GUIDE TO THE TRAINING OF SUPERVISORS FOR LABOUR-BASED ROAD CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE 1B09 - 888 - v2 - Engl

GUIDE
TO THE TRAINING
OF SUPERVISORS
FOR LABOUR-BASED ROAD CONSTRUCTION
AND MAINTENANCE
LS. Karisson and J.J. de Veen
TRAINEES MANUAL/PART 2
International Labour Office Geneva
II II II I I I I I II I II
46992
Copyright © International Labour Organisation 1981
This book enjoys copyright under PrOtocol 2 of the Universal Copyright Convention.
Purchasers may nevertheless freely photocopy the learning text for trainees for exclusive use wtthin their company or
training institute. However, no portion of this book may be reproduced for resale or mass publication without the
express consent in writing of the 11.0.
No part of thiswork may be stored in a retrieval system ortransmitted in anyform orby any means ortranslated without
the prior authorisation of the Editorial and Translation Branch, International Labour Office, Cl-I-1211 Geneva 22,
Switzerland, to which all enquiries should be addressed. _______
Trainees' manual, Part 2: ISBN 92-2-102828-3

Complete set of trainees' manuals (two parts) ISBN 92-2-102829-1
Ffrst published 1981
ILO publications can be obtained through major booksellers or ILO local offices in many countries, or direct from ILO
Publications, International Labour Office, CH-1211 Geneva 22, Switzerland. A catalogue or list ofnew publications will
be sent free of charge from the above address.
Printed in Switzerlend
PREFACE
This Guide has been produced for use in the general and
technical training of supervisors for road construction and
maintenance programmes. It is basically in two parts, an
instructors manual and a trainees manual. The former contains
information and advice for instructors on how to plan, design
and implement a training course. The latter provides the detailed
training material for the trainees. In its present form the
trainees manual is incomplete in that it is not country specific.
Thus, such aspects as project organisation and administration,
programme objectives and design standards will vary from country
to country. The instructor, therefore, uses the general modules
presented and adapts them to the specific circumstances of the
country.
The Instructors Manual is divided into three parts. The

first discusses the various items which the trainer will have
to consider when settjncT up a training course for a programme in
a particular country. It shows how to identify training needs,
how to evaluate the existing training facilities and how to plan
the courses in relation to the resources available and the output
required.
The second serves as an ititroduction to the training

material, the main body of the Guide, and provides information
on the modular system and its use. It briefly describes the
contents of the 15 basic modules and outlines when and how the
trainer should develop country/project-specific training
materials, related to the particular country or project environ-
ment.
The third part is the instructors text of the training

course. It provides information on methods of presentation of
the course, advice on points to emphasise and the training aids1
that could be used. It is presented in the same modular format
as the trainees text.
The Trainees Manual contains the basic material for a

complete traIning course for supervisors of labour-based road
construction and maintenance programmes. It follows a format
developed by the ILO for supervisory and vocational training:
"The modular system". In line with this format, the training
material is presented in loose leaf form as a number of self-
contained modules, subdivided into learning elements. This
presentation allows the trainer to develop country/project
specific courses adapted to the level of different groups of
1. This system has been developed by the ILO tO enable individual

vocational training programmes to be compiled. More recently, the
ILO has applied the system in a modular programme for supervisory
development, aimed at a broad range of trainers, programme designers,
training directors, personnel managers and supervisors.
trainees by simply selecting those learning elemeits he feels
are relevant and by adding others reflecting the project
situation and the local procedures and regulations.
In all, there are 15 modules. Each deals with a particular

aspect of road construction and maintenance. The different
modules cover such subjects as administration, planning,
organisation, management and control as well as the most import-
ant technical topics such as survey, drainage, concrete technology,
soil mechanics and structures. Modules 1-9 are cOntained in
one folder, Modules 10-15 in another.
Field instructions are added at the end of each module

providing the trainee with the nucleus of a site handbook after
the completion of the course.
Setting up training courses is resource consuming, especially

when the subject is new to the existing training institution.
For this reason, training courses must be planned well in advance.
To ensure maximum benefit, they should be integrated to the
extent possible into the established training organisations. This
would firstly ensure that labour-based methods are not set apart
from other techniques, secondly that the career prospects of
potential supervisors are not reduced and finally that existing
facilities can be utilised.
I
Acknowledgements
This Guide has been produced with the financial assistance

of the Swedish International Development Authority as part of
its support to the ILO's programme on appropriate construction
technology. The Guide is principally the work of Lars Karlsson
and Jan de Veen, both engineers, who have worked in various
labour-based road construction and maintenance programmes.
Specifically, they were able to draw upon the experience they
gained during the implementation of the Rural Access Roads
Programme (RARP), a large-scale labour-based road cnstruction
and maintenance programme in Kenya. Geoff Edmonds, an
engineer who has been advocating and promoting the effective
utilisation of labour in construction for the past eight years,
was responsible for the initiation of the work on the Guide and
provided valuable support, comments and suggestions throughout
its preparation.
Andreas Wiederkehr, an engineer/trainer who has developed

and implemented training courses for supervisors in several
countries, provided the basic material on how to set up training
programmed. The training material contained in-the, Guide.
is based upon eciting material from many sources. However, the
supervisory courses developed for the RARP by the Staff Training
Department of the Kenya Ministry of Works deserve special mention.
Finally, as mentioned in the Preface, the flexibility of the
Guide is mainly due to the use of the modular system, which has
been developed by the Training Department of the International
Labour Office for use in managerial, supervisory and vocational
training.
1. Messrs. Edmonds and de Veen are both members of the Technology

and Employment Branch of the Employment and bevelopment Department
of the International Labour Office. Both work in the construction
technology group of this branch. Mr. Edmonds is the co-ordinator
of this group.
Generally applicable training modules
Oontent s
THE PROGRANE: T1'-O Module learning objectives and content

TJE1 Nature, definition and type of programme
T1-2 Programme organisat ion
1-3 Design and construction standards
LE-4 The role of the supervisor
T1-5 Module summary and checkpoint
PLANNING: LF-O Module learning objectives and content

Th-1 Definition and type of plans
T-2 General site planning
LE-3 Construction targets and. productivity
norms
T11-4 Daily work planning
I-5 Forms, examples and exercises
LE-6 Nodule summary and checkpoint
REPORTING AJ T-O Module learning objectives and content

CONTROL: T,1'-1 Nature, definition and flow of repocts
LE-2 Inspect ions
LE-3 Records and reports
IE-4 Forms, examples and exercises
IE-5 Module summary and checkpoint
4. SETTING UP AND L-O Nodule learning objectives and content

ADMINISTRATION I-1 Definition and type of site
OF A SITE: LE-2 Camp
T,E-3 Stores (tools and materials)
LE-4 Administrative routines
TjP-5 Labour issues
LE-6 Module swnnlary and checkpoint
5, WORK ORGANISATION: IE-O Nodule learning objectives and content

LE-1 Definition of work organisation
IiE-2 Construction sequence, gang size and
balancing
IE-3 Incentives
IE-4 Instruct ions
LE-5 Module summary and. checkpoint
TOOLS AND IiE-O Nodule learning objectives and content

EQUIPMENT: LE-1 Description
LE-2 Hoes
L-3 Pickaxes, mattocks and crowbars
T1F-4 Shovels, spreaders and. raininers
LE-5 \heelbarrows
T-6 Maintenance and. maintenance facilities
L-7 Module summary and checkpoint
S
SURVEYING AND T-O Nodule learning objectives and content
SETTING OUT: T-1 Survey of proposed alignments
LE-2 Instruments and aide for setting out
LE-3 Setting out of horizontal alignments
LE-4 Setting out of vertical alignments
LE-5 Setting out of cross-sections,
including cuts and fills
LE-6 Hairpin bends
TT-7 Setting out of tasks
C]2ARING: LE-O Nodule learning objectives and content
TE-1 Nature and definition of site clearing
T1-2 Bush clearing
LE-3 Tree and stump removal
LE-4 Grubbing
11-5 Boulder removal
1,T-6 Module summary and checkpoint
EARTHWORKS: L-O Module learning objectives and, content
T-1 Nature, definition and type of earthworks
LE-2 Measuring volumes
LE-3 Excavation
T1-4 Loading, hauling and unloading
12-5 Pill (spreading, compaction, erosion
protection)
10. DRAINAGE: T-0 Nodule learning objectives and content

12-1 Nature, definition and types of drains
LE-2 Road surface drainage
LE-3 Side drains and mitre drains
T-4 Catchwater drains and scour checks
Tu1-5 Culverts
12-6 Water-table drainage
T1E-7 Nodule summary and checkpoint
11. SOIL MECHANICS: T1T-0 Nodule learning objectives and. content
LE-1 Nature and definition of soil mechanics
LE-2 Simple field tests to determine soil
properties
Tj1)-3 Function and composition of a surface
layer
T-4 Improvement of soils by mechanical means
T-5 Improvement of soils by chemical means
12-6 Module summary and checkpoint
12. CONCRETE T-0 Nodule learning objectives and. content

TECHNOLOGY: IE-1 Definition and characteristics of
concrete
T1-2 Cement (properties and storage)
]ID-3 Aggregate
LE-4 The manufacture of concrete
T1)-5 Placing, compacting and. curing of
concrete
12-6 Manufacture of concrete culvert rings
T-7 Module summary and. checkpoint
STRUOTURS: LE-O Module learning objectives and content
LE-1 Nature, definition and types of structures
LE-2 Culverts for streams and small rivers
LE-3 Drifts
LE-4 Causeways
liE-S Bridges
LE-6 Module summary and checkpoint
GRkVELLING: LE-O Module learning objectives and content

LE-1 Nature and definition of gravelling
LE-2 When to gravel and which methods to use
T,-3 Selection of quarry
IIE-4 Organisational sl5ructure
LE-5 Organisation of the work
LE-6 Preparation of workplan
IiE-7 Administration and monitoring
LE-8 Equipment, tools and materials
MAINTENANCE LE-O Module learning objectives and content

IIE-1 Nature and definition of maintenance
LE-2 Routine maintenance activities
LE-3 Choice of methods for routine maintenance
LE-4 Routine maintenance with equipment
LE-5 Routine maintenance with labour only
IiE-6 Module summary and checkpoint
ADDITIONAL TO Field instructions

EACH MODULE Checklist for trainees and basis for
field training
I Module 10
Drainage
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MODULE DRAINAGE M-1O
Learning Module learning objectives and content LE-O/l

Element
MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After you have learned this modu]e, you should:
- know why the drainage system is important;
- know the different types of drains, classify them by function
and know how they are constructed;
- be able to recognise the symptoms of bad drainage and suggest
ways of improvement
MODULE CONTENT
LE-O Module learning objectives and content

LE-1 Nature, definition and types of drains
LE-2 Road surface drainage
LE-3 Side drains and mitre drains
LE-4 Catchwater drains and scour checks
LE-5 Culverts
LE-6 Water-table drainage
LE-7 Module suxnmay and checkpoint
MODULE DRAINAGE
Learning Nature, definition and types of drains

Elemen±
LEARNING ELEMENT OBJECTIVES

After you have learned liE-i, you should:
- know why a drainage system is necessary;
- recognise the different parts of the drainage system and be able

to explain their function.
NATURE MiD DEFINITION

Water contributes to the wear and damage of the road. The water
can be in the form of ground water (inside the earth), suxface water
(ponds, streams), or rain (which will become surface water when it has
reached and collected on the surface). Water can damage the road in
two ways: by washing away the soil (erosion or scouring) or by making
the road less strong to traffic (lowering the road bearing capacity).
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It is therefore very important to have a good drainage system
which allows for the water to flow off the road and away from it as
quickly as possible. Such a system consists of several components:
- roa surface drainage which makes the water flow off the road
surface;
- side drains and mitre drains which lead the water away;
- äa±chwater drains which catch the surface water before it

reaöhes the road;
- Bcour checks which prevent erosion in the ditches by slowing

down the water;
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- culverts which will lead the water in the side drains under the
road to the other side;
- Water-table drainage which will lower the level of undergroun.d

water.
All these drains have to work together if the results are to be

good and it is u, as the construction supervisor, who have to set
out, instruct labourers, control and decide if the drainage system
is correct.
REMEMBER: TEE DRAINAGE SYSTEM IS TEE MOST IMPORTANT OF ALL TEE

DIFFERENT COMPONENTS IN EARTH ROAD CONSTRUCTION AED IF
IT FAILS, TEE WHOLE ROAD CAN BE WASEED AWAY OR MADE
IMPASSABLE.
MODULE DR.AINAGE M-l0
Learning Road surface drainage LE-2/l

