Professional Documents
Culture Documents
AM Antenna Systems PDF
AM Antenna Systems PDF
W.C. Alexander
Director of Engineering
Crawford Broadcasting Company
We’ll look at both of these in more detail used internationally, the reason for this
later. The efficiency of a non-directional having to do with treaties that predate the
AM antenna is expressed in millivolts per adoption of the current set of US
meter at one kilometer (mV/m/km), and this groundwave curves.
figure is referred to as the inverse distance We previously mentioned the
field or IDF. efficiency expressed as the inverse distance
Another factor that influences the field of a non-directional antenna. You have
amount of signal received at a particular probably already figured out that the
point is attenuation. Over perfectly conductivity of the ground in the region
conducting earth, the amount of signal between the antenna itself and the receive
received at a distance would be inversely point 1 km away will cause the field
proportional to the distance from the strength at that point to be attenuated below
transmit antenna. This relationship is known what it would be over perfectly conductive
as the inverse distance rule. For example, if earth. How, then, can one accurately
at a distance of 1 km a field strength of 100 measure the efficiency of an antenna? The
mV/m is present, at 2 km the field strength answer is with many measurements taken
would be 50 mV/m. At 4 km, the field radially, beginning very close to the antenna
strength would be 25 mV/m, and at 8 km it (usually at the point where the first on-scale
would be 12.5 mV/m. If you were to graph reading can be taken). The very close-in
this relationship as field strength versus measurements establish the unattenuated
distance on log-log graph paper, it would IDF while measurements farther away from
plot as a straight diagonal line. the antenna establish the conductivity of the
In the real world, the earth is not ground between the antenna and the last
perfectly conductive. Ground conductivity point measured.
varies from very good (seawater) to very
poor (rock and certain soils). The more 2.0 Non-Directional Antennas
conductive the ground is, the less a signal Non-directional antennas can come
from an AM antenna will be attenuated and in several forms, but by and large these are
the more the field strength versus distance simple vertical radiators. One type is base
plot will resemble the inverse distance line. insulated and series-fed; the other is
Over ground that is less conductive, the grounded base and shunt fed. We’ll look at
more a signal from an AM antenna will be both these types in detail later.
attenuated and the more the field strength Ideally, the electrical length of an
versus distance plot will curve away from AM antenna will be 90 electrical degrees
the inverse distance line. (1/4 wavelength) or more. Antennas of this
A family of groundwave curves is length provide adequate efficiency and
published by the FCC for each group of bandwidth. Sometimes, though, aeronautical
frequencies, showing the effects of different or structural considerations force
ground conductivities. These curves are the broadcasters to use shorter towers. The
basis for predicting distance to a field apparent electrical length of short towers
strength and thus the entire US allocation can be increased through the use of top
system. A slightly different set of curves is loading. Top loading increases the
AM Antenna Systems Alexander/3
capacitance to ground, and is usually signal radiated above the horizon. While
achieved through use of a top hat (a flat, such an antenna may appear to be more
horizontal disk attached to the top of the efficient than a shorter, non-sectionalized
tower) or using bonded guy wires. antenna, the spherical (total) radiation in
Because of mechanical both antennas will be the same for a given
considerations, the use of top hats is not as amount of input power, assuming all losses
common as other methods. The top hat must are the same. Sectionalization simply puts
usually support its own weight and the signal where it is needed, toward the
withstand wind, ice and other environmental horizon, in much the same manner as a
hazards unsupported, so top hat size (and multi-bay FM antenna achieves antenna
thus effectiveness) is limited. “gain.”
By far, the most common method of
top loading is through use of bonded guy 3.0 Current Distribution
wires. This method uses sections of guy An insulated, non-top loaded tower
wires bonded to the top of the tower that are will typically have a current loop (or
usually bonded above the first insulators to maximum) 90 electrical degrees down from
adjacent guy wires. Often, other non- the top of the tower. If the tower is shorter
structural guys are added and bonded to than 90° long, the current loop will occur at
structural guys to increase the effectiveness the tower base. Current distribution on a
of the top loading. It is not unusual to see six single, insulated, uniform cross-section
or more guy wires bonded together in a radiator will be more or less sinusoidal in
“spider web” fashion in a top loading nature and is approximately defined as
arrangement. follows:
The advantages of top loading are
increased base resistance, reduced base i A = I A sin(G − y )
capacitive reactance, lower Q and improved
bandwidth. While all this sounds very where: iA = current in amperes at height y
attractive, it is almost always better to IA = Maximum current in amperes
achieve these qualities with increased tower G = Tower height in degrees
height rather than top loading. y = height in degrees of current
Sectionalization is a method of element
increasing the groundwave efficiency of a
vertical radiator, improving groundwave There is always a current node (or
performance and reducing skywave minimum) and voltage loop at the top of any
radiation. In a sectionalized tower, an tower that does not employ top loading. As
insulator is placed near the center of an we move down the tower, the voltage will
electrically long radiator and a network is decrease and the current will increase in an
placed between the sections. In simple approximately sinusoidal fashion until a
terms, the current in the upper section can be current loop and voltage node occur at the
adjusted to be in phase with the signal in the point 90° below the top of the tower, if the
lower section, thus focusing the signal tower is greater than 90° tall, or at the tower
radiated toward the horizon and reducing the base if it is shorter than 90°. At the point
AM Antenna Systems Alexander/4
where the voltage or current nodes occur, insulated bracket/handle so that all
the voltage or current does not pass through measurements can be made with the loop the
zero but rather reach minimum values and same distance from the tower leg.
shift approximately 180° in phase in
traversing the node region. On a tall tower 4.0 Vertical Radiation Characteristics
(greater than 180°), more than one node will Generally speaking groundwave
occur along the tower’s length. radiation (and apparent efficiency) from a
Many things influence current vertical radiator will increase as the current
distribution on a tower. Cross-section, loop moves up from the base. The optimum
uniformity, and nearby conductors are electrical length of a vertical radiator is 225°
among a few of these. In some cases (which or 5/8 wavelength. At this electrical length,
we will explore in detail in the future), there current loops is occur at 45 and 135 degrees
are actually two currents flowing on a above the base. Radiation on the horizon is
particular frequency on a tower — the maximized and radiation above the horizon
current that contributes to radiation and the is minimized.
current that is induced from another nearby Shorter towers have more radiation
radiator. This is the norm in directional above the horizon and thus produce more
arrays, where a tower will have current flow skywave radiation and less groundwave
from its own excitation and current flow radiation. Towers considerably shorter than
from radiation arriving from other elements 90° produce so much radiation above the
in the array. The current distribution on horizon that much of the power is wasted
towers such as these is sometimes hard to into space. Nighttime power is usually much
predict using conventional methods. more limited when using an electrically
For most purposes, we assume short radiator, although considerably more
sinusoidal current distribution on a radiator, daytime power may be allowed as a result of
and it usually works fairly well. Modern the reduced groundwave efficiency.
computer modeling using moment method The vertical radiation characteristic
analysis can, however, do an excellent job of of a vertical radiator that is not top loaded or
predicting the current flow and distribution sectionalized, or the function of theta, is
on a radiator and this gives the designer a defined as follows:
much better picture of what is happening.
