bipolaris oryzae and reported that if varied in its sensitivity to the metabolic
growth products of antagonistic fungi. In vitro screening using the dual culture technique
was undertaken to assess the potential of nine fungal species such as Aspergillus niger, A.
fumigatus, A. flavus, Penicillium chrysogenum, Trichoderma viride, T. harzianum as
biological control agents against Brown spot fungus Bipolaris oryzae. Result revealed
that all the test antagonists effectively checked the growth of pathogen.The test
antagonists grow faster than the pathogen and produced inhibition zones there by limiting
the growth of the pathogen has been discussed.

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