Element

After you have learned the IiE-2, you should:
- Imow why an adequate surface drainage is important;
- Imow how to construct a proper surface drainage in various

circumstances
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RO.AD SURFACE DRAINAGE (O.AMBER)
The purpose of the road surface drainage is to prevent water from

eroding the road surface or penetrating into the road. In order to
avoid such damage, it i necessary to lead the water away quickly and
this is achieved by shaping the road so that the water will flow
freely into the side drains. It is of course important that the
surface of the roads is free from holes or ruts in which water could
be trapped.
Camber
The camber is the Slope from either side of the centre-line
towards the sides. For earth and gravel roads this slope should
be 5 per cent to 7 per cent.
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Exceptions
In curves with a radius of less than 30 in, the camber is sub-

stituted by a super elevation which makes the water flow to the inside
of the curve. At the same time the super elevation provides a certain
resistance to a car skidding off the road due to the centrifugal force.
The centrifugal force also depends on the speed of the vehicle.
Since access roads are generally not intended to be used at high
speeds (usually less than 40 km/h) on this type of road the super
elevation need only be used in curves with a radius of less than
30 in.
In hilly terrain where the road width is reduced, it can also be

advantageous to build a super elevation eloping towards the hillside,
instead of camber. This applies especially to sections which become
slippery when wet.
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Construction of camber
The camber is formed by spreading the soil which has been heaped
along the centre-line during the ditching and sloping process towards
the sides of the road. Naturally, the quantity of soil along the
centre-line should be sufficient for the camber to be formed to the
correct angle (7 per cent before compaction/settling, which is
equivalent to approximately 5 per cent when settled).
IT IS MOST I1\[PORT.ANT THAT THE CORRECT MEASUREMENTS

OF TEE DITCH ARE KEPT AND THAT TEE EXCAVATED SOIl1 IS
PLACED IN THE MIDDLE OF TEE ROi\]) ON TEE CENTRE-LINE
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The camber is controlled by using a camber board in coiiiunction

with a spirit level. The camber should be controlled during the
constrci.ction.
If found to be less than the required percentage, the camber has
to be reshaped. Ensure, before the rOad is gravelled, that the road
base has the correct camber.
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MODULE DRAI NAGE M-lO
Learning Side drains and mitre drains LE-3/l

Element
LE.ARNING ELEMENT OBJECTIVES

When you have learned LE-3, you should:
- know the functiono±' side drains and mitre drains;
- know the correct dimensions of the drains;
- know how to construct the side drain/mitre drain and how to

control th depth and width.
SIDE DRAINS
The function of the side drains (or ditches) is to collect the
water from the carriage way and surrounding areas. When they are
excavated the outcoming material serves to form the very important
road surface drain, the camber.
The size of the side ditches must therefore be sufficient to
cope with the run-off water. The outcomning material should be
sufficient to provide a compacted camber of 5 per cent. When a road
with 4 1/2 m formation width is to be provided with a 5 per cent
compacted camber (7 per cent loose) the size of the ditch should be
as shown in figure 6 (area = 0.16 + 0.2 = 0.36 m2).
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Then there axe ditches on bo1h sides of the road the depth of each
side ditch can be reduced to Q.3 in. The soil from the first ditch
can partly serve to raise the elevation of the carriage way.
On flat or slightly undulating terra.inyou should aim to

achieve a longitudinal gradient between 2 and 5 per cent (1:50 and
1:20). With gradients less than 2 per cent silting occurs easily
while with gradients steeper than 5 per cent the ditches will erode
easily.
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Cons±ructing the side ditches

The side ditches are constructed in two steps: first a
rectangular trench is excavated (ditching) and then a slope is made
Sfrom the bottom of the ditch up towards the carriage way (sloping).
The soil coming out of the ditches is placed in the middle of the
road
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The reason for excavating the ditch in this manner and shape is
that it is easier to measure and control than a traditional V-shaped
ditch made in one operation.
The correct width and depth is controlled with a stick which has
been cut to correct length. Each worker who works on drainage should
have his own stick.
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Mitre drains
The mitre drains (or off-shoot drains) lead away the water from
the sid.e ditches to lower areas.
There possible they should. be placed at the intervals shown

below. In principle, the more mitre drains the betters
Remember to make the gradient of the side drains a minimum of
2 per cent (even in flat terrain, see figure 7).
Mitre drain intervals
S Road gradient should not exceed

when discharging the water
on to a piece of farmland
metre metre
12 4O
10 80
8 120 if exceeded
scouring 20 to 50 wherever possible
6 160
will occur onto a boundary
4 2OO
if exceeded
1-2 50 silting
will occur
Remember that these are maximum distances; the quicker the water
is led off the road, the less d.mage (either from scouring or silting)
will occur. lNherever possible, the discharged water from the mitre
drains should be channelled to land boundaries in order to avoid
damage to farm land. The sail coming out when the mitre drain is
excavated should be deposited. on the downhill side of the drain.
Also the mitre drains should have a minimum gradient of 2 per cent.
MODULE DRAINAGE M-lO
Learning Catchwater drains and scour checks LE-4/l

Element

Then you have learned this learning element you should be able to:
- describe the function of catcliwater drains and scour checks;
- supervise their construction;
- calculate the distance between scour checks.
CATCHWATER DRAINS (CUT-OFF DRAINS)

Catch (water) drains are ditches more or less parallel to the
road. Their function is to catch and lead away the surface water
coming from higher lyialg areas before it reaches tb.e road.
Therever possible the catchwater drains should be diverted to
natural water courses.
Oatchwater drains usually have a trapezoidal crosssection and
the excavated material should always be deposited on the downhill
side of the drain.
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Scour checks
Where longitudinal gradients are steep the water gains high
speed. Therefore, if no protective measures are taken, scouring is
likely to occur. The simplest way of dealing with scouring, apart
from reducing the volume of water by leading it off the road at
frequent intervals (mitre drains) is to reduce the velocity of the
water by building scour cheks, in the ditches.
The scour checks hold back the silt carried by the water flow
and provide a series of stretches with gentle gradients interrupted
by small "waterfalls".
Scour checks are usually constructed in natural stone or with
wooden stakes (figure 12). Masonry, or concrete scour checks can
also be constructed (figure ii) but are often uxinecessarily expensive.
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Guideline for scour checks intervals:

(scour checks height = 0.4 m)
Side or mitre scour checkä interval

drain gradient
metre
12 5
10 10
8 15
6 40
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not required!
2
Depending on the situation (the nature of terrain, type of soil)

culverts will 1e necessary (IE-5). Use scour checks and culverts at
regular intervals, especially where the road gradient is 6 per cent
or more.
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LE -4/4
Construction of scour checks

The scour checks interval in the ditch is determined according
to the slope, see table above.
At the place of each scour check the ditch is deepened and

widened to provide room for securing the boulders or stakes.
When stakes are used, they should be driven deeply into the
ground and stones should be placed downstream of the stakes.
See figure l2
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MODULE DR.PJ NAG-E M-lO
Learning Culvert a LE-5/l

Element
When you have learned LE-5, you should:
- know the function of culverts;
- know how to construct culverts;
- recognise the various parts of an ordinary concrete pipe culvert.
DESCRIPTION MED FUNCTION

The culvert is a transversal drain under the road end and its
function: is to lead water from the higher ground on the side of the
road to the lower ground on the other.
The most common type of culvert is a single line of concrete
pipes. The diameter of the pipe should preferably not be less than
60 cm (24") because of the tendency of blockage of smaller pipes.
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Culvert rin
The rings are usually of concrete and can be manufactured in the
field. The most common diameter is 60 cm (24") but also 90 cm (36")
is frequently used. Smaller diameters than 60 cm are difficult to
maintain and are easily blocked The joints between the rings should
not be cemented but covered with a strip of tarpaper.
Depending on the circumstances, instead of using large diameters
which recluire a high fill over the pipes (overfill), two or more rows
of a smaller dimension can be used. The spacing between the rows
should be at least one diameter of the rings and, one row could be
placed lower than the others to accommodate small flows without
silting.
14
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Oulvet bed
The culvert bed. has to be stable and at the correct level.
Remove stones which might da3rlage the pipes. If the natural material
s not suitable, a bed of gravel should be made.
The bed should be constructed to the correct gradient (igure 13).
A string, spirit level and folding ruler or measure tape can be used
(1VI7) to set out the right gradient.
The bed can., if the ground is swampy, be made "floating". Such

a bed should. be of at least two layers (of round timber minimum
The width of the
diameter 7 1/2 cm, each layer acrOss the other),
"floatingt' bed should be at least one and half times the diameter of
the rings. The timber should be covered with a layer of 20 cm
gravel.
Aprons should be constructed at the inlets and outlets to protect

the culvert bed and the ditch bottom from erosion. They can be made
o± han.dpacked stones, rnasoiary or concrete. Their length should be
at least one nd a hall' times the pipe diameter for inlet and. twice
the diameter for the outlet,.
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The purpose of the hea.dwall is to support the road embankment
and. protect it from water damage. Headwalls should always be built
parallel to th? centre-line of the road in order to take the pressure
from the traffic evenly. They can be built in handpacked stones,
masonry or concrete. It is not always necessary to make headwalls
end. instructions to build them should come from the engineer who
also would design them and specify materials.
Eackf ill
The backfill around. the pipes has to be well compacted and
should be made of gravel, sand or other suitable material (not
expanding soils like "black cotton"). The backfill has to be well
compacted, using han.d-rainmners and watering. The minimum compacted
thickness of the layer on top of the pipe, the overfill, .shoald not
be less than three-quarters of the diameter of the pipe.
ents
The gradient of a culvert depends on the terrain situation but
to prevent silting up and erosion the gradient should normally be
kept within 3 and 5 per cent.
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LE-5/4
If the gradient exceeds 5 per cent, erosion at the outlet has to

be prevented by an apron of stone or a paved waterway. There
possible the pipe inlet level should be at the same level as the
original water course.
cing of culvert lines
Normally, natural water courses/low points in the terrain should

determine where culverts should be placed. However, if no scour
checks are made the following intervals should not be exceeded:
Road gradient Culvert intervals If these intervals are exceeded

(in) scour checks are required
12 40 After 40 in every 5 in
10 80 " 80m " lOin
8 120 120 m "
" 15 in
6 160 t?
l6Om " 40m
4 200 Not required
2 240 Not required (max. interval)
Then water is discharged on to farm land, the culvert intervals

should not exceed 80 ni; whenever possible it should be discharged at
the place of a boundary between two farms
In flat areas with drainage difficulties, it is often far better

not to dig a culvert brench but instead to build up an embankment over
the culvert.
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DR.AINAGE M-JO
MODULE
Learning Water-table drainage LE-6/l

Element
LEARNING ELEMENT OBJECTIVE

able
INhen you have learned this learning element, you should be
to:
- describe in which cases water-table drainage is necessary.
DESCRIPTION AD FIJNCTION
The function of water-table drainage is:
to intercept, collect and lead away any flow of subsurface
water in the subgrade of the road;
to lower the water-table;
to drain water "pockets"

Water-table drainage can consist of various types of ditches
and. canals, open or subsurface
The design of these will vary from case to case, and it is the
ob of an engineer to design various types of water-table drainage.
Embankment (valley crossing)

The most common method used is to build. the road on an embankment
so that the road. base is elevatedabove the ground water and the
zone of capillary rise.
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The zone o± capillary rise can be reduced by placing a layer of

porous material like hard core, gravel, sand, etc. at the bottom of
the fill. Another, but rarely used method, is to place an
impervious membrane (plastic sheets) on the existing ground before
the fill is made.
Drains (through swampy areas)

In order to lower a high water-table, drains are dug.
'7
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LE -6 / 3
Frech drains
To diain water pockets French dxains can be constructed.
18
NODULE DRAINACE
Learning Nodule summary and checkpoint

Element
LEARNING- ELEMENT OBJECTIVES
After you have learned LE-7, you should:.
- know why the drainage system is important;
- imow the different types of drains;
- recognise some of the common shortcomings of poor drainage

and suggest how to deal with them.
SU1V]M.ARY
The drainage system is a very important component of a good

earth or gravel road. The different elements of the dra:nage
system are surface drains, side drains, mitre drains, catchment drains,
scour checks, culverts and water-table drains.
The road surf ac.e drain is more commonly known as the camber (in
some cases super elevation).
Side drains are more commonly known as ditches from which the
water is led away in mitre drains.
Oatchwater drains collect and lead away water before it reaches
the road.
Scour checks should be constructed whenever there is risk of
erosion. They can be made of wood, concrete, handpacked stones or
masonry.
Culverts are transversal drains carrying the water under the
road.
Water-table drains are made to lower ground water levels or to
drain water pockets (wells).
N-b
LE -7 / 2
PRO BLENS
Discuss the following problems, their causes and how to solve

them:
ponding of water on the road surface;
stagnant water in the side ditches;
erosion of the road surface along the road and erosion in the
ditches;
erosion of a side cut;
blockage of a culvert.
S MODULE OiICKPOINT
Indicate True (T) or False (F) in the blank.
It is essential that all components in a. drainage

system match each other.
Too little camber can be the result of improper:

levelling of grbund;
ditching;
(k) placing of camber material;
spreading;
width of the road.
5 3. Scour checks are not needed when the soil is

non-cohesive (e.g. sand).
Oatchwater drains are particularly useful in flat areas.
The correct overfill is not so important as long

as the culvert rings are not cracked.
.nswer br4:
1hy is the drainage system so important?
\ihich are the different components in the drainage system?