Knowing the current distribution is cos(G sin θ ) − cos G
f (θ ) =
important to the vertical radiation (1 − cos G ) cos θ
characteristics of an antenna. Knowing
where the current loop is on an antenna is
essential when detuning a radiator for the
purpose of eliminating reradiation.
Occasionally, it is beneficial to where:
measure the current distribution on a tower. f(θ) = function of theta
To do this, a small sample loop is G = height of the antenna in
constructed out of copper tubing or degrees
aluminum angle and fitted with some sort of θ = vertical angle
AM Antenna Systems Alexander/5
sin ∆ [cos B cos( A sin θ ) − cos G ] + sin B [cos D cos (C sin θ ) − sin θ sin D sin (C sin θ ) − cos ∆ cos ( A sin θ )]
f (θ ) =
cos θ [sin ∆ (cos B − cos G ) + sin B (cos D − cos ∆ )]
where: A = the physical height, in electrical degrees, of the lower section of the tower
B = the difference between the apparent electrical height (based on current
distribution) of the lower section of the tower and the physical height of the lower
section of the tower
C = the physical height of the entire tower, in electrical degrees
D = the difference between the apparent electrical height of the tower (based on
current distribution of the upper section) and the physical height of the entire
tower. D will be zero if the sectionalized tower is not top loaded.
G = the sum of A and B (A + B)
H = the sum of C and D (C+D)
∆ = the difference between H and A (H-A)
By way of example, if we have a towers are fed across the base insulator. This
sectionalized tower that has a lower section type of tower is said to be series fed, since
that is 120 electrical degrees tall (A) and the the excitation is, in essence, fed in series
current distribution makes the lower section with the tower base.
seem as if it is 20 degrees taller than that Occasionally, it is advantageous to
(B), the overall height is 220 electrical use a grounded base tower as an AM
degrees tall (C) and top loading of the upper radiator. Such circumstances may include
section results in current distribution that mounting of an FM or other antenna on the
makes the tower seem as if it is 15 degrees tower, use of an existing grounded-base
taller (D) and we want to find the function tower for AM or, from time to time,
of theta for a vertical angle of 30 degrees, proximity of the tower base to a populated
the above formula yields 0.593. This building or structure. In these cases, it is
formula is, obviously, quite cumbersome possible to use a grounded base tower with
and difficult to solve using a pocket good results as an AM radiator if the guy
calculator and paper. However, it lends itself wires are all insulated.
easily to codifying into computer language The base impedance of a grounded-
or a programmable calculator. base tower is essentially zero, but that
impedance rises with height above the base.
5.0 Insulated and Grounded Towers At some location up the tower (assuming it
By and large, the vast majority of is of adequate height), a point will exist that
AM antennas consist of insulated base will provide an acceptable feed impedance.
towers. Almost all directional arrays use The easiest way to feed a grounded base
insulated base towers. There are several tower is with a slant wire, which is attached
advantages to using an insulated base tower, at the aforementioned point and returns to
chief of which is control of the current the transmitter building at an angle
distribution on the tower. Insulated base approaching 45 degrees. This forms what is
AM Antenna Systems Alexander/7
essentially half of a “delta” match. The tower base, and this is where the excitation
location of the best attachment point for the is applied. This type of grounded base
slant wire is usually determined by a cut- antenna is called a folded monopole.
and-try method, although experience on the The skirt wire conductors form the
part of the field engineer and modern outer conductor of a transmission line. Were
computer modeling techniques can point to the short located at the quarter-wave point, it
a starting point that should be close to the would transform the short at that end to an
desired impedance. In most situations, if the open at the other end, creating a virtual base
feedpoint is properly selected, the only insulator at the bottom of the tower. By
matching needed will be a series capacitor to adjusting the location of the short between
cancel out the inductive reactance of the the skirt wires and the tower, the impedance
slant wire. at the feed point can be adjusted to a
Because the excitation in a slant wire favorable value. This arrangement forms
fed grounded base tower is shunted across what is essentially a “gamma” match.
the grounded tower base, this type of Current flow in a folded monopole is
antenna is said to be shunt fed. The current up on the skirt wires and down on the tower
flow is up the slant wire and then on up the structure. Such antennas perform much like
tower to the top, where a current node and base insulated towers. Radiation current
voltage loop will exist. Some current, flows up the skirt wires to the tower and
however, also flows down the tower from then on up to the top of the tower, where a
the slant wire feed point and contributes to current node and voltage loop will exist.
radiation. Because there are two radiated
fields below the feedpoint (one from the 6.0 Base Impedance
slant wire and the other from the tower The base impedance of an
below the feedpoint), some suppression of insulated-base tower is determined primarily
radiation occurs, usually on the side of the by the electrical length of the antenna, cross-
tower where the slant wire is located. section, the extent of the ground system and
Seldom is this a problem, however, and the the elevation of the feed point above ground.
antenna is still considered to be a non- Short towers have much lower base
directional radiator. resistance, and the reactance becomes quite
Another way to feed a grounded base capacitive. When base resistance is quite
tower is to mount an insulated skirt on it low, the fixed ground loss of one to three
consisting of three or more wires suspended ohms becomes a significant part of the
off the tower on insulators and parallel to radiation resistance of the antenna. This, in
the length of the tower. The skirt wires are part, is the reason that short towers are less
bonded together at the top of the tower and efficient than tall towers.
then bonded to the tower itself at a point that Taller towers have higher base
produces a desired driving point resistance, and at some point (usually
impedance, usually somewhere below the around 80 electrical degrees), the reactance
90 degree point (0.15 wavelengths is a crosses over and becomes inductive. There
common location for this bond). The skirt is some benefit to selecting a radiator with
wires are also bonded together near the close to a zero reactive component in its
AM Antenna Systems Alexander/8
base impedance when designing an antenna system as is commonly used in one form or
system. Empirical tower base impedance another in all AM broadcast antenna
data is available and published in many systems.
places, both in tabular and graph format. While it is certainly possible to use
Through the use of moment method materials other than copper in a ground
computer modeling, the base impedance of system, copper is by far the best
many different tower configurations can be compromise for both performance,
accurately predicted. This is particularly durability and economy. Copper is used
useful with tapered or free-standing towers, almost exclusively for this application, so
where the cross-section is great and the for the remainder of this discussion, we will
parallel capacitance of multiple base assume bare, soft-drawn copper wire to be
insulators is significant. the material of choice.
In grounded-base shunt-fed towers,
the feed point impedance is more dependent 7.1 Ground Currents
on feed point location. Since this is usually Did you ever wonder what was the
at least to a degree within the control of the return path for all that current flowing in
user, a desirable base impedance can often your AM tower? These currents leave the
be obtained. This impedance often has a antenna as displacement currents, flow
relatively large reactive component; the through space and finally into the ground, at
resulting Q is usually higher and bandwidth which point they become conduction
lower than that of an insulated tower of the currents. Due to skin effect, these currents
same height. usually flow very close to the surface as
they flow radially back to the antenna base.