M-10
LE -7/3
8. What is the purpose of the camber?
0 0
0t 004C00 00000s 0. 004 O .0.00 .0*0*0000 04 000044 000064000.0 S
9. That is the purpose of the side drain?

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How is the side drain constructed?

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0000 0O 000010 SO4 000000eee* 0004000 I, 00.0000
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000.0.
What is the purpose of the mitre drain?

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ditch differ in shape from

12. In what way and why does the man-made
a V-shaped machine-made ditch?
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,øtS. QUSO* 0*00 400*00e0
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. QUIS FOR
When doing the initial survey for
the road, remember the question
of drainage.
strings between the pegs
Then you set out the ditch and slope, tie
to clearly mark the sides of the ditch.
something in a
Always explain to the workers wh they have to do
particular way, e0g. the camber and
why it is so important that it is
correct.
at the first rains
Remember to observe how the drains work
inadecluacies immediately.
followilig their completion and correct any
FIELD INSTRUCTIONS M-lO
DRPJNAGE
Remember that:
- drainage is one of the most important construction activities;
- drainage consists of road surface drainage (camber), side

drains, mitre drains and cross-drains (culverts);
- drainage works should be carried out as soon as possible after

the excavation. Catchwater drains should preferably be
provided before the excavation is done;
S - side drains have a double function:
to collect and lead away the surface water; and
to provide sufficient material for the formation of th

camber of the road (road surface drainage);
- side drains are best done in two separate stages:
trenching (digging of a rectangular or square ditch); and
sloping (completing the ditch, by providing the slope

towards the centre-line of the road);
- scour checks will protect the drainage system and the embank-.
ments against erosion;
- observe closely how the drainage system performs during the

first rains. Correct inadequacies imniediatelyl
EXCAVATING THE TRENCH FOR THE

SIDE DRLIN
Note: The soil must be thrown on to the centre-line.
Method
- Calculate the volume (v) of the excavation by multiplying the

area (a) of the trench by the length (1).
- Calculate the number of men needed for the trenching by dividing

the volume by the productivity rate for the type of soil
concerned.
S - Set out, together with the headman/gang leader, the width (w)
of the trench, with pegs and strings for the distance to be
excavated during the day.
- Instruct the headman/gang leader on how many men are needed

and which tools to use.
- Give the headman/gang leader measuring sticks to check the width
and the depth. of the trench.
Oontrol
Before approving the work, ensure that the answer to the following
questions is tye5I:
- are the dimensions of the trench. correct?
- has the soil been placed on the centre-line?
Tools
For excavation: hoe, forked hoe, mattock, fork, spade, pickaxe and
shovel.
For setting out and control: strings, pegs, measuring tape and
measuring sticks.
SLOPING OP SIDE DRAINS
Note: As for trenching, the soil should be thrown on to the

centre-line.
Nethod
- Calculate the volume to be excavated by multiplying the area of
the triangular section by the length to be covered during
the day.
- Calculate the number of men required by dividing the volume by

S the appropriate task rate.
- Set out the width of th.e slope with pegs and strings, i.e. a
string parallel to th,e excavated trench.
- Instruct the headman/gang leader and workers; the workers

should loosen the soil into th,e trench from where it should be
thrown on to the centre-line.
C ontrol
Before approving th,e work, ensure that the answer to the

following questions is "Yes":
- are the measurements correct? Check with a wooden mallet

having the sh.ape of the ditch cross-section;
- is the surface between the string and the bottom of the slope
straight and without a "hump"?
- has the soil been placed on the centre-line?
Tools
- As for trench.ing plus a mallet showing the shape of the completed

ditch.
S
CAMBER FORMA.TION
The formation of the camber follows immediately after the sloping

and consists of spreading the soil heaped along the centre-line
towards the sides of the road. The spreading should be done in such
a way that a camber of 5-7 per cent is obtained.
Method
- Calculate the volume to be spread by adding the volumes for the
ditching and sloping over the distance in cluestion.
- Calculate the number of men needed by dividing the volume of

work by the task rate for spreading.
- Instruct the gang leader/headman on the tasks, the number of

workers and th.e tools to be used.
- Instruct th,e workers that the soil has to be spread (raked)

from the heap along th,e centre-line towards the edges of the
road.
- Tell th.e workers why the camber is necessary, explaining that

rain-water must run off the road surface quickly because
standing water weakens the road and very quickly makes it
impassable to traffic.
- Inspect the work and measure the camber with a camberboard

(a straight-edge board of a predetermined shape). The
camberboard is used in combination with a spirit-level.
FIELD INSTRUCTIONS N-b
CM[BER FORMATION (contd.)
Control
Before the camber fomation can start:
- is the soil from the trenching and sloping placed as a ridge

along the centre-line?
Before approving the work:
- is the gradient of the camber correct?
- are there any depressions in the road surface?
- is the crown (the highest point) of the road on the centre-line

in the middle of the road?
Tools
For spreading: spreader (heavy rake, hoe or shovel).
For control: camberboaTd (straight-edge board and spirit-level).

FIELD INSTRUCTIONS N-b
SCOUR CHECKS
Scour checks reduce the speed of water in the ditches and thus
reduce the scouring. They should be provided whenever the gradient
of the side drain is greater than 6 per cent. Some soils erode
more easily than others and on such, soils scour checks might be
necessary even at lower gradients. (You can see this when inspect-
ing th.e road after the first rains.)
Method
- When the side drain has been excavated, measure the gradient
with, a dumpy level, abney level or a measuring tape/spirit-
level.
- Find the scour check interval from the learning text table;
the steeper the gradient, the shorter the distance between
the scour checks.
- Deepen and widen the ditch at the place of the scour check
to be able to properly place and secure the boulders or
stakes used to construct the check.
- When stakes are used, they should be driven deep into the
ground and supported with stones on th,e lower side.
Control
- Ensure that the scour checks have been placed at the correct
intervals and that they are properly constructed.
LAYING CULVERTS
Method
- Set out the position of the culvert lines on the lowest points
in the alignment and on additional places as required.
- Determine how deep the culvert trench will have to be (the

diameter of the ring + 15 cm gravel bed if necessary +
overfill). Do not forget that the outlet should be deeper
than the inlet (gradient multiplied by length of trench).
- Calculate the number of rings needed by dividing the width of

the road (at the level where the culvert will be laid) by
the length of one ring.
- Calculate the volume of the trench (length x width x depth).
- Transport the rings to the site, keep one ring in reserve on

the site in case a ring breaks during the laying.
- Set out the outlet ditch (mitre drain) and the culvert trench
with pegs and strings.
- Excavate the outlet ditch before the culvert trench is
excavated to avoid the ponding of water.
- Excavate the trench; remember that not more than 3 to 4 people

can work effectively at the same time in the trench. With
trained workers, the work can be done as task work.
- Prepare the culvert bed, using gravel if necessary. Ensure
that the culvert bed is laid to the correct gradient; check
the gradient with a string or straight-edge board, combined
with a spirit-level and measuring tape.
- Lower the pipes with ropes and place them in the correct
position.
- Cover the joints with tar paper, backfill and compact in thin
layers; add water if necessary to obtain proper compaction; the
layers of backfill should not be thicker than 15 cm.
- Construct aprons and headwalls if required..

FIELD INSTRUCTIONS N-lO
LAYING OULVERTS (contd..)
Control
- Before starting the work on the trench:
- is the outlet or mitre drain ready?
- are the rings on site and undamaged?
- Before laying the rings:
- is the gradient of the bed correct (3-5 per cent)?
- is the bed properly shaped and compacted?
S Before approving the total work:
- is the backfill properly done?
- iS the compaction satisfactory?
- are both inlets and outlets cleared?
Tools
- For excavation: hoes, forked hoes, mattocks, forks, pickaxes
and shovels.
- For lowering rings: strong ropes, car tyres as "cushions".
- For properly placing the rings: wooden stakes (not crowbars).
- For compaction: hand-rainniers.
- For setting out and control: strings, straight-edge board,
spirit-level, tape measure.
S
Module 11
Soil mechanics
S NODULE SOIL IVIECHANICS
Learning Module learning objectives and content

Element
NODULE LEARNING- OBJECTIVES

After you have learned this module you should be able to:
- explain the principles of soil mechanics and describe when

and how soil mechanics are applied in road construction;
- carry out simple field tests to determine the most important

characteristics of soils;
- describe the functions of surface layers and. the desirable

composition of soils used for surface layers;
- explain the function of mechanical and chemical stabilisation

and describe when and how mechanical and chemical
stabilistion are applied in road construction.
MODULE CONTENT
LE-O Nodule learning objectives 'and content
LE-1 Nature and definition of soil mechanics
LE-2 Simple field tests to determine soil properties
LE-3 Function and composition of a surface layer
LE-4 Improvement of soils by mechanical means
]IE-5 Improvement of soils by chemical means
LE-6 Module summary. and checkpoint

SOIL MECHANICS
Learning Nature and definition of soil mechanics

Element
LEARNING ETIMENT OBJECTI1TES

After you have learned this element you should be able to:
- explain the principles and function of soil mechanics;
- describe how soils can be characterised;
- describe for which purposes soil mechanics are applied in
road construction.
GENERAL
Soil mechanics e applied to find out what different soils

consist of and how they behave; also, to find out how soils
(or mixtures of soils) can be improved so that they are suitable
for various puiposes (dam building, base layers, surface layers,
etc.).
Soils can be characterisd by a description of the following
properties:
(i) the proportions of different grain sizes;
S (ii) permeability;
cohesion;
plasticit;
consolidation.
Simple tests are carried out to define these properties. It
should be remembered that many soils are mixtures of e.g. gravel/
sand/clay or silt/sand/clay. Therefore, although a series of
simple field tests will provide an indication of the properties to
be expected from a particular soil, laboratory tests will be
necessary if a detailed soil classification is required.
-ll
LE-l/2
Road construction
There are many different types of soil and some are not
suitable for road construction. Before starting to build a
road it is therefore important to find out which kinds of soil
there are along the planned alignment. By taking samples of
the soil and examining them, one can find the places which would
cause problems, e.g. areas with black cotton soil or loose sand.
If the road cannot be taken around such areas of difficult
soil, it is sometimes possible to improve the behaviour of the
soil. Some ways of doing this are: (i) mixing it with another
type of soil, (ii) adding chemicals to it, and (iii) providing a
surface layer.
A knowledge of soil mechanics will help you, in judging what
to do in different circumstances.
MODULE SOIL MECHANICS
Learning Simple field tests to determine soil

Element properties

- carry out three different preliminary tests to roughly

determine the nature of the soil;
- carry out two tests to determine the proportions of the

coarse and fine particles in a sample and one test to roughly
deteruiine the quantity of silt and clay present in the
finest fraction;
- describe how fractions of soil are classifiedaccording to

grain sizes;
- carry out two tests to determine whether a fine-grained soil

contains mainly clay or silt.
I1 is possible to say a lot about a soil by only looking at

it and touching it. Before any other tests are carried out the
following preliminary identification should be made:
- Grain sizes. Is the soil mainly coarse or fine? Try to

separate the coarse particles from the fine ones and roughly
estimate which percentages are coarse/fine. Press the big
particles between your fingers to find out if they consist
of many small particles bound together (e.g. hard lumps of
clay).
- auie material. Does the soil contain many fibres or

small roots? Does it look dull or dirty? When the soil
smells earthy or of plants, it is likely to be organic.
This odour will become more distinct when the sample is
heated.
- Silt/clay or sand/gravel. Dry soils which contain a

large percentage of sand/gravel feel coarse and gritty,
while dry clay feels hard and smooth. Dry silt feels
floury and will disintegrate into a fine powder when rubbed.
LE-2/2
When wet, sand/gravel will not stick to the fLngers; while

wet clays aiid silts feel sticky and will stain the fingers.
Since the particle sizes determine to a great extent the

properties of a particular soil, the first tests we will discuss
deal with this aspect. Particles are classified according to
their size into fractions (gravels, sands, clays, or silt).
Table 1 shows the sizes and basic characteristics of these
fractions.
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M-ll
LE-2/4
Three simple tests to determine the proportions of gravel, sand and

fine particles in a soil sample:
(1) Vibration test

Figure 1 shows an easy way to separate particles according to
their respective sizes. First, place a dry sample on a board or a
piece of cardboard. When you lift this board at one end and tap it
slightly, the particles will be separated as the difference in weight
will cause the finer ones to stay high and coarser ones to move down-
ward.
Jji&.joy
If there are a lot of different sizes between the largest and

the smallest, the sample is well graded. If only a few sizes can
be seen, the sample is single-sized or poorly graded. Single-
sized materials do not compact well, because there are no suitably
sized small particles to fill the empty spaces between the bigger
particles and to produce "mechanical interlock".
]Y.[-il
TiE- 2/5
(2) Settling test

An easily carried out method to define the proportions of the
various soil fractions is the settling test (figure 2). A sample
is placed in a glass jar with straight sides. Approximately half
of the jar should be filled. Then water is added until the jar is
three-quarters full. Add some salt to the water, as this will
improve the settling of the finer materials. The jar is shaken
vigorously and the soil is allowed to settle.
The gravel and coarse sand fractions will settle immediately.

The finer sand and the coarse silt fractions settle more slowly,
taking approximately half a minute. The clay and fine silt
ractions will remain in suspension for some hours before they
settle. The approximate quantities of each size can be seen as
layers in the sample..
(3) Cohesion test

To determine whether a soil contains an important quantity of
silts or clays, a handful of moistened soil should be moulded into
a ball. When silts or clays are present, the ball will stay together
and the hands will be stained. When the sample contains only fine
sand the ball will stick together but will crumble at a touch. Then
when the sample contains only coarse sand or gravel, the material
cannot be inoulded at all.
M-ll
LE-2/6
The above tests have shown how you can determine the proportions
of coarse and fine particles and define whether silt or clay is
present. We will now discuSs three tests designed to define the
clay and silt proportions within the fines fraction of the soil.
Silts and clays

Dry lumps of silt will tend to crumble and disintegrate into
a fine powder when rubbed. Dry silt will rapidly absorb water.
Dry lumps of clay will be hard when a lump of clay is broken

into smaller lumps; the exposed surfaces will have a glossy appearance.
Dry clay will not rapidly absorb water. The following tests can be
used to find out if a soil consists of clay:
Moulding. test
When moistened, it will..bè possible to mould clay into a thread.

Moist silt, however, will crumble or form small short threads (figure 3).
LE- 2 / 7
Drying test
Fill a matchbox with a moistened sample and allow the sample
to dry out.
S c's do
Figure 4 shows that clay after drying out will have shrunk and
cracked. Silt will not shrink, but tends to crumble after it has
dried.
As we have said before, many soils are mixtures of various
fractions. This means that the results of the tests described
above can only provide indications as to the behaviour which can
be expected from these soils. Laboratory tests will always be
necessary when a detailed soil classification is re uired.
To suminarise the above tests, it can be said that:
5 (1) Ooarse grain soils can be identified by the size of the

particles.
Fine grain soils can be identified by their behaviour when
they are wet or dry.
Organic soils can be identified by their smell and appearance.
Table 2 shows how you can describe different soils after testing.
Figure 5 shows the various steps to be taken when a soil sample

is tested.
S
Table 2: Recognition of soils
Feature Description of Soil description

characteristics
(a) (b) (c)
tStrength Cohesive Mainly clay fraction, strength

from "binder" action
S S S 55 U S SS OS SS II SOC S C U S S S 0* 0-
SCS
Non-cohesive Mathly sand gravel, strength

from friction (mechanical
interlock)
Particle or Coarse grain Mainly sands and gravels

am size (larger than 75 micron sieve)
Fine grain Mainly silts and clays

(passing through 75 micron
sieve)
Particle size Well graded Wide range of sizes well

Distribution distributed
or grading
Poorly graded Too much of some sizes;
shortages of @thers
(coarse grain soil Uniformly graded - limited range of sizes

fraction) (closely graded, - mainly one size
single sized)
Contaminated by Organic or Dull and dark in colour, has

animal or vegetable humic, peaty distinct odour. Topsoil is
emains almost always organic
Swamp soils
Texture Gravelly or stony Mainly large particles of roc

may be dense or loose
Sandy Coarse to fine gritty soil.

May be loose or dense. Pirm
when damp
Loamy Mixtures of silts, sands and

clays, may be firm or soft
Silty Pine soft soil, powdery when

dry, very soft when wet
Clayey Pine soil, hard lumps when dr

and cracked surface
Sticky and soft when wet
Ciayey loam, silty Any mixture in which one

clay, etc. fraction, i.e., silt or clay
is in the majority, giving its1
characteristic to the soil
texture
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MODULE SOIL MECHANICS M-ll
Learning Function and composition of a surface layer LE-3/l

Element
LEARNING ELEMENT OBJEOTLVES
- explain the function of a surface layer;
- describe when a soil is suitable to be used as surfacing

material;
- describe the functions and desirable quantities of the

various fractions in a surface layer soil.
A road can, be built up of a number of different layers:

subgrade, sub-base, base and surface layer. Roads which are
built for traffic by a few light vehicles or on very good soils
do not need all these different layers; it is usually sufficient
to put on a good surface layer. Sometimes even the natural soil
is strong enough to carry the projected number of vehicles.
Surface layers serve to spread the traffic load (usually through
a base), so that the subgrade (natural) soil is protected from
overloading and deformation. Bituminous surface layers also
seal the surface and prevent surface water (rain) from penetrating
and. weakening the base and subgrade.
In the case of a gravelled road this function is carried out

partly by the gravel layer and partly by the camber of the road.
The type (bitumen, gravel, stabilised soil or natural soil)
and. thickness of the surface layer should ideally be determined
by the expected traffic density and the type of the natural soil.
However, usually other factors, such as available funds, the
location of the road and the availability of suitable material in
the area are more important when surface layers are designed.
The suitability of a soil for a surface layer depends on its
behaviour in dry and wet weather. In dry weather a fairly high
proportion of clay is desirable to bind the particles together and
to prevent corrugation. However, in wet weather the presence of
a lot of clay in the mixture is disadvantageous, because it makes
the surface slippery and ruts are easily formed.. Therefore, the
specifications for a soil to be used as a surface layer have to be
a compromise between the ideal requirements for wet and. dry weather.
As a rough guide, a mixture of 35-65 per cent stones, 20-40
per cent sand and 10-25 per cent clay will produce an optimum soil
for a surface layer. A higher proportion (up to 65 per cent) of
suitably sized. stones is preferable, as the strength and. density
M-ll
LE- 3 / 3
S
of the hard. stones will provide a stronger surface. The gravel
will behave better if the stones in the mixture are of various
sizes tiwell graded", so that the voids in between the particles
are filled. Angular-shaped particles are preferable, because
they will "lock" together better than round particles.
Pure clay and silts, mixtures of silt and. clay, and organic
soils are generally unsuitable for surface layers.
The stony particles to be used in a surface layer should not
be bigger than 3 cm in order to obtain a reasonably smooth finish.
Bigger particles should be crushed by hand or by roller.
J j..are s1otes 1v' co1-o.d W%4 e.OdA O4A.

o 5,1te' ove joli o&weC lcrev Ytes.
Fi17 ..:. ;e.va UYt dcu 4e ai1ides -\ceer.
A good. surface layer should spread. the traffic load. evenly

Sto the underLying base and. prevent water from penetrating. It
should also be resistant to corrugation and. provide a non-slippery
and dust-free su±face.
Although such surfaces can hardly be made with earth or
gravel, fair results can be achieved by avoiding pure clays and.
silts, mixtures of clays and. silt, and organic soils.
A mixture of some 10-25 per cent clay and. a good gravel

(i.e. small stones of d.jfferent sizes + sand) can provide a very
good surface material.
Sand/clay mixtures also provide reasonable surfaces, although
the strength and. durability are less than a mixture in which stones
. (gravel) are present. Here again, not more than 25 per cent
clay should be present in the mixture.
MODULE SOIL ?LECBANICS N-li
Learning Improvement of soils by mechanical means LE-4/l

Element

- describe what mechanical stabilisation is and when and

why it is applied;
- describe two examples of mechanical stabilisation;
- carry out a test to determine the best mix of a clay and

sandy/gravel soil;
- explain the function of compaction;
- describe various methods to compact soil;
- explain how compaction is specified in big road construction

projects;
- describe a method of road construction in black cotton soil.
Instead of, or in combination with, the placing of a surface

layer, the stability and strength of the soil can be improved by
mechanical stabilisation. Mechanical stabilisation includes:
(i) the mixing of imported materials with in situ soil; and
(2) compaction.
The soil strength and stability is greatest when the soil

contains the right quantities of hrd, well-graded coarse particles
and a binder of cohesive soil.
Four factors contribute to this strength and stability:
the hardness and shape of the coarse particles. An angular
shape is preferable, because the particles will lock together
better;
when the right quantities of coarse, medium and fine material

of various sizes (well graded) are present and mixed in the
soil, the empty space between the particles will be filled
and the soil will have a high bearing capacity and density.
The maximum desirable size of the coarse particles is 30 mm;
M-l1
LE-4/2
(3) when the right amount (10-25 per cent) of clayey material is
present the stone and sand particles will be glued together
by the cohesive qualities of the clay. Twenty-five per cent.
clay should be the maximum allowed; a lower proportion is
desirable;
(4) the large particles within the soil will form a skeleton.
When a load is applied to the soil, the resulting friction
between the particles will contribute much to its stability.
When a soil does not have the qualities described above the
soil composition can sometimes be improved by adding the missing
components. For example, in dry desert areas, much can be done
to improve the running surface of sand roads if clayey soil is
mixed with the sand. In wet areas with a lot of clayey soil,
the road can be improved by mixing in gravel or even decomposing
rock or other material which contains a substantial proportion of
hard angular particles.
To determine the best mix, the following test can be carried
out:
Take a substantial (minimum about 50 kg) sample of the soils

to be investigated. Try two or three mixtures, e.g. 1:1,
2:1 or 2:3. Thoroughly mix the soils and add approximately
10 per cent water. Pack the mixtures into suitable small
containers and add more water. Observe which mix is the
densest after the samples have dried.
-ll
LE-4/ 3
S
Compaction
Compaction is used to pack the soil particles closer to ether,
so that a more dense and stable soil results.
A volume of soil is composed of three components - solid soil
particles, water and air. Air does not contribute to the strength
and stability of the soil but, on the contrary, reduces its stability
by allowing water movement within the soil. A certain optimum
quantity of water (which is different for each soil type and varies
usually between 8 and 20 per cent) simplifies the compaction and
contributes to the soil's strength and stability, because it lubricates
5 the particles and allows them to settle in a dense mass.

or too little water is not good.
Too much
Less water is required for well-
graded gravel/sand/clay mixtures.
too VCEA Tóc he Correcr

(1e*'moveme l\O
S) (1* 4io cavwt4 be (ee. ct')
e. cocA-or)
There are several ways to compact soil:

apply a dead weight or surchare on top of the soil (non-
vibrating rollers);
use manually or mechanically operated tampers or rammers;
apply a vibrating weight on top of the soil to overcome the

frictions between the partLcles and to cause them to pack
together more closely (vibrating rollers). This type of
compaction is suited to granular soils, not to clayey/silty
soils.
N-li
LE-4/4
(4) leave the soil to settle naturally (indirect compaction) by

leaving it for a period of time. Rainfall and the passing
of traffic (which should be sensibly channelled to achieve
an even compaction) will produce densiti,es of the same values
as achieved on normally compacted roads. The main disadvantage
of this last method of compaction is that it requires a longer
period (two-three months) to reach a good degree of density,
whi1e in the meantime, the soil is exposed to erosion.
The required state of compaction is normally specified relative

to a laboratory compaction test. Por example, compaction to 95 per
cent means that the dry density of samples taken in the field should
S be 95 per cent of the dry density obtained in a specified laboratory
compaction test.
If there is a choice of roller, rubber-tyred rollers are most
flexible and can be used on most soil types. Loaded vehicles used
for hauling (dump trucks, tractors and trailers) also compact very
effectively. The drivers should be instructed to pass over the
spread layer several times before they dump their load of material.
Steel-wheeled rollers do not have the "kneeding" effect of rubber-
tyred. rollers and tend to compact unevenly, especially on soils
spread by manual means. These rollers are most effective on the
compaction of evenly spread surface material.
Sheep's-foot rollers are best suited to clayey soils. They
are not very effective on sand and silt.
"Black cotton" soil

ThIs type of soil is unsuitable to serve as a base for roads.
When its moisture content changes it swells/shrinks rapidly. A
good way of controlling these changes in volume is to provide a
layer (minimum 15 cm thick) of sand between the black cotton soil
and the surfacing layer. It is also recoimuended to increase the
thickness of the gravel layer.
MODULE SOIL MECHANICS
Learning Improvement of soils by chemical means

Element

- explain what chemical stabilisation is;
- describe when and why chemical stabilisation is applied;
- describe two methods to carry out chemical stabilisation.
Roads provided with a bituminous surface layer must have a

base layer which:
is strong enough to carry the traffic loads as they are being
transmitted through the bitumen layer;
is of uniform quality so that the traffic loads will be
uniformly distributed to the subgrade;
allows as little water as possible to seep through;
does not change its properties when wet.
One method to provide a suitable base layer for a bitumen

surfaced road is to mix the natural soil with cement or lime.
The soil becomes more stable, because the cement or lime reacts
chemically with the soil particles and binds them together.
Organic soils cannot be stabilised with cement or lime
because they contain components (acid) which prevent this chemical
reaction from taking place.
The soils to be chemically stabilised should have three
characteristics:
(1) it should be possible to break them into fine particles, so

that they can be mixed properly with the stabiliser (cement!
lime);
(2) they should be well graded;
(3) they should be free from organic particles.