7.0 Ground Systems With copper ground radials in place,
Beneath every AM antenna system is the ground current is made up of two parts:
a ground system (or at least there is One part of this current flows through the
supposed to be). The ground system is every earth itself; the remainder flows in the
bit as important to the operation of an AM buried wires. This can generally be viewed
antenna as the tower that is the vertical as a parallel resistive circuit. As the ground
radiator. current flows inward through the ground or
Without a copper (or otherwise the wire toward the antenna base, it is
conductive) ground system, the losses in a continually added to by additional
vertical AM antenna are very high. These displacement currents from the antenna that
losses are largely due to the conduction of are flowing into the ground. Because these
currents through the earth, which at best has additional currents differ in phase from the
a high resistance. By placing a number of components already flowing in the ground
wires in the earth from near the tower base and buried wires, the ground currents do not
to radial points some distance away, we necessarily increase.
provide a relatively low resistance path for
the ground currents to return to the ground 7.2 Ground Losses
in the vicinity of the tower base. These It has been established through
radial wires make up the classic ground studies and years of experience with such
AM Antenna Systems Alexander/9
some sort is needed directly across the tower is cut and the wire end is pushed back into
base insulator to provide a path for such the furrow.
lightning currents. Gaps of this sort most In this manner, the actual installation
often consist of two horizontally separated of a radial ground system can proceed quite
galvanized steel balls, with an air gap rapidly. A typical crew can install a full 120-
between them, located just below the base radial system for a single tower in about one
plate of the tower. “Horn” type gaps are day, assuming a clean site and that all the
used in other installations, and from time to surveying/marking of the radial endpoints
time, a “needle” gap is used. Both the ball has been done.
and horn type gaps are of a design where It is important for the engineer in
any arc across the elements is self- charge of the construction and maintenance
extinguishing. As the sustained arc climbs of a station to observe the installation of the
farther and farther out on the gap, the ground system. As we have previously
spacing gradually increases until a point is established, the performance of an AM
reached where the voltage across the gap is antenna system is directly related to the
less than the breakdown voltage of the air condition of the ground system. Mistakes
between the points where the arc is made in the installation process will be
occurring. When that point is reached, the around long after the installation crew is
arc is extinguished. gone and the performance of the station will
Gap spacing is usually set by trial suffer as a result.
and error, but a starting point can be The selection of a ground system
calculated. The installation, maintenance installation crew should be made carefully
and adjustment of spark gaps will be dealt and not necessarily be based upon the lowest
with in a later chapter. bid. Choose a reputable contractor with
good (and recent) references. Carefully
review the amount of materials needed and
7.6 Ground System Installation keep track of the material as it is used in the
Ground radials are usually installed installation. Copper wire, screen and strap
by use of a specially adapted plow. Such are costly and can disappear quickly from a
implements are equipped with a spindle for site. Spot check individual radials by
the spool of wire and a tube or conduit that digging into the furrow and locating the
conveys the wire from the spool to a point wire. More than once, such spot checks have
beneath the surface just behind the plow revealed an empty furrow.
blade. The end of each radial is secured to At the tower base, the ends of the
the copper strap or ring of copper tubing at ground radials are terminated into a copper
the tower base and then the plow blade is strap or piece of heavy copper tubing. One
lowered into the ground at a point ten feet or method is to build a square frame around the
less from the tower base. It is then pulled tower base pier out of wooden two-by-fours,
radially away from the tower to the desired then to lay a length of four-inch copper strap
radial endpoint previously established by over the wood. A galvanized roofing nail is
survey and marked with a stake. When that then partially driven into the wood through
point is reached, the plow is raised, the wire the copper strap for each radial, and the end
AM Antenna Systems Alexander/12
of the radial is wrapped around the nail. Many installations use a copper strap
Once all of the radials are plowed in, the from every tower to every other tower and
radial ends are silver-soldered to the copper to the transmitter building ground system.
strap and the nails are either removed or While there is nothing wrong with doing
driven all the way in. The straps from the this, it is generally redundant and
underside of the tower base insulator are unnecessary. The outer jacket of the
also silver soldered to this strap. transmission line feeding each tower serves
It is important to insure that silver well as a ground strap between the tower
solder, not tin/lead solder, is used where and transmitter building or phasor. There is
making bonds in a ground system. It will no real reason to connect the tower bases
quickly deteriorate if buried, and the together with a strap, as the ground currents
mechanical strength of tin/lead solder joints are carried adequately by the radials and the
is inferior to that of silver soldered joints. ground itself.
Another method calls for a piece of
one-inch diameter copper tubing shaped into 7.61 Special Circumstances
a circle around the tower base pier with the What happens when a special
two ends silver soldered together. The circumstance exists at a site that does not
individual radial ends are wrapped one time permit a “conventional” ground system to be
each around the tubing and silver soldered installed? Where there is a will, there’s a
into place. way, and there are just about as many
If the installation uses short, variations on the basic ground system
interspersed radials close in, the ends of scheme as there are engineers. Some of
these radials are attached to the strap or these variations are quite creative.
tubing in the same manner. Where a copper Many AM transmitter sites are
screen is used, the individual pieces are laid located in flood planes or flood prone areas.
out on top of the ground, cut to the proper In these cases, the transmitter building,
size and shape and silver soldered together tuning houses and tower base insulators are
and to the strap or tubing. Where a screen is often elevated so that the highest predicted
used, it is best to cover it with large gravel level of flood water will not reach the
to a depth of at least two inches to protect buildings or base insulators. In these
and secure it. Pea gravel can be used, but a circumstances, the buried radial ground
typical copperweld screen is likely to system is still used, but the ground screen or
eventually work itself up through small interspersed short radials are mounted on a
gravel and become exposed in places. counterpoise at base insulator level. A
Typically, large gravel is less expensive frame of some sort is usually constructed in
than pea gravel, so it is a better choice for a hexagon or octagon shape with a 20 - 25
more than one reason. foot radius, and the screen or short radials
Where radials intersect a transverse are installed from a strap or tubing ring
strap, they should be cut to length and below the base insulator to the edges of the
bonded to the strap by silver soldering. counterpoise. The outer edges of the
Strap intersections should be secured counterpoise are lined with copper strap, and
mechanically and then silver soldered. the edges of the screen or the ends of the
AM Antenna Systems Alexander/13
short radials are silver soldered to this strap. that go into the creation of a successful
A copper strap is then run down each cathodic protection system are well outside
support leg of the counterpoise to ground the realm of broadcast engineering.
level, where it is bonded to the buried In other installations, it may be
ground system, which has been installed in a necessary to extend a ground system across
normal manner below the tower base pier or a creek, river or canal. Unless the waterway
support pylon. A set of ground straps can be lined and capped, it is usually not
(usually three or four) is run from the inner advisable to string ground radials across the
ring of the counterpoise down the tower top. Plowing radials in through the bed of
support pylon to join the inner ring of the the waterway is likewise inadvisable.
buried ground system. In the same manner, a Flooding, dredging, erosion and the like are
number of large gauge wires (0 AWG or prone to displace the radials and damage or
larger) should be run from the bottom side destroy that part of the ground system.
of the spark gap to the ground rod array A very effective way to cross a small
around the base pier or pylon for lightning waterway is to install a strap, usually four
protection. inches in width, along and parallel to either
It is important to note that if the side of the waterway. All the radials that
counterpoise support frame is constructed of intersect this strap should be trimmed to
a conductive material, cathodic protection length and silver soldered to the strap in the
must be used to protect it. Cathodic same manner as with a transverse strap. On
protection is a method of inducing a the side of the waterway opposite from the
negative DC current into a metal object that tower(s), the radials start at the parallel strap
is in contact with the ground or another and continue to their full length. Then, in at
conductive object, thereby preventing least three evenly spaced locations, a large
corrosion. In the case of a steel frame strap is connected across the waterway to
counterpoise without cathodic protection, each parallel strap, This strap, which is at
corrosion of the frame will eventually take least six inches wide, is then buried a safe
place, both below the ground and at the depth beneath the waterway invert (usually
points where the copper ground material at least three feet).
contacts the steel of the frame. If cathodic
protection is used, it may be worthwhile to 7.7 Deterioration and Damage
use insulated rather than bare copper wire in The ground system is often blamed
the buried portion of the ground system. for signal problems. Since it is out of sight
Were bare wire to be used, a good part of and somewhat difficult to observe in place,
the cathodic protection current would flow it is easy for station personnel to assume that
in the copper ground radials and not in the there must be something wrong with it when
steel where it is needed, thus reducing the coverage is not what it should be.
effectiveness of the cathodic protection. The truth of the matter is that a
Should you find that the situation properly installed and buried ground system
may call for cathodic protection, it is wise to will last many, many years. Except in the
retain an engineering firm that specializes in most extreme circumstances, a buried
such systems. The variables and calculations ground system will not deteriorate
AM Antenna Systems Alexander/14
appreciably in place. Stations that have been careful inspection of the antenna site
in place for fifty or more years have property should be made. The condition and
operated with the original ground system integrity of the ground system should be
without difficulty. Spot checks of radials checked by use of a field strength meter or
have revealed them to be in excellent metal detector if damage is suspected.
condition. It is a good idea to periodically
The biggest dangers to buried ground inspect the ends of the radials where they
systems are damage from construction or connect to the base strap or ring to be
acts of God and vandalism/theft. A certain that they have not been burned open
construction company installing a pipeline, by lightning. Periodically check the
sewer, or underground cable across an AM lightning ground wires and connections as
station’s site property can cut many radials well, particularly at the beginning and end
and cause significant damage. When the of the thunderstorm season.
ditch is filled back in, it may well become Vandalism and theft are perhaps the
impossible to locate the cut ends of the most common dangers to a buried ground
radials and the more economic fix may be to system. Copper is valuable, and a
plow in new radials in those directions. It determined thief can rip an entire ground
may be impossible to avoid having the system out in a matter of hours. He may not
construction work take place across the get more than $500 from the scrap value of
property, but with careful planning and the copper, but the cost to replace the system
supervision, the cut radials can be spliced can exceed $50,000.
before the ditch is filled in. The result will Perhaps the best way to protect a
be no reduction in effectiveness of the ground system from thieves and vandals is
system. to keep it properly buried. “Out of sight, out
Acts of God present a more difficult of mind” is a maxim to remember in
picture. Erosion, floods, earthquakes and the protecting your ground system. If thieves do
like are usually beyond our ability to predict not know the buried copper is there, they
accurately, and they can leave a ground will be unlikely to look underground for it.
system uncovered and exposed. An ounce of Good overall site fencing is important, and
prevention is the best medicine in cases nothing can substitute for good relations
where such calamities are likely. Radials can with site neighbors. Keep that in mind when
be plowed in deeper, for example, to prevent the farmer next door complains about station
them from becoming unearthed in a flood or audio in his telephone. Fix or replace his
from erosion. At some antenna sites where phone and enlist him to help you keep an
erosion is a constant problem, a tractor with eye on the site.
several implements is kept at the site and
used to keep the ground system covered. 7.8 Shared Site Use
Constant vigilance is necessary in such More and more, AM antenna site
cases. Even a short length of radial that property is becoming too valuable to use as
becomes exposed can easily be broken or only an AM antenna site. Open real estate is
further unearthed by wildlife or livestock. scarce in many locations, and the big, open
Following a flood or earthquake, a field with the tower on it is often very
AM Antenna Systems Alexander/15
field at any point is the vector sum of the from the northern tower. This results in
individual element radiation components. complete cancellation of the fields from the
In locations where the fields from two elements.
the various elements are in phase with one Now let’s consider the same array
another, the fields add; where they are out of but move our observation point to a location
phase, they subtract. In most locations, the due south of the array. At this observation
fields are not perfectly in or out of phase, point, equal fields will arrive from each of
and in the case of arrays the two elements,
with more than two but because the
elements, there is a southern element is
combination of addition 90 degrees closer,
and cancellation at most its field will arrive
points. 90 degrees ahead of
Let’s consider a the field from the
simple two-tower northern tower (90
directional array. Let’s degree leading
assume our array’s space phasing).
elements are spaced 90 Since the current
degrees apart on a north- Figure 1 fed to the southern
south bearing, and that the elements are element is delayed by 90 degrees, that
driven with equal currents (1.0 ratio) with cancels the 90 degree leading space phasing,
the phase of the current to the southern and the resultant field from the southern
tower lagging by 90 degrees. If we stand at element arrives in phase with the field from
an observation point some distance from the the northern element. The fields completely
array on a bearing of zero degrees True (due add, so the resultant field at the observation
north), equal fields will arrive at the point is equal to F1 + F2.
observation point from each point. Because At other points around the array,
the elements are spaced 90 degrees apart, neither complete addition nor complete
the field arriving from the southern element cancellation will occur, and vector addition
will arrive 90 degrees later than the field of the arriving fields is used to determine the
from the northern element (90 degree resultant field. Figure 1 shows the resulting
lagging space phasing). Add to that the 90 directional pattern of our two tower array.
degree phase delay in the southern element The theoretical parameters for such
current and the field arriving at our an array would normally be listed as
observation point from the southern element follows:
is 180 degrees out of phase with the field
heights, the theoretical loop current ratios radiation, and the current induced by mutual
will be equal to the radiated field ratios; if coupling from other elements. The current
the tower heights are different, they will be that contributes to radiation tends to be
different. sinusoidal, but the effect of the induced
Assuming sinusoidal current flow, a current tends to distort that sinusoidal
current maximum or loop will occur 90 current distribution. The position of the
electrical degrees below the top of a vertical current loop can be quite a distance from
radiator. If that radiator is less than 90 where sinusoidal current distribution would
electrical degrees tall, this loop will exist at place it.
the tower base. If the tower heights are the There are many methods of
same, the theoretical parameters which are determining the correct operating
shown on the station license are those the parameters for a directional array, but all, to
designer used to mathematically create the one degree or another, rely on trial-and-error
pattern and they reference this current loop. adjustments and field measurements.
When the towers are of unequal height, Knowledge of the design, experience, and
these ratios reference the radiated fields. computer modeling can all help to make
The operating parameters, on the each trial an educated trial (rather than a
other hand, indicate the values shown on the random guess) and shorten the tuneup
antenna monitor when the array is properly process.
adjusted to produce the correct pattern. The
operating parameters often deviate 8.6 Standard Patterns
significantly from the theoretical In all the examples we have used so
parameters, and this is due, in large part, far in this series, on certain azimuths, the
sample system errors and to the mutual vectors from the array elements completely
coupling between towers. cancel one another and the resultant
No matter how careful the installer radiation on that azimuth is zero. This is
is, there will be errors in the sample system. difficult to achieve in the real world.