IE-5/2
soils is
The important advantage of cement/lime-stabilised
that they have a high strength in both dry and wet conditions.
The proportion of cement or lime required normally ranges between
of the dry soil. While cement can be
3 and 7 per cent by weight
used to stabilise both plastic (clay containing) and non-plastic
soils, the presence of clay minerals is necessary when lime is
used as the stabiliser.
When the thickness of the layer to be stabilised is known,
the volume per square metre can be calculated. For example, when
a 20 cm layer is to be stabilised, this means a volume of
0.2 x 1 x l=O.2m3 per square metre. The density of the dry soil
can be determined in a laboratory test. For example, if this
density is 1,000 kg/m3 this means that the weight of the layer
per square metre is 200 kg. With a cement proportion of 5 per
cent, this mean that 10 kg per square metre are required (one bag
per 5 square metres).
MODULE SOIL IVIECHANICS M-ll
Learning Module summary and checkpoint LE-6/l

Element
- explain the principles of soil mechanics and describe when

and how soil mechanics are applied in road construction;
- describe simple field tests to determine the most important

characteristics of soils;
- describe the function of surface layers and the desirable

composition of soils used for surface layers;
- explain the function of mechanical and chemical stabilisation

and describe when, and how mechanical and chemical stabilisation
is applied in road construction.
SLThIMY
Soil mechanics serves:

to determine the composition and the properties of the soils;
to define how the strength and stability of soils can be

improved, so that they are more suited for construction
purposes.
- Coarse grain soils can be identified by the sizes of the

particles.
- Pine grain soiis can be identiXied by their behaviour when

dry and wet.
- Organic soil has a distinct smell and appearance.
Table 1 on LE-2/3 shows the characteristics and properties of

the various soil fractions.
M-ll
LE-6/2
Surface layers consisting of gravel or improved soil serve

to spread the traffic load through to the natural soil, so that
this natural soil is protected from overloading and deformation.
An optimum soil for a surface layer will contain 35-65 per

cent well-graded angular-shaped gravel, 20-40 per ceit well-
graded sand and 10-25 per cent clay. Silt is not suitable for
use in road construction.
Mechanical stabilisation includes (i) the mixing of soils
in order to obtain a more suitable composition and (2') compaction
to improve the density and. stability.
Compaction can be done best when the soil contains a certain
amount of water (the optimum moisture content). Compaction
increases the bearing capacity of a soil and its resistance to
water movement, because the particles are packed densely together.
Chemical stabilisation is the mixing of soils with cement or
hydrated. lime. Chemically stabilised soils serve as base layers
for bituminised roads and are not suitable as surface layers.
PRO BLEMS
Discuss the following problems and recommend a suitable

solution:
A road leads through clayey terrain a.nd becomes impassable
in wet weather. Recommend two different approaches to make
the road passable. Calculate for each solution how much
material would have to be imported per kilometre of road and
describe which operations haite to be carried out to implement
the solution.
When the terrain mentioned in (1) consists of silt, can we
use the same approaches as above? If not, can you suggest
an alternative?
When a certain fine grained soil was tested in the field, all
field tests indicated that this soil consisted of a mixture
of clay and silt. Laboratory tests proved that the soil
contained 60 per cent silt, 30 per cent clay and 10 per cent
sand.. Can we mechanically stabilise this soil? If yes,
which materials should be added? Can we chemically
stabilize this soil? If yes, should we use cement or lime?
N-il
LE-6/3
MODULE OEIEOKPOINT
Indicate True (T) or False (P) in the blank:
Organic soil mixed with the right amount of

clay can be chemically stabilised with lime
A mixture of sand and clay can be suitable for

a surface layer of a rural road with a
traffic density of approximately 50 vehicles
per day
Dry silt rapidly absorbs water
A sample of wet silt will shrink when it is

dried
Answer briefly:
What is the meaning of the word "well graded" in soil
mechanics?
What would be an ideal mixture for a rural road surface

layer soil? Comment on the sizes of the different soil
fractions.
Why is a road compacted and why is an optimum moisture

content important?
FIELD INSTRUOTIONS M-ll
FIELD TESTS TO DETEENINE THE NATURE OF THE SOIL
Remember that:
- before starting to build a road you should find out which

kinds of soil there are, along the planned alignment. Take
some samples of the different types of soils you find along
the road;
- local people living along existing old tracks can often

provide valuable information concerning:
(j) the behaviour of streams and rivers;
the behaviour of soil types (black cotton soil, clay,

loose sand) in different types of weather;
the location of gravelling material;
- to determine the proportions of gravel, sand and fine particles

in a soil sample, you can do the vibration test and the settling
test. The cohesion test will tell you whether or not the
soil contains silt or clays. Dry sand/gravel soils feel
coarse and gritty. Dry clay feels hard and smooth. Dry
silt feels floury. Wet clayey, silty soils feel sticky and
will stain the fingers;
- the moulding test and the drying test will help you to
distinguise clay from silt. Noist clay can be moulded into
long threads and cracks and shrinks when it dries out. Moist
silt forms, when moulded, only short threads. Dry silt will
crumble and disintegrate into fine powder if it is lightly
rubbed;
- organic material (topsoil) contains many fibres or small roots

and smells distinctly earthy and of plants, especially when
heated.
FIELD INSTRU0TIOTS N-li
TEE G-RAIrEL LAR

Remember that:
- a mixture of roughly 35-65 per cent stones, 20-40 per cent

sand and 10-25 per cent clay will produce a good surface
layer. The stone proportion should preferably be on the
high side (between 50 and 65 per cent);
- the stone fraction in the mixture should be well graded,
i.e. of various sizes;
- clayey, silty and organic soils are generally unsuitable for
surface layer;
- stony particles bigger than 3 cm should be crushed with a

sledge-hammer or by roller;
- if stones (gravel) are not available, reasonable surface

layers can be obtained by a mixture of sand and clay (maximum
proportion of clay 25 per cent).
FIELD INSTRUCTIONS M-ll
COIVIPACTI ON
Remember that:
- compaction is used to pack the soil particles closer together

so that a denser and more stable soil results;
- compaction is best done when the soil contains a certain
quantity of water (between S and 20 per cent);
- compaction can be done by non-vibrating rollers, vibrating

rollers, mechanically operated tampers, hand-raxnmers or
indirectly by natural settling;
- vibrating rollers are performing best on granular soils;
- rubber-tyred rollers can be used on most soil types;
- loaded vehthles cati also be used quite effectively to compact,
e.g. freshly dumped gravel;
- sheeps'-foot rollers are best suited to clayey soils;
- black cotton soil shrinks and swells rapidly when it dries
out or becomes wet and is therefore unsuitable material for
a road base. If the alignment passes through a black cotton
soil area, a sand layer of minimum 15 cm thickness should be
provided before the surface layer is placed. nother way
of limiting the bad effects of the black cotton soil is to
provide a gravel layer of an increased width and thickness.
Module 12
Concrete technology
MODULE CONCRETE TECHNO 10 GY M-12

Element
MODULE LEARI'IING OBJECTIVES

- describe the composition of concrete;
- describe the various steps in the manufacturing process;
- explain how concrete should be placed, compacted and cixred;
- describe how the ingredients should be stored, mixed and handled;
- describe how concrete culvert rings are manufactured.
MODULE CONTENT
LE-1 Definition and characteristics of concrete
LE-2 Cement (properties and storage)
LE-3 Aggregate
LE-4 The manufacture of concrete
SLE-5 Placing, compacting and curing of concrete
LE-6 Manufacture of concrete culvert rings

MODULE CONCRETE TECB1TOLOG-Y
Learning Definition and characteristics of concrete

Element
LE.AB.NING- ELEMENT OBJECTIVES
- explain the nature and composition of concrete;
- describe the different factors influencing its final strength;
- explain why concrete is reinforced in certain circumstances
DEPINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS
Concrete i a mixture of aggregate, adhesive and waer. The

aggregate usually comprises a mixture of various sizes of gravel and
sand. Cement is normally used as the adhesive, i.e. binding the
aggregate together. When water is added to the adhesive, a chemical
reaátion takes place which causes the mix to harden.
Figure 1 shows the composition of concrete.

N-l2
LE -1/2
The density and strength of the finished concrete very much

depends on the distribution of the particle sizes.
It is therefore very important to mix the right quantities of
various sizes of gravel and sand.
The bigger-sized particles of the gravel form the skeleton of
the concrete which gives the concrete its compression strength. The
smaller-sized gravel particles and the sand fill the empty spaces
between the bigger particles, while the water cement paste fills the
smallest spaces, coats the particles of the aggregate and binds these
together. By using different qua.ntities of gravel, sand and
cement, concrete of various strengths can be produced. The desired
inix therefore depends on the purposes for which the concrete is to be
used.
When, after the aggregate and the adhesive have been thoroughly
mixed, water is added the concrete stays a.s a flexible plastic
material for approximately one hour. It should therefore be handled
quickly and poured into its final shape before the setting starts.
The compression strength of the concrete increases continually

until approximately 95 per cent of the final strength has been reached
after a period of 28 days. The increase in strength is most rapid
during the first 24 hours of the hä.rdening process.
The tensile strength of concrete is low. To improve the tensile

S strength reinforcement steel is embedded in the concrete in those
places where tensile stress will occur. After being firmly attached
to the hardened concrete the steel bars serve to take the tension
(reinforced concrete). The climatic conditions greatly influence the
final strength of the concrete. When the outside temperature is high,
the water in the concrete will evaporate quickly which may give rise
to cracking and loss in strength.
A high humidity is an advantage because this causes the setting
and hardening process to take place more gradually. The ideal
climatic conditions for setting and hardening are a constant
temperature of 2000 and a relative humidity of 80-90 per cent.
MODULE CONCRETE TEOIThIOLOGY M-l2
Learning Cement (properties and. storage) LE-2/1

El enient

After you have learned. this element, you should be able to:
- understand the nature of cement and its function in the

manufacture of concrete;
- understand the importance of careful handling and proper

storage;
- describe the correc± manner of storage.
CEMENT D PROPERTIES
Cement is made from a mixture of lime-based material and clayey
material. Cement and water react chemically. This chemical action
causes the water-cement paste to harden and to become a solid mass.
As discussed in LE-1, we make use of this property of cement to bind
aggregate, sand and cement particles together to obtain concrete.
The very fine cement particles also fill the smallest empty spaces,
thereby giving the concrete its density and impermeability. It is
understandable therefore that within certain limits, concrete becomes
stronger when more cement is used.
However, cement is the most costly of the materials required to
make concrete. This implies that in order to minimise the costs of
the concrete, ±he amount of cement used will depend on the purpose
for which the concrete is required.
Concrete used for culvert beds and foundations needs less cement
than concrete used in reinforced bridgedecks. Table 1 shows the
cement proportion (kg/m3) in various types of concrete.
M-12
LE - 2/2
S
Table 1: Cement required for 1 ill5 of finished concrete
Type of concrete Purpose kg cement/m3 concrete
Lean concrete Culvert beds 175

Mass concrete Foundations, etc. 250
Dense concrete Culvert pipes, light
reinforced structures 300-350
Dense, plastic concrete Heavy reinforced
structures 350-450
It is important to remember that the cement bags must be handled

carefully. If a bag is torn the moisture in the atmosphere will be
sufficient to tart the chemical action causing the cement to harden.
Hardened pieces found when using the cement must be removed, because
the strength of the concrete will be reduced if they remain inside
the batch. The bags have to be stored in such a way that the chances
of the bags getting damp are minimised. Figure 2 shows a correctly
constructed cement store. The floor is at least 30 cm from the
ground, firstly to avoid moisture penetration from below into the
floor of the store and secondly to ensure a better ventilation.
mn cm
S
MODULE CONCRETE TECHNDLOG-Y M-l2
Learning Aggregate LE-3/l