It is difficult to make all the runs of sample Reradiation, scatter and drift in the phasing,
line exactly the same length, and each coupling and sampling systems limit how
individual run will have a slightly different close to zero the radiation on a null radial
characteristic impedance. Differences in the can be adjusted and maintained. In January
values of antenna monitor terminating of 1981, the FCC instituted the standard
resistors, differences in the sample loops or pattern, which increases the size of the
current transformers, even slight differences theoretical pattern (or calculated pattern)
in the locations of the sample pickups all by a specific amount. In another part of this
contribute to sample system error. series, we will look at how the standard
Mutual coupling, on the other hand, pattern is calculated.
distorts the assumed sinusoidal When the standard pattern was
characteristics of the current flow on each instituted, the FCC calculated the standard
tower. There are two on-frequency current pattern for all existing stations and
components in each element of a directional authorized them by modification of each
array — the current that contributes to station’s license. Today, when the FCC
AM Antenna Systems Alexander/22
These are the theoretical parameters Si - This is the spacing of the tower,
of a typical two-tower in electrical degrees,
directional array, similar from the reference tower.
to other examples we In this case, the spacing
have used in this series. of the reference tower
Let’s plug these with respect to itself is
parameters into our zero, and the spacing of
vector formula and see tower #2 with respect to
what happens. the reference tower is
θi - This is the 90°.
phase of the tower with Figure 6 Φi - This is the
respect to the reference tower. In this case, orientation of the tower, in electrical
the phase of the reference tower with respect degrees, from the reference tower. In this
to itself is zero, and the phase of tower #2 case, the orientation of the reference tower
with respect to the reference tower is 90°. with respect to itself is zero, and the
AM Antenna Systems Alexander/24
orientation of tower #2 with respect to the The conventional way to plot vectors has
reference tower is 0°, or true north. zero azimuth at 3 o’clock and angles plotted
Φ - This is the azimuth from the counterclockwise. For the sake of simplicity
center of the array to the observation point. and those that have been taught that north is
Another way to express this is as the always at the top of the page, the examples
azimuth on which we wish to compute the here will place zero degrees at 12 o’clock
vectors. and angles will be plotted clockwise. If you
Let’s start with Φ = 0° true. When wish to do it the conventional way, do so. It
we plug in all the parameters for tower 1 makes no difference in the length of the
(the reference tower), we come up with a resultant which way you do it.
value of 0°. This is the same as the phase of Starting near the center of the page,
tower 1, and this will always be true of the make a dot to represent the starting point.
reference tower. If the phase of the reference Using the protractor and ruler, draw a line
tower had been other than 0°, the formula 1.0 inches long at an angle of 0°, or straight
would have yielded up on the page. This
whatever the phase of represents tower #1's
the reference tower vector. Now, move the
was. In other words, it protractor to the end of
is not necessary to run this line (the north end)
the reference tower and draw the vector for
through the formula — tower #2. This line, 1.0
only the other towers in inches long at an angle
the array. Just know the of 180° (or straight
field and phase of the down), will lie back
reference tower. The over and completely
complex number cover the tower #1
representing the vector vector, with the end
for tower #1 at an falling back at the
azimuth of 0° true, starting point. The
then, is 1.000∠0°. Figure 7 resultant vector is the
Now, let’s run the parameters for distance and angle
tower #2 through the formula. When I did between the starting point and the end of the
this, I came up with a phase of 180°, so the tower #2 vector. Since these points coincide
vector for tower #2 at an azimuth of 0° true in this case, the resultant vector is 0∠0°.
is 1.000∠180°. This vector diagram for an azimuth of 0°
With these numbers in hand, let’s true, shown in Figure 6, shows graphically
plot them on a piece of paper. You’ll need how at that azimuth the signals from the two
nothing more than a ruler and protractor. towers completely cancel one another.
AM Antenna Systems Alexander/25
Now let’s try the same thing at an What if you have more than two
azimuth of 180° true. Remember that the towers? It’s simple. Calculate the vector for
vector for the reference tower is always the each tower and draw it onto the end of the
same, in this case 1.000∠0°. Plugging tower preceding vector. The resultant vector will
#2's parameters and a 180° azimuth into our still be from the starting point to the end of
formula, I get a vector the last vector. When
of 1.000∠0°. When I dealing with arrays
draw the two vectors with more than two
on paper, it is easy to towers, it is important
see that the vector from to label the vectors as
tower #2 completely you draw them. If you
adds to the vector from dn’t, it is easy to lose
tower #1, yielding a track of which vector
resultant vector of belongs to which
2.000∠0° (see Figure tower.
7). Three-tower
We’ve seen the vectors are fairly easy
extreme cases of to draw, but when four
complete cancellation or more towers are
Figure 8
and complete addition. involved, it becomes
Now let’s try something in between. Plug in more difficult. It should be understood that
an azimuth of 90° true and tower #2's the angle of the resultant vector is not
parameters and you should come up with a important. Only the length is important. As
tower #2 vector for 90° true of 1.000∠90°. you experiment and plot different vectors,
Draw tower #1's vector of 1.0" at an angle of don’t get hung up on the resultant angle. The
field strength meter does not care what the
0°, then draw tower #2's 1", 90° vector onto
incident phase of the resultant field strength
the end of that. If you measure the resultant
vector is.
vector, you’ll find it is 1.414" long at an
If you wish to plot the directional
angle of 45° (see Figure 8). You can see
pattern of the array on a piece of polar graph
from this graphical representation that the
paper, simply plot a dot representing the
signals from towers 1 and 2 partially add to
scaled length of the resultant vector on the
produce a field that is greater than the field
azimuth at which the vector was calculated.
of either one, but less than the sum of the
In the case of the 180-degree azimuth in the
two combined. If you run the same problem
example above, you would plot a point at
for an azimuth of 270° true, you’ll find you
distance from the center of 2 times the scale
come up with the same vector. Go ahead and
value at an azimuth of 180 degrees. For the
try this at other in-between azimuths. You’ll
90-degree radial you would plot a point at a
find that when you get closer to 0°, you get distance from the center of 1.414 times the
more cancellation of the two signals; when scale value at an azimuth of 90 degrees.
you get closer to 180°, you get more Calculating the length of the resultant and
addition. plotting it at five-degree increments all the
AM Antenna Systems Alexander/26
way around, you can then smoothly join the lines commonly used today to feed power
points together in a graphical representation from the transmitter to the antenna system.
of the pattern shape. One of these is the open-wire feeder, of
which there are several variations.