Element

After you have learned this element, you should be able to:
- explain the function of the aggregate in concrete;
- describe various sources and types of aggregates;
- explain the precautions to be taken in the selection, use and

storage of the aggregates.
The aggregate forms the "skeleton" of the concrete. Various

sizes of aggregate are required to make a strong concrete. Stone
grains up to 5 mm (usually sand) are used as "fine" aggregate, while
stone grains bigger than 5 mm (gravel, crushed stone) constitute
the "coarse" aggregate.
Aggregate can be obtained from various sources. Natural
aggregates for direct use without any mechanical treatment can be
extracted from riverbeds, gravel pits, sea and. the dunes. These
aggregates have round and polished particles.
Before using aggregates for concrete manufacture it is advisable
to carry out tests to ensure that the particles are of sufficient
strength and are not prone to erode or deteriorate. Sands from
gneiss or mica schist and soft lime stones are examples of unsuitable
aggregate material for concrete manufacture.
The porosity percentage of aggregate should be very small and

the materials should be neither brittle nor soft. For large works
it is common practice to produce aggregates by crushing hard rock,
such as basalt, quartzite, granite, limestone and porphyry.
Aggregate particles produced in this manner are usually sharp edged
and. angular.
In piincip1e it is advantageous to use natural rather than

crushed aggregate for concrete work as the round shape of natural
M-12
LE-3/2
?Ioreover, the
aggregate increases the workability of the mix.
and water
particles have a smaller surface area so tha.t less cement
axe needed to obtain the required strengths.
However, a well graded, well compacted concrete mix with
concrete,
angular aggregate particles also produces an excellent
strong "skeleton".
because the particles "lock" together to form a
If the aggregate contains a large percentage of flat saucer-
shaped particles it should be rejected as far more cement and water
would be reciuired to obtain acceptable results.
It is necessary to wash the aggregate if it contains impurities,

the finished concrete.
as these negatively influence the strength of
of shrinkage, and
Clay impurities, especially, cause a high level
Dust and
prevent the concrete-steel adhesion in reinforced concrete.
strength and chemical
fine crushing residues reduce the mechanical
resistance. To keep the aggregate clean, they should be stored on
clean hard ground (preferably a concrete floor) away from trees.
avoid
When possible, aggregates should be stored under shelter to
changes of the moisture content.
Aggregates of different sizes should be stored separately. Too
other
often, heaps of different-sized gravels are dumped next to each
with no separation in between. ¶Phe heaps overflowing into each other
cause the different sizes to get mixed.
As a result it will be very
difficult to obtain a mixture containing the right quantities of
different-sized aggregates.
. MODULE
Learning
Element
CONCRETE TECI]NOLOGY
The manufacture of concrete

M-12
LE-4/l
LE.AB1cING- ELEMENT OBJECTIVES
- explain how the density and final strength of the concrete is

influenced by the proportions of the components;
- describe various mixtures for different types of concrete;
- say approximately how much concrete of various types can be

produced with one bag of cement;
- describe how concrete is mixed by hand and by concrete mixer.
The final strength of the finished concrete depends on:
the proportions of the components (i.e. whether the correct

quantities of gravel, sand, cement and water have been used);
the quality of the components;
the distribution of the grain sizes of the gravel and sand;
the way the components are mixed;
the way the mixture is transported, placed, compacted and cured.
Proportion of the components

Then the mixture is prepared take care that:
the proportions of the aggregates used. in the mixture are correct;
the right quantities of cement and water are added2
The water should be fresh and clean.. If the only available

water contains a lot of silt, it could be stored in drums to allow
the silt to settle on the bottom of the drum before use.
H -J- 2
12-4/2
Sand. and. gravel contain parti.bles of different sizes with empty

spaces in between. Generally, you can assume that sand and gravel,
in a d.ry condition, consist of 60 per cent solid mattei and. 40 per, cent
empty spaces.
To obtain a dense conci'ete the' mpty spaces need to be filled.
The empty spaces between the sand grains will be filled by the cement
while the sand-cement-water paste (mortar) will fill the empty spaces
between the gravel particles.
n. extra 10 per cent of mortar is necessary to "coat" the
particles completely.
This means, that for a certain quantity of gravel we would need
50 per cent wet mortar in order to fill the empty spaces and to coat
the particles. In theory, therefore, a mixture of 1t2:4 (cement:
sand:gravel) will produce a dense concrete. In practice, when a
dense but plastic concrete is required, a mixture of 1:2:3 is often
applied mainly because of the variation in the percentage of empty
spaces. However, we have already seen (T-2) that different mixes
can be used depending on the purpose for which the concrete is used.
Table 2 shows various mixtures producing different types of concrete
(volumetric projortions).
Table 2:
Mixture Purpose
Type of concrete (cement:sand:gravel)
Lean concrete 1 : 4 : 8 Culvert beds, fills
Mass concrete 1 : 3 : 6 Non-reinforced
structures
Dense concrete 1: 2 : 4 Culvert pipes, light
reinforced structures
Dense, plastic concrete 1 : 2 : 3 Heavy reinforced
1 : 1.5 : 3 structures
YOU SHOULD REMEMBER THM THE ABOVE TABLE PROVIDES RULES OF THUMB ONLY.
M-12
LE-4/3
S
If a very high quality concrete is required, laboratory tests
must be carried out in order to determine the optimum granulometric
composition of each aggregate, i.e. what are the best proportions pf
particles of different sizes in a particular type of aggregate.
Remember that the volumes of cement and sand can vary with the
degree they are compacted! In addition, the volume of sand varies
with its moisture content. For example, the volume of one kilogramme
of sand increases by 15-50 per cent if the water content is increased
by 3-12 per cent. For these reasons, volumetric proportioning as
shown in table 2 is never used when big quantities of high quality
concrete must be produced. In this case, the materials are weighed
S and. the moisture content is measured, so that the exact quantities of
the different components (gravel, sand, cement and water) can be
determined. For most concrete works carried out on rural roads,
however, the above rules of thumb can be applied.
Water/cement ratio
The quantity of water divided by the quantity of cement gives the

water/cement ratio. The water/cement ratio varies between 0.4 and
0.5 for practically pall types of concrete. This gives the minimum
amount of water necessary to react with the cement and to make the
mixture workable. To ensure sufficient workability for hand-mixed
and hand-placed concrete sometimes more water is necessary (water!
5 cement ratio between 0.5 and 0.65) but great care should be taken not
to use too much water. The wetter the mix, the weaker the finished
concrete
It is very important to remember that much more than 1 m3 of

coineonents is resuired to roduce 1 m3 of concrete. This is easily
understood when we realise that the cement fills the empty spaces
between the sand. particles and the mortar fills the empty spaces
between the gravel particles. Table 3 shows the material required
to produce one cubic metre of finished concrete.
Table 4 shows the approximate yield of concrete per bag of cement

for the four different mixtures. The tables assume that one bag of
cement weighs 50 kg and has a volume of 40 litres.
i-l2
LE-4/3
If a very high quality concrete is required, laboratory tests

must be carried out in order to determine the optimum granulometric
composition of each aggregate, i.e. what are the best proportions pf
particles of different sizes in a particular type of aggregate.
Remember that the volumes of cement and sand can vary with the
degree they are compactedi In addition, the volume of sand varies
with its moisture content, For example, the volume of one kilogramme
of sand increases by 15-50 per cent if the water content is increased
by 3-12 per cent. For these reasons, volumetric proportioning as
shown in table 2 is never used when big quantities of high quality
concrete must be produced. In this case, the materials are weighed
and. the moistuxe content is measured, so that the exact quantities of
the different components (gravel, sand, cement and water) can be
determined. For most concrete works carried out on rural roads,
however, the above rules of thumb can be applied.
Water/cement ratio
The quantity of water divided by the quantity of cement gives the
water/cement ratio. The water/cement ratio varies between 0.4 and
0.5 for practically all types of concrete. This gives the minimum
amount of water necessary to react with the cement and to make the
mixture workable. To ensure sufficient workability for hand-mixed
and hand-placed concrete sometimes more water is necessary (water!
cement ratio between 0.5 and 0.65) but great care should be taken not
to use too much water. The wetter the mix the weaker the finished
concrete
It is very important to remember that much more than 1 m3 of

components is required to produce 1 m3 of concrete. This is easily
understood when we realise that the cement fills the empty spaces
between the sand particles and the mortar fills the empty spaces
between the gravel particles. Table 3 shows the material required
to produce one cubic metre of finished concrete.
Table 4 shows the approximate yield of concrete per bag of cement

for the four different mixtures. The tables assume that one bag of
cement weighs 50 kg and has a volume of 40 litres.
N-12
LE-4/4
Table 3:
Material resuired to roduce 1 m3 concrete

Concrete type Cemen kg Sand m Gravel (m3)
1 : 4 : 8 3 bags (150 kg) 0.48 0.96

1 : 3 : 6 4 bags (200 kg) 0.47 0.93
1 : 2 : 4 5.5 bags (275 kg) 0.44 0.88
1 : 2 : 3 6.5 bags (325 kg) 0.51 0.77
Table 4:
Concrete Material required pei.ba. of cement Approx. iel

te Cement (kg) Sand (ma) Gravel (m3) per batc (m)
1 : 4 : 8 50 0.16 0.32 0.34

1: 3 : 6 50 0.12 0.24 0.27
1 : 2 : 4 50 0.08 0.16 0.19
1 : 2 : 3 50 0.08 0.12 0.16
Gauge boxes can, be used to measure the volumes of the components.

Figure 3 shows a gauge box having a volume corresponding to the volume
Sof 50 kg of cement (weight/volume = 1.25) i.e. a bag of cement has a
volume of 40 litres1
Length 40 cm
Inside measurements
Width 25 cm volume 40 litres
Height 40 cm 3
H-12
LE -4/5
e3
Mixing
The pixrpose of mixing is to obtain a homogeneous mixture of a
maximum compactness and a suitable workability.
Hand mixing
when mixing is carried out by hand a suitable floor (metal sheets,
boaxds, lean concrete) should be available to ensure that the mixture
is not contaminated with soil. This floor should be sufficiently
large to permit a continuous mixing process. Figure 4 shows a. good
way to mix by hand.
'I-l2
LE -4/6
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Steps
- The size of the batch should be 1/3 cubic metre maximum.

Mix the aggregate. Place first a layer of aggregate, then a
layer of sand and finally a layer of coarse aggregate. Mix
thoroughly by turning the heap over several times. This can, be
done best by two men facing each other from opposite sides of
the pile.
- Add cement and turn over until the batch is uniform in colour.
- Sprinkle the predetermined quantity of water gradually on top of

the pile while the heap is turned over another three times.
N-l2
LE-4/7
Mechanical mixing
Mechanical mixing produces a more homogeneous and. better mix.
Never fill the concrete mixer completely.
A large number of different types of cOncrete mixers exist.
Some commonly found. types are:
- tilting drum mixers (figure 5);
- rotary drum (non-tilting) mixers (figure 6).
Tilting drum mixer

The drum rotates on an inclined. axis when mixing and. on a tilted
axi for discharging. Three positions are used.:
- charging position;
- mixing position;
- discharging position.
'eGtçr CY
S
M-l2
LE-4/8
Rotary drum (non-tilting) mixers,

The drum has large openings at both ends, one for feeding in the
materials to be mixed and the other for discharging the concrete down
a chute which is lowered when mixing is completed.
2. ruvi
ii-l2
LE - 4/9
Loading concrete mixers

The following procedure is recommended for loading concrete
mixers:
place a part of the water and some coarse gravel into the mixer
to clean the drum walls of any concrete left over from the
previous mix;
add. the contents of the container which has been filled as shown
in figure 7. Take care to never fill the concrete mixer
completely. ix dry for one minute;
add the rest of the predetermined quantity of water and mix for
another 1-2 minutes.
When only a gauge box is available to load the machine the

mixer can also be charged a follows:
charge a part of the water, enough to wet the drum;
charge half the volume of coarse gravel;
S
M-12
LE - 4/10
charge the sand and finer gravel;
charge the cement;
charge the remainder of the coarse gravel;
mix dry for ne minute;
add the water and mix wet for another two minutes0
The mixing time varies with the proportions and the total
quantity of the components, the capacity and rotation speed of the
drum and the desired plasticity. Usually 1.5 to 3 minutes is
sufficient to obtain a good mixture. Mixing moxe than 3 minutes does
iot improve the quality of the mixture.
isure that all the tools, platforms and mixers are thoroughly
cleaned after the mixing has teriuins±ed. If the left-over concrete
hardens, the equipment will not be usable the next time.
MODULE OONORTE TECIINOIOGY M-12
Learning cowpacting and curing of concrete LE-5/l

Placing,
Element

After you have learned this learning element, you should be able
to:
- explain why transport, placing, consolidation and curing of

concrete is important;
- describe the correct :proced.ures in. respect of transport, placing,

consolidation and curing of the ready-made mixture.
TRANSPORT OP OQNORETE
The transport time of the ready-mixed concrete should be as short

as possible. Ideally, the concrete should be poured within 15 minutes
after the mixing has been terminated, When rotatir.g &rum trucks are
used, a maximum of two hours can be permitted for transport.
Then wheelbarrows are used for transport, take care to avoid

long barrow runs over rough ground because the vibration will cause
the segregation of the coarse particles from the fine. To avoid
5 drying out, wet sacks can be used to cover the concrete in the
wheelbarrow.
Also ensure that the concrete mixture is not dropped freely from
heights greater than 1.5 metre. This causes segregation as the
coarse particles drop more rapidly than the finer ones. Po± the same
reason, the mixture should not be thrown far with the shovel, but
should be taken as near as possible to where it has to be poured.
Clean and oil the forms or shubters before the concrete is

placed
M-12
LE -5/2
Placing of concrete
The concrete should be placed in layers not higher than 30 cm
when compacted by hand and in layers not higher than 60 cm when
compacted by poker vibrator (figure 8).
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ma rarnme& covce wflY'