8.81 Using the Vectors
With the vectors in hand, we have at 9.1 Open-Wire Feeders
our disposal a method of graphically Transmission lines or feeders created
depicting what is happening on any given from open (unshielded) wires supported on
azimuth. This is particularly helpful when glass or ceramic insulators are commonly
setting up an array or working to correct a referred to as open-wire feeders. Amateur
problem. By plotting the vectors on a given radio operators often use ladder line, which
radial, you can see how the different towers consists of parallel conductors separated by
interact to create the resultant field on that Plexiglass rods, to provide a balanced feed
radial. Many monitor points are on null for high-frequency (HF) antennas. Twin-
radials, where some degree of cancellation lead, which used to be the feedline of choice
occurs. By plotting the vectors, you can for television receiving antennas, is another
visualize how towers pair-up on the radial. variation of the balanced open-wire feeder
In parallelogram arrays, pairs of towers theme. Neither of these has any practical use
often cancel other pairs of towers. Using in broadcasting because of the relatively low
vectors, you can get a mind picture of the power handling capability, but there are
best way to go about adjusting such an some other types that were commonly used
array. in radio’s early days. Three and six-wire
unbalanced systems are the most common of
9.0 Transmission Lines these, and some vestiges of these systems
Just as the electrician must choose remain today. No new systems have been
the correct size and type wire for a particular constructed using open-wire feeders in many
wiring job, and the plumber must select the years.
appropriate pipe, as radio engineers we must Three-wire systems, where two
choose the right size transmission line. If the ground conductors supported on telephone
wrong line is chosen, the results can be with pole cross-arms bracket the center RF
catastrophic. Proper transmission line conductor are one such type. This type of
selection can make the difference between transmission line has a relatively high
having a system that is reliable and capable impedance, can withstand high peak
of continued operation under adverse voltages and is relatively easy to maintain.
conditions, or having a borderline system Cracked and broken insulators as well as
that is a time-bomb primed for failure. deteriorated or damaged support structures
Sometimes the choice is clear and the are the biggest problems with this type of
differences are obvious; other times the open-wire feeder.
limitations are hidden. In this installment of The six-wire feeder consists of four
our AM Antenna series, we'll look at feed relatively small ground conductors
lines and explore these limitations. bracketing two parallel center RF
There are three types of transmission conductors in a cubical fashion. In effect,
AM Antenna Systems Alexander/27
this creates a coaxial cable of sorts. Six-wire Under the broad heading of coaxial cable are
systems are typically supported on short several sub-categories. In broadcast
creosote poles. The impedance is usually transmission applications, we primarily use
lower than three-wire open feeders. semi-flexible cable, sometimes referred to
Disadvantages are lower peak voltage by the trade names “Heliax®”or
capacity, generally lower power handling “Flexwell®,” and rigid line, sometimes
ability and greater mechanical complexity. referred to as "hard line."
With so many more wires — usually 8- or
10-gauge soft-drawn copper — and six glass 9.21 Semi-Flexible Cable
insulators on each rather complex support Semi-flexible cable is by far the
structure, there are many points for potential most common transmission line in use in
problems. Ice poses a particular hazard for AM stations. It is ideal for a wide range of
this type of open-wire feeder. One low and medium power uses, and its cost is
environmental problem that is often caused considerably lower than that of comparably
by this type of feeder occurs when the rated rigid line. The term "semi-flexible" is
spacing between ground and center used because the bending radius of the line
conductors is sufficient to allow small birds is quite large. For a 1-5/8" line, the
to perch on the center conductor wires. minimum bending radius is 20". Anyone
When the birds take to flight, their wings who has wrestled line such as this into a
can come into contact with the outer wires. tight space or through a conduit will attest
The results of this inadvertent shunting of that “semi-flexible” is indeed an appropriate
the transmission line are predictable. The moniker.
feeder survives; the birds do not. Under the heading of semi-flexible
Open-wire feeders were used in the cable are both foam- and air-dielectric lines.
early days of broadcasting for a number of Foam lines are designed for applications that
reasons. One was that they could be made do not require a pressurization path to the
on-site out of readily available materials. antenna. Their average power handling
Another was that they were capable of capability is lower, and loss is higher than
withstanding large standing wave ratios. In the same size air-dielectric line, but their
the days before the operating impedance peak power ratings are higher. This is
bridge, driving point impedances in multi- primarily due to the higher losses of foam as
element arrays were difficult or impossible a dielectric. Foam-dielectric cable is
to measure with any accuracy. Transmission available in sizes up to 1-5/8".
lines that could withstand the inevitable high Air-dielectric lines utilize a spiral
VSWR were needed. polyethylene spacer to keep a constant
spacing between the inner and outer
9.2 Coaxial Transmission Lines conductors. To maintain safe operation, this
Coaxial cable is the de facto standard type of line must be kept under constant
transmission line today and it has been for pressurization with dry air or nitrogen.
quite some time. As its name implies, Usually, a dehydrator or nitrogen regulator
coaxial cable is constructed using two is connected to the line at the transmitter
concentric conductors on a single axis. building end of the run to provide
AM Antenna Systems Alexander/28
circuits to allow the meter to be placed into base current ratios, it may be desirable
the circuit for measurement and removed during the construction and tuneup process
from the circuit for normal operation, all to calibrate the RF ammeters against one
without disturbing the continuity of the RF another. If one meter in the set is at
current path. significant variance with the others, it can
Some metering circuits are then be replaced with one that tracks the
manufactured with a “hot jack,” which is a other meters or a calibration chart can be
make-before-break receptacle into which a made. Likewise, if the base currents in an
removable meter is plugged. The meter itself array are found to be out of tolerance but all
is usually mounted on a phenolic handle to the other array parameters and monitor point
permit it to be safely plugged into the RF field strengths are normal, it is a good idea
circuit without causing RF burns to the user. to check the calibration of the thermocouple
The advantage of this plug-in type of meter RF ammeters before doing anything else.
is that the thermocouple meter itself is If the inaccuracy of a thermocouple
stored in the transmitter building, out of the meter is believed to be caused by a
elements that can affect its calibration. magnetized meter movement, a degaussing
Thermocouple RF ammeters have coil can be used to demagnetize it. In most
the advantages of relatively low cost, cases, the meter’s accuracy will return when
simplicity, accuracy and broad frequency the residual magnetism has been removed.
range. The disadvantages are susceptibility
to damage. Lightning currents and static 10.2 The Toroidal RF Ammeter
discharges through a thermocouple meter The other type of RF ammeter that is
are usually fatal. Nearby lightning becoming very popular is the toroidal-type,
discharges can cause magnetization of the which consists of a shielded, toroidal current
meter movement, resulting in inaccurate transformer connected to a rectifier/filter
readings. This type of damage is particularly that in turn drives a meter. This type of RF
troublesome, since it may not be readily ammeter employs a separate, shielded
apparent, as a catastrophic failure would be. current transformer which produces a fixed
It is easy to check the calibration of a voltage per ampere of RF current flowing in
thermocouple RF ammeter, because of its the circuit being measured. The meter is
wide frequency range. Simply connect the housed in a separate unit and contains the
meter being checked in series with a rectifier, filter and a switch that removes the
calibrated AC ammeter across the secondary meter itself from the circuit. A relay that
of a variac. By adjusting the amount of allows remote activation of the meter is
current flowing with the variac, the optional on some units. The current
indications of the two ammeters can be transformer is connected to the meter unit
compared. If it is discovered that the RF with a piece of coaxial cable. At the factory,
ammeter is in error, repairs can be attempted the meter, transformer and cable are
or a calibration chart can be made to calibrated as a system. In the field, using a
validate the meter’s indications. different coaxial cable or switching metering
In a directional array, where base units between transformers will result in
current RF ammeters are used to maintain inaccurate current readings.
AM Antenna Systems Alexander/32
transformers to monitor it. The expense of between the two lines would be expected.
using both kinds of sample is too great, This is unacceptable in a directional antenna
however, so this is seldom (if ever) done. sampling system.
In choosing a sampling system
11.3 Sample Lines transmission line, there is both normal and
The transmission lines used in a phase-stabilized line. Phase-stabilized
sampling system are a critical element. In a transmission line has been temperature
typical system, all lines are of the same treated to achieve a repetitive phase-
electrical length, exhibiting the same temperature characteristic for reliable
amount of phase shift. Typically, _" or ½ " tracking. This is achieved through heat
foam coaxial cable is used for sample lines. cycling at the factory that relieves the
When installing the system, the line to the mechanical stresses that are part of the
farthest element in the array is laid out and manufacturing process. Phase-stabilized
cut. Then, the remaining lines are cut to transmission line is considerably more
match the longest line. To achieve equal expensive than normal line, and its value is
phase shifts in all the lines, it is then questionable. After a few weeks or months
necessary to measure the electrical length of in service, a normal transmission line
the lines, either with a time domain becomes naturally phase-stabilized, and if
reflectometer (TDR) or by measuring the the lines are all installed in the same
resonant frequency of the transmission line. environmental conditions, the phase shifts of
Through careful measurement and trimming, all the sample lines in the system will
it should be possible to achieve phase shifts change by the same amount with
within 0.1° from line to line. temperature variations anyway.
When installing sampling
transmission lines, it is important to install 11.4 Antenna Monitors
all of each of the lines in similar The final element in a directional
environmental conditions. For example, if antenna sampling system is the antenna
one line is buried underground, all the lines monitor. This device terminates the sample
should be buried underground. If the last 20 lines and electronically compares the
feet of one line is above ground in the relative currents and phases of the samples.
transmitter building, the last 20 feet of all One tower for each mode of operation is
the lines should be similarly installed. selected as the reference tower, or the tower
Excess lengths of line, such as that of lines to which the other tower samples are
that run to the nearer towers in the array, referenced. The indicated phase of the
should be stored in the same conditions as reference tower is usually zero, and the
the rest of the lines. Typically, if the sample current ratio is 1.000.
lines are buried underground, the excess line The phases of the other towers in the
is also buried. The purpose of this is to array are displayed as leading or lagging
maintain a uniform phase shift from line to that of the reference tower. For example, if
line. Were all of one line buried and another one tower in the array indicates -80° on the
line half buried and half in direct sunlight, antenna monitor, that means that the current
considerable variation in phase shift in that sample is lagging 80° behind the
AM Antenna Systems Alexander/35
current in the reference tower sample. calibrated. With modern moment method
The currents in the other towers in computer modeling, however, it is possible
the array are displayed as a ratio, or a to closely predict what the actual driving
percentage of the current in the reference point ratios and phases should be. With an
tower. For example, if one tower in the array accurate sampling system and this computer
indicates a ratio of 0.650 on the antenna model in hand, it is much easier to set up an
monitor, the current in that element is 65% array.
of that in the reference tower. More important than accuracy,
Older antenna monitors could only however, is stability. Since a directional
select and monitor one tower at a time. The array is set up and the proper indicated
loop reference, or calibration of the phases and ratios are determined by field
reference tower current sample, had to be strength measurements, it is more important
adjusted each time before the remaining that a sampling system indicate changes
ratios were read in order to insure accuracy. from the properly adjusted indications than
This type of antenna monitor was difficult it is that it accurately resemble the actual
(but not impossible) to accommodate with a currents and phases in the system.
remote control system.
Modern antenna monitors 12.0 Control Systems
simultaneously monitor all tower samples at An important part of most directional
once. The loop reference is continuously and antenna systems is the control circuitry. The
automatically set. An analog voltage sample majority of stations operating with a
representing each tower’s ratio and phase is directional antenna have more than one
continuously available, making remote mode of operation. Some stations operate
monitoring of the antenna monitor easy. non-directional daytime and directional at
These modern antenna monitors also have night. There are a few that operate just the
an amplitude mode, where the actual RMS opposite — directional day and ND at night.
voltage of the sample is displayed. If the Others operate directional day and night, but
loss of the transmission line and the volts with different patterns. Some stations have
per amp output of the sample transformer (if yet a third mode or pattern for critical hours.
used) are known, this display can be used to Some means of switching between patterns
remotely monitor base currents, a very and modes is needed.
handy feature indeed!
12.1 Why switch?
11.5 Accuracy A station that operates non-
Because of distortions in the directional part of the time and directional
sinusoidal current distribution in the towers during other times must have a means of
of a directional array that are caused by detuning the unused towers. The same is
mutual coupling between the elements, it is true of multiple pattern directional arrays
just about impossible to obtain a sample that where some towers in the array are not used
resembles the theoretical phases and ratios in some modes. The method used to detune
of the properly adjusted array — no matter the unused towers differs with the situation,
how carefully the sampling system is and some engineers prefer one method over
AM Antenna Systems Alexander/36
come in when lightning strikes, and they can that the system power supply must be on
handle large amounts of current. and all the relays/switches in the proper
Only recently, however, one position for the selected mode before the
manufacturer has come out with a PCL transmitter will be allowed to come on.
(Programmable Logic Controller) based Redundant power supplies are common,
antenna switching controller. This controller since the failure of the controller supply will
is completely programmable to operate a set prevent the transmitter from coming on,
of RF switches and transmitter interfaces in even if all the RF circuitry is correctly
any combination that can be imagined. The configured!
interface to the outside world has been Because the control system is so
ruggedized to give the system good central to the transmitter site’s operation,
surge/lightning immunity. periodic checks of the power supply voltage
Whether relay controlled or logic are important. Also, it has been said that
controlled, the fact remains that either cleanliness is next to godliness. This is
motors or solenoids that run on either 110 or especially true when it comes to relay-based
220 volts AC must be actuated by the control systems. A dirty relay here can keep
control system. There are two ways to do the station off the air.
this: One involves running a constant AC The limit and travel switches on
power feed to each tower and using low contactor motors or solenoids are especially
voltage slave relays to actually apply the AC prone to give trouble. Because of the rather
power to the solenoids or motors. The violent action of solenoid operated
advantage with this method is that a single contactors, these switches really get
run of AC power cable can be run to each slammed open and shut. Proper adjustment
tower and other AC powered loads — tower of limit switches and actuating hardware is
lights, ATU lighting, utility outlets, etc. — critical.
can be operated from that same source. The For some reason, in those areas that
down side is the added components (relays, are plagued with them, fire ants seem to be
sockets and wiring) necessary. attracted to AC power (you guys in the
The other method involves switching north, get ready — they’re coming!).I have
the AC current to the motors or solenoids seen fire ants completely pack solenoid
directly from the controller. If solenoids are mechanisms to the point where the contactor
used, this involves running a rather large could not move. Periodic cleaning out of
(#10 or better) conductor to each side of these areas with a vacuum or high pressure
each solenoid plus a neutral. If motors are air is necessary to keep the mechanisms
used, smaller conductors can usually be moving freely. Also, a few moth balls in a
used. A separate source of AC power must cup left in the ATU will go a long way
then be run to each tower for the ancillary toward keeping ants, wasps and other pests
loads. away.