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Pouring in layers is correct whereas pouring in heaps causes
segregation (figure 9).
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M-12
LE-5/3
Poctth ir &
Pouring irt___
cas
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The consolidation/compaction of concrete is necessaxy to impxove

the density, imperviousness said strength of the finished product as
well as to improve the adhesion of the reinforcing bars to the
5 concrete.
iron rods.
The consolidation can be done by hand with hand-tampers or
. better method is to use the poker vibrator (figure 10).
This is a steel tube, housing a rotating excentric mass driven by
compressed air or a petrol engine.
S
M-l2
LE -514
The vibrator is immersed into the concrete (not further than 2/3
of its length) at distances of ca. 50 cm. When the water wells up to
the surface it is slowly taken out. Do not vibrate longer than
15 seconds in one place and do not place the vibrator closer than
10 cm to the formwork. Too long vibration can cause the particles
to segregate!
Curing of concrete
Curing of concrete is necessary to prevent surface evaporation of
water during the setting and hardening stage. Curing means preventing
evaporation by keeping the exposed surface of the concrete moist for a
period of at least seven days.
This can be done by either:

sprinkling or flooding the surface freciuently;
covering the surface with wet jute, paper bags, sand, sawdust,
banana or palm leaves or similar materials.
Proper curing will ensure that cracks in the surface layers, caused
by an insufficient binding due to the non-availability of water, will
not occur. Freshly poured concrete should never be exposed to
intensive sunlight.
MODULE CONOPLETE TECHNOLOGY M-l2
Learning Manufacture of concrete culvert rings LE-6/l

Element
After you have learned- this element, you should be able to:
- describe how concrete culvert rings are manufactured;
- explain which factors have to be considered when a manufacturing

site is selected.
Oulverts form an essential part of the drainage system of the

road. It is of the :reatest im.ortance that the ualit of concrete
culvert, pipes is good.
Circular culvert pipes are normally manufactured making use of

steel culvert mould-s of different sizes (figure ii).
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14-12
LE -6 / 2
The most common diameters for culverts are 60 and. 90 cm. The
length of a pipe can vary between 75 and. 100 cm.
Manufacturing site
When the culvert pipes are to be manufactured. locally, the
manufacturing site should be chosen considering the following:
the costs to transport the materials (gravel, sand, cement and

clean water) to the site;
the distance to the places to be supplied with the produced
culvert rings;
the availability of ample space for storing of materials and
culverts.
Remember that ready-made culverts need at least seven days
curing and should not be transported within that period.
The following (temporary) structures are required:
cement store;
bays for the aggregates (LE-3) which could be made of a lean

concrete;
a mixing platform covered with a simple roof. The platform

should be levelled to prevent water from flowing off;
a loading ramp to enable the workers to roll the pipes onto the
Slorry.
The moulds should be cleaned after each stripping and oiled before
they are used again. A mix of two parts diesel with one part used oil
should be appliedwith a brush to the inside of the mould, the hinges,
wedges, etc.
Make sure that the inside mould is carefully centred to ensure
a uniform thickness of the ring (figure 12).
H-12
LE-6/3
S Coredr \1Jron
The mixture for concrete culvert rings should be 1:2:4

(1:2:3 for sizes bigger than 90 cm).
Use aggregates of different sizes (e.g. 40 per cent aggregate
1/4" and 60 per cent aggregate 1/2"). Compact the concrete with a
steel bar and. by pounding the inoulds lightly with rubber-headed
hammers producing vibration (figure 13).
H -12
LE -6/4
The moulds can be taken off the conciete rings aftex' 24 hours if
the rings themselves can be left i.uadistux'bed. Wait at least 24 hours
more before you move the rings.
The rings should be transported standing in a 10-20 cm layer of
sand (ox' similar hockabsorbiflg material).
MODULE CONCRETE TECBIOLOGY M-12
Learning Module summary and checkpoint LE-7/l

Element

- describe how concrete is manufactured;
- recognise which factors contribute to the final strength of the

finished concrete;
- describe which measures can be taken to produce a concrete of

an optinruxn quality.
Concrete is a mixture of re.ate adhesive and water. The

chemical action o± the adhesive and the water causes the mixture to
harden. The hardening to approximately 95 per cent of the final
strength takes 28 days. The increase in strength is most rapid
during the first 24 hours. The final strength of the concrete
depends on:
the quality and quantity of the components (usually gravel,

sand, cement and water) used in the mixture;
the mixing, placing and curing procedures.
The aggregate should not contain more than 5 per cent impuriti es.
Proper storage and - in some cases - washing before use is necessar y.
Cement should be kept dry as it hardens when it becomes moist.
Water should be used. sparingly. Usually the water/cement ratio,
(weight of the water in the mixture 0 5

i.e. (weight of the cement in t e mixture)
This means that approximately 25 litres of water per bag of

cement should be used. If the mixture is not workable, one of the
following measures can be taken to improve the workability:
ff
I.E ..L.
LE-7/2
add more cement so that the quantity of water may be increased;
improve the ranulometric composition, of the aggregate by

changing the quantities of certain sizes of aggregate.
Different types of concrete can. be produced by varying the

gravel/sand/cement ratios.
The concrete can be mixed by hand or mechanically. The mixing
should be carried out and controlled carefully so that a homogeneous
mixture results.
Trnsport and place the ready-made mixture within a period of
one hour after the water has been added. The shorter the transport
and jjlacing time, the better the end result.
Compaction is necessary to obtain a maximum density. This

compaction can be done by hand. (iron rod, rammer) or mechanically
(poker vibrator). The exposed surface of the concrete has to be
protected against drying out by keeping it moist for at least
seven days.
Steel moulds are normally used to manufacture concrete culvert

rings of various sizes.
The manufacturing site for the production of concrete culvert

rings has to be chosen with care. The costs of the transportation
of the components as well as the ready-made rings have to be taken
into account. The site has to be big enough for the storage and
the handling of the components as well as the culvert rings.
The mould should be cleaned and oiled before a new ring is

pro due ed.
PROBIiEMS
Solve the following problems:

1. Sand and gravel to be used for concrete production stored on
open ground have become saturated with water. What does this mean
in respect of the quantity of water to be used?
Calculate the quantity of water to be added to the following
mixture: 125 kg (two and a half bags) cement, 200 litres sand and
400 litres gravel.
Data: water/cement ratio 0.5;

the sand contains 10 per cent water;
the gravel contains 4 per cent water.
2. How much water should be added to the mixture described under

1 if the aggregates are completely dry and the water/cement ratio is
0.6?
3. After the predetermined quantity of water has been added to the

gravel, sand, cement mixture and the components have been mixed
thoroughly, the mixture is very stiff and difficult to handle. What
can be done to improve the workability?
4. Then the moulds are stripped off recently manufactured culvert

rings, the surface of these rings show t?pocketstt of gravel (the
concrete is not dense and smooth but the gravel grains are clearly
visible and can be removed). That are the likely causes? If this
occurs only at the bottom side of the culvert, what can you conclude?
NODULE OIOICP0INT
Indicate True (T) or False (P) in the blank:
1. The exposed surface of the concrete needs to be

cured for a period of:
- one hour
- twenty-four hours
- seven days
- twenty-eight days
I'1-l2
LE - 7/4
We want to produce concrete 1:2:4
For each bag of cement (50 kg) we have to add

approximately:
- 80 litres o± sand + 200 litres gravel

- 100 litres of sand + 200 litres gravel
Concrete 1:2:3 is stronger than concrete 1:3:6
Answer briefly:
Which factors contribute to the final strength of the conc:rete?
Which is the correct method to mix gravel, sand, cement and

water by hand? Add drawings to illustrate the mixing
procedure.
6. Which is the correct method to charge a concrete mixer and what

is the approximate mixing time?
7. How long do culvert rings have to harden before they can be

transported and what measure can be taken to avoid breakage
during transport?
.Q
I'1-12
LE -7/5
Give one example of a pui'pose for which "lean" concrete (mixture

1:4:8) can be used..
Describe two methods of curing concrete.
'. 0
S
FIELD INSTRUCTIONS M- 12
STRENGTH AND QUALITY OF CONCRETE
Remember that:
- the strength and quality of concrete depends mostly on:
(j) whether the correct quantities of gravel, sand, cement

and water have been used;
(ii) whether the grain sizes of the gravel and sand are correct
(a good distribution of different sizes);
S (iii) whether the mixing, placing, compacting and curing is

carried out correctly;
- twenty-eight days after placing, the concrete has reached

95 per cent of its final strength;
- reinforcement steel is embedded in the concrete to take the

tensile stress in thcre places where tensile stress will occur.
FIELD INSTRUCTIONS N-12
CEMHNT
Remember that:
- cement reacts chemically with water and should therefore not

be exposed to humid conditions before it is used in inanu-
facturing concrete. Store cement properly in a well-
ventilated dry store. Then cement bags are torn, remove
(part of) the contents as necessary, sieve out the hardened
pieces and put the remainder in a new bag or container;
- six to seven (50 kg) bags of cement are required to produce

1 rn3 of dense concrete. Less cement is required to produce
concrete for culvert beds and foundations.
FIELD INSTRUCTIONS M-12
AGGREGATE
Remember that:
- the aggregate forms the skeleton of the concrete and generally

consists of sand and various sizes of stone (also called
gravel);
- when the aggregate contains a lot of flat flaky particles, it

is not suitable to be used in concrete;
O- -
the aggregate should be stored on a hard, clean surface;
the aggregate of different sizes should be stored separately

so that they will not get mixed;
- dirty aggregate containing clay impurities, dust or fine

crushing residues should be spouted clean before it is used
for concrete manufacturing.
MAI'flJFACTURE OF CONCRETE
Method
- Find out for which purpose the concrete is required. Concrete
for culvert pipes requires a 1:2:4 mixture of cement, sand and
gravel. Concrete for atnictures needs a mixture of 1 measure
of cement, 2 measures of sand and 3 measures of gravel (1:2:3).
For very high quality concrete laboratory tests are necessary
to find out exactly how much gravel and sand of different sizes
is required to produce the best mixture.
- Measure the correct quantities of the materials with a uge

box (recommended size 0.4 m x 0.25 m x 0.4 in). When the mixing
is done by hand the maximum size of the batch should be 1/3
cubic metres.
- First mix the gravel and sand by turning over the heap several
times.
- Add cement and turn over until the batch is uniform in colour.
- Sprinkle the right quantity of water (approximately 25 litres

of water for each 50 kg bag of cement used) on top of the batch
while the batch is turned over another three times.
- When a concrete mixer is used, determine first the total
quantity of mixture it can contain. Concrete mixers should
never be filled. completelyl
- Calculate the quantities of the components required for one

mixture.
- Charge the mixer with some coarse gravel and.a part of the
water and turn it for a few seconds. This will clean the
drum wall of concrete left over from the previous mixing.
- Pill the mixer with:

half the volume of the coarse gravel;
the fine gravel;
the sand;
the cement; and
the rest of the coarse gravel.

MANIJFACTURI OP CONCRETE (contd.)
- Mix dry for one minute.
- Add the rest of the water and mix for two more minutes.
- Thoroughly clean all tools, equipment and mixing platforms

before the concrete hardensZ
Remember that much more than 1 m3 of material is required to

produce 1 in3 of finished concretes
S
PLACING. COIVIPACTING- AND CURING- OF CONCRETE
Remember that:
- the transport time of ready-mixed concrete should be short.

Unless rotating-drum frucks are used, the concrete should be
poured within 15 minutes after finishing the mixing;
- the concrete mixture should not be dropped freely from heights

greater than 1.5 m. It should also not be thrown far with
shovels.
1"Iethod
- Clean and oil the forms, moulds or shutters before placing

the concrete.
- Place the concrete in layers not higher than 30 cm when

compacted by hand and not higher than 60 cm when compacted
by poker vibrator.
- Consolidate the concrete directly after it has been poured.

Use hand tampers and iron rods or a poker vibrator.
- Vibrate until water starts appearing at the concrete surface

(not longer than 15 seconds in one place).
- Smoothen the surface of the concrete with trowels, suitable

pieces of board provided with a grip or straight edges.
- Keep the surface moist for seven days by:

covering it with wet jute, paper, sand, sawdust or similar
material, or
sprinkling it frequently with water.
S
PIELD INSTRUCTIONS M-l2
MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE CULVERT RINGS
Remember that:
- the culvert manufacturing site should be as close as possible

to:
a source of clean water;
the places where the materials (gravel, sand, cement)

are obtained; and
the places where the culverts have to be laid;
the site should be big enough to contain:
a cement store;
bays for the gravel and sand;
a mixing platform covered with a simple roof;

a loading ramp;
the ready-made culvert rings; and
a store for the tools and equipment;
culvert rings should be cured for seven days following their

manufacture.
Method
- Clean the moulds and oil them with a mix of 2 parts diesel
and 1 part of used oil.
- Centre the inner mould so that the thickness of the culvert
ring will be uniform.
- Prepare a batch of 1:2:4 or 1:2:3 concrete (see manufacture
of concrete) according to instructions (preferably use gravel
of different sizes).
- Pour the mixture into the mould using a suitable container.
Compact the concrete with a steel bar and by pounding the
rn.oulds lightly with rubber-headed hammers.
FIELD INSTRUCTIONS N-l2
NANLTFACTURE OF CONCRETE CULVERT RINGS (contd.)
- Leave the rings inside the inoulds for at least 24 hours

(wait another 24 hours before you move the rings).
- Take off the moulds, clean and oil them.
- Keep the rings moist for a period o± seven days.
Tools and equipment
- Noulds of various sizes (at least double the quantity of

the required daily production).
- Spanners and screwdrivers.

- Steel bars, rubber-headed hammers.
- Water-hose and water container.
- Containers for used oil and diesel, brushes for oiling.

- Shovels.
- Trowels, planks and straight-edges.

- Gauge boxes.
- Concrete mixer (optional).

Module 13
Structures
NODULE S TRUOTURS M-13

E1emen
MODUIiE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After you have learned this module, you should be able to:
- explain the importance of the location, choice and design

of water-crossing structures;
- explain which factors have to be considered when a culvert

is designed and when it is constructed;
- describe the function and construction of drifts and causeways;
- describe how a timber bridge is constructed and which factors

have to be taken into account.
MODULE CONTENT
11E-O Module learning objectives and content
LE-1 Nature, definition and types of structures
LE-2 Culverts for streams and small rivers
LE-3 Drifts
LE-4 Causeways
LE-5 Bridges
S
MODULE STRUCTURES M-13
Learning Nature, definition and types of structures IE-l/l

Element
LEARNING ELE1VIENT OBJECTIVES
- explain why the location and design of water-crossing

structures is important;
- describe which factors should be considered before a

particular type of structure is chosen;
- describe four different types of structures and explain

when, in principle, they are used.
Structures such as bridges, drifts and box culverts usually

account for a high proportion of the total cost of a road. They
are the weak links in a road system, because the damaging effects
of floods or high rainfall are concentrated at the points where the
water crosses the road. Their failure will not only lead to high
replacement costs, but may also make the road useless for long
periods
For these reasons extreme care should be taken that suitable
structures are constructed in the best place possible and that the
right type and design of the structures is chosen.
The location of the structures should be considered at the
time of the first survey when the preliminary alignment is chosen.
The choice of the type and design of water crossings for rural
roads should be governed by:
M-13
LE-l/2
The nature of the river or stream
- Is water flowing throughout the year or is the stream/river

dry and flooded periodically?
- What are the maximum and minimum quantities of water flowing

through the cross-section at the point of crossing?
- What is the profile of the cross-section; narrow with high

banks or wide and flat?
The cost of construction and maintenance of alternative
structures
S-
-
-
Is local material available?
What are the transport costs for materials not locally available?
Which skills are necessary?
- Is any sophisticated equipment necessary?
The expected traffic density
- What will be the effects if the stream/river cannot be used

for certain periods per year? What are the costs to the
road users if transport is delayed?
- What is the quality and design of the rest of the road?

N-13
LE-l/3
The following structures are widely used as rural road water

crossings:
- Oulvert. These can be subdivided in log culverts, concrete

ipes, box culverts and corrugated-steel culverts of various
shapes and sizes.
- Drifts or fords. These are structures which provide a finn

place to cross a river or stream. When a river/stream contains
water, it flows over the drifl, so that the vehicle will have
to pass through the water. This implies that usually for
permanent streams other solutions are preferable. Because
drifts are cheap and easy to construct, they are well suited
to cross wide, normally dry rivers which are periodically
flooded.
S
1R1.
max .IOOa tt
I. .
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N
N-l3
LE -1/4
- Causeways, culvert drifts or submersible bridges. These are

different names for structures which are designed and in such
a way that the normal dry-weather flow of the river passes
through culverts below the roadway. The occasional floods
pass both through the culverts and over the road, which means
that - similarly to the drifts described above - the road is
not always passable.
M-l3
IiE-l/5
- Bridges. These are structures which are constructed above the

maximum flood level, so that the road is always passable.
Many different types of bridges exist:
- Single span girder bridges;

wood, steel, reinforced concrete
- Multi-span girder bridges; )
- Masonry arch bridges;
- Bailey bridges;
- Floating bridges;
- Suspension bridges.
M-13
LE-l/6
Bridges are usually more expensive than other types of

structures described above. However, when we have a permanent
narrow stream with steep rocky embankments the construction of a
simple girder bridge may be an economical solution, because the
approaches to the crossing do not have to be excavated as would
be necessary in the case of a drift.
This exemplifies that it is very important:
to locate the structure at the best available crossing place,

and
to examine which type of structure is teclmically and
economically preferable.
MODULE STRUCTURES M-l5
Learning Culverts for streams and small rivers LE-2/l

Element
LEARNING ElEMENT OBJECTIVES
- explain which factors have to be considered before a big

culvert is designed;
- give a rule of thumb to determine the approximate size of

a culvert;
- describe important points to be taken into account when a

culvert is constructed;
- describe the advantages and disadvantages of corrugated-steel

pipes.
Concrete pipe culverts are discussed in module IVI_lO, LE-5

Drainage.
The culverts discussed here are larger structures designed to

accommodate larger flows.
All culverts require a good foundation whether they have a
large or a small diameter. A foundation can. be provided in
different ways:
by improving the existing subsoil (place gravel);

by constructing a floating floor. This method is especially
suitable in soft swampy areas and consists of placing several
layers of round timber (diameter 5-10 cm) on top of each other,
so that a floating timber floor results;
by pouring a concrete floor (usually only applied when major

structures are concerned).
S LE - 2/2
O:kck
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ftJcer
-
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- I
WCc&41r
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or
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stdn 4-
eviovoble. a,wc.o
44e avt% e
ox culverts are generally made of reinforced concrete,

although the walls can also be made of masonry. The thickness of
base, walls and roof and the reinforcement steel required depend on:
- the over-all dimensions of the culverts;
- the type of soil in the area where the culvert is constructed;
- the layer of soil covering the culvert.

Since these factors vary with the circumstances encountered,
the design of these culverts should be done by qualified engineers.
There are, however, a number of points which are generally applicable
to all culverts:
- the foundation for pipe culverts should always be shaped to

fit the pipe;
- the maximum area of the waterway needs to be determined in

order to calculate the size of the. culvert required. As a
rule of thumb you can assume that the area of the culvert
required is one-third of the area of waterway when the stream
has reached its highest flood level, i.e. for every
square metres of waterway one square metre of culvert should
be placed;
- an apron (figure 5) should be made to protect the bed from

erosion at the outlet side of the culvert. Aprons can be
made of different materials (reinforced concrete, gabions,
masonry). A filter construction made of stones of various
sizes, as shown in figure 2, is cheap and very effective.
1uer4 oA beI, eJd. 6kone4 (Ice*- OVL Y&I lU
att.t Ot!b. cr%vW
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e,c4ion
- head/wing walls should be made at the inlet arid outlet side

of the culvert. They .protect the road. embankment from the
river water arid serve also to support the embankment, so that
the soil does not slide into the river when a vehicle passes;
- it is very important to properly compact the soil around,

between and on top of the culverts. This compaction should
be done in layers not exceeding 15 centimetres.
N-13
LE-2/4
the gradient of culverts should normally be the same as the

gradient of the stream bed. However, to prevent silting
the gradient should not be less than 3 per cent. A gradient
greater than 5 per cent is not recommended unless the
circumstances are exceptional. In this case take protective
measures to prevent erosionl
- when a natural stream crosses the road at an angle, it is

often better to construct a skew crossing or to realign the
road, so that a 9O' crossing can be constructed. If an
existing chaunel bed is altered, usually a lot of erosion
problems can be expected.
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N-13
LE - 2/5
Corrugated steel culverts

This culvert type consists of sections of metal which can be
bolted with simple tools (figure 7).
0
The assembly. and installation of these culverts is not
described here, as the instructions can be easily obtained from
the supplier. The advantages of these steel culverts are their
strength, their flexibility and their easy assembly. However,
steel is a costly material and in many countries the pipes are
not locally manufactured and readily available.
Always make a cost comparison between alternative solutions.
You will find that for rural roads the manufacture of structures
with locally available materials and skills is often cheaper and
preferable.
NODULE S TRUOTUFES
Learning Drifts
Element
LEARNING- ELENENT OBJECTIVES
- explain the function of a drift;
- explain when drifts can be applied and more particularly in

which circumstances the different types are constructed;
- describe how drifts are constructed.
Drifts basically provide a firm surface over which vehicles

can pass a waterway provided that the level of the water is low
enough. From an economical and technical point of view drifts are
usually the most appropriate, solution when wide, normally dry rivers
have to be crossed.
?tGabiontl non-surfaced drifts
Two alternative designs are discussed.

lternative. 1 can be applied. on roads with a low traffic
density when a stream/river with a large fall and a stony/gravelly
bed is crossed.
Alternative 2 is more suited to rivers with a loose sandy bed.
and a gentle fall.
Alternative 1
This drift consists in principle of a porous dam which retains
the gravel carried by the water of the stream. The top of the dam
is between 15 and 30 centimetres higher than the river bed at the
downstream end.
M-l3
LE - 3/2
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(1a e -t2jl- onçj
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bion av4L
The dam is formed by wire baskets (gabions) filled with rocks.

A common size of these gabions is 2 x 1 x 1 metres. The baskets
are connected on the site with steel wire. The constraction
process is simple. A 1.20 metre-wide trench is dug along the
downstream edge of the future road. The depth of this trench is
de±erinined by deducting the depth of the gabion from the future
road level at the, downstream side.
The empty gabions are conxi.ected so that a line of gabions of
sufficient length is produced. This line of empty gabions is
placed in the trench after which the centre gabion is filled with
rocks. Using this centre gabion as an anchor, the line of gabions
is pulled taut and straightened by a rope or chain attached to a
track or winch (figure 9).
M-13
IiE-3/3
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Tension is kept on the line of gabions while they are filled

to ensure that they settle back in a straight line. After the
filling has been completed, the gabions are closed with wire and
The
the trench is backfilled with suitable granular material.
compaction of this backfill is extremely important and should be
carried out in layers not exceeding 15 centimetres thickness.
The road surface is formed by placing of a well-graded gravel.

gradually
fine material (sand, clay) transported by the stream will
satisfactory
fill the voids between the gravel particles leaving a
running surface. When the river bed consists of loose sand this
design is not satisfactory, as the gabions will eventually be
N-l3
LE - 3/4
undermined. In this case Alternative 2 (figure bOA) where the

top of the line of gabions is at river-bed level and apron and
solid riding surface are provided, is better.
Alternative 2 (figure bA)

When the river bed is sandy and the fall is gentle, a better
design is to keep the top of the line of gabions at the river-bed
level. To prevent scouring at the downstream end, an apron of
well-graded stones should be provided. If at all possible a
"reverse filter" construction should be applied with the bigger
stones on top and the smaller stones at the bottom, so that a
suitable changeover to the existing river-bed material is established
(figure 2). To minimise the risk of the drift being undermined,
the downstream foundation should be dug as deep as possIble,
preferably until bedrock is reached. Two lines of gabions on top
of each other may be necessary, providing a 2 metre deep foundation
wall. Hand packed stones are placed to form a solid crossing
surface for the traffic.
Depending on the height of the river banks the slopes of the

approaches may vary from 10 to maximum 20 per cent. Of course
10 per cent is preferable and steeper slopes should only be applied
in exceptional circumstances. You should ensure that there is a
gentle transition from the horizontal stretch to the sloping stretch,
Sso that abrupt changeovers are avoided.
A different cross-section has also been successfully applied

(figure lOB). In this case a "box" is constructed with two lines
of gabions connected by a bottom layer of stones encased in wire
mesh0 The "box" is filled with gravel or crushed stone which
provides a smooth riding surface. This structure is certainly
more expensive than the one shown in figure bOA so that the
increased costs can usually only be justified when a higher traffic
density is expected.
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LE - 3/6
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Paved drift (figure ii)

When the traffic density