Finally, it is important to
12.6 Care and Feeding periodically test all the interlock and safety
Most modern antenna control circuits in the system. If the transmitter
systems are built to be fail safe. That means excitation is not being completely killed
AM Antenna Systems Alexander/39
before any contactor starts to move, arcing of the mutual coupling between the array
and arc damage will occur. An improperly elements.
working interlock can get you killed. Test You have probably noticed that if
these features at least once a year. you crank the phase of one tower out a
The antenna control system should couple of degrees and touch nothing else,
be invisible if it is working properly. By there is a change in all the other phases,
starting with a good design and continuing ratios and base currents in the system in
with good maintenance, you can achieve addition to a change in the common point
trouble-free operation for many years. resistance/reactance. The same thing
generally holds true no matter what the
13.0 Troubleshooting cause of the original change, be it a phasor
From time to time, things go wrong control being adjusted or a component
with all antenna systems. Things are bad changing value.
enough when it happens with a simple non- When an engineer calls me saying
directional antenna. When a multi-element that something is wrong with his array, I
directional array goes haywire, it can be always start by asking him if the common
maddening! point impedance has changed. If it hasn't, we
Rule number one in this situation is start with the antenna monitor.
DON'T PANIC! The tendency is to grab A good next step is to check the
phasor controls and try to correct the antenna monitor by swapping its inputs
situation immediately; this is the wrong around. A common failure mode in some
thing to do! Don't touch anything until you antenna monitors is a stuck or open relay.
have enough information to make an The mercury-wetted relays in these units
educated decision of what to do. should be trouble-free and long-lived but
they tend to wear out over time. I have
13.1 Incorrect Antenna Monitor replaced scores of them over the years.
Parameters When a relay sticks, it may cause all the
Let's assume that one or more of the tower readings other than the reference
parameters as shown on the antenna monitor tower readings to be incorrect. To check for
are at variance with their proper values. this, disconnect all inputs but the reference
Start by making a note of the proper values tower, then connect one of the other tower
on a piece of paper with the values as read sample lines to each of the other inputs in
on the monitor alongside. In this way you turn. You should see the normal indication
can quickly see what parameters are at of phase and ratio for the sample line being
variance. If only one or two values are out used as it is moved from input to input.
of whack while all the others are normal, When you come to a channel where you do
there is a good chance that the problem is not get the correct readings, that is the one
with the sampling system or monitor and the with the bad relay. If there is a stuck relay, it
array is functioning normally. As a rule, tends to load the other channels so while the
when something changes in an array due to phase readings may be normal during this
a component malfunction, all the parameters procedure, the ratio readings will often be
are affected to some degree. This is because low for all but the channel with the defective
AM Antenna Systems Alexander/40
meters can also lie, but they are more failure component is the mica capacitor. I
reliable than thermocouple meters. If always suspect them first, but they aren't
everything else is okay (antenna monitor always the problem.
parameters and monitor points), suspect one A symptom common to component
of the meters. The very best way to keep failure is heat. Shut the system down and
base current meters accurate is to use one immediately but carefully feel of all the
meter at all the towers, carrying it to the components in the phasor and ATUs. Some
towers and plugging it in when needed and components may be warm but none should
storing it in the controlled environment of run hot. Suspect any hot component. Look at
the transmitter building when not in use. all the coils for discoloration caused by
This can be done with either type of meter. heating. Loose hardware can get red hot
under current, causing oxidation and an
13.3 High Monitor Point intermittent connection. Look for leaking
A likely cause of a high monitor capacitors as well.
point reading is an anomaly at or in the If you have an RF bridge on hand,
vicinity of the point itself. Reradiators and use it to measure the reactance of any
other factors beyond the station's control can suspect components. If you aren't fortunate
influence the field strength at a monitor enough to have a bridge at your disposal,
point. If you find a point high, don't adjust you can use a capacitor checker. Many
anything. Measure five or six points on the stations have the old-style "magic eye"
radial and see how they compare to the last capacitor checkers lying about. Use a
full or partial proof. If they are in, you can capacitor of known value to test the checker
assume the array is in adjustment and the before testing the suspect cap. Take lead
monitor point itself has become unusable. inductance into consideration when reading
§73.158 specifies the procedure for capacitor value on the checker. If you don't
changing the monitor point on a radial. have a bridge or capacitor checker, many of
If the entire radial is high, the array the better digital multimeters (some in the
may be out of adjustment, even though the under-$100 range) have a built-in capacitor
array parameters are all within tolerance. check function. It might be worthwhile to
This can easily occur in arrays with very invest in one.
tight nulls. Before you start cranking, There are many things that can go
though, it is a good idea to put the array in wrong with a directional array and there is
the non-directional mode and look at five or usually a ready fix for each type of problem.
six points along the radial both ND and DA. Seldom, however, will cranking on the
Compare the ratios with those in the last full phasor repair a problem. You may be
proof. It could be that a conductivity change chasing a bad antenna monitor or sample
is responsible for the high readings and the line, or compensating for a component with
array is in adjustment. a changing value. When trouble comes, stop,
think and troubleshoot the problem through
13.4 Faulty Component thorough investigation and logical thinking.
From time to time, parts do fail in Crank on the array only after the problem
directional antennas. The most common has been diagnosed and fixed.
AM Antenna Systems Alexander/42
find is five amperes. By wrapping five turns water in the soil. Similar (and sometimes
through the toroid, the 0.2 ampere reading more dramatic) changes can occur when the
will appear as a 1.0 amp indication, which is ground freezes. If you have a common point
in compliance with the rules. If you do this, bridge built into your phasor, you are all set
however, you will need to file a form 302 to make a resistance measurement every
(license application) with the FCC to modify time you visit the site. Otherwise you will
the station license to show the new indicated have to use an operating impedance bridge
current. to make the measurement from time to time
The requirements for remote reading as required. If the resistance has changed
ammeters are contained in §73.57. Remote more than 2% from the value specified in
reading ammeters must be accurate to within the license, you will need to file an
2% of the reading on the regular (local) RF application for modification of license.
ammeter. The sensors or pickups for remote
reading RF ammeters must be located on the 14.3 Sample Systems
transmitter side of the local RF ammeter. If In directional systems, next to RF
your site employs remote reading RF ammeters, the sampling system is the most
ammeters, it should be part of your regular likely element to produce false indications.
routine to compare the readings between the The FCC rules contain specifications for
local and remote meters. sampling systems, and specifically contain
RF ammeters, particularly the requirements for “approved” sampling
thermocouple meters, are the most likely systems. The basic requirement for an
indicating instruments in an AM antenna “approved” sampling system is that the
system to give incorrect readings or trouble. transmission lines exhibit uniform phase
It is an excellent idea to keep a new, factory- shift (less than 0.5° difference from the
calibrated meter (preferably a plug-in type shortest line to the longest line with normal
meter) in the transmitter building. From time temperature variations).
to time (at least annually), all the meters in Should some component in the
the system can be calibrated against this sample system become damaged or
reference meter. malfunction, it is permissible to operate for
up to 120 days without notifying the FCC as
14.2 Antenna Resistance long as all other parameters (base current
Periodic checks should be made of ratios, monitor points and common point
the resistance at the common point or non- current) are maintained. Should the outage
directional antenna base. The frequency of exceed 120 days, the FCC must be notified
this resistance check will vary from station and special temporary authority requested. If
to station, and will probably be determined portions of the system above the base
by the nature of the environment around the insulator are replaced, a partial proof of
antenna. Areas with poor ground performance will be required. Sample
conductivity or sites with poor or system rules are contained in §73.68.
deteriorated ground systems may see a
considerable shift in base or common point 14.4 Monitor Points
resistance with changes in the amount of Field strength measurements at the
AM Antenna Systems Alexander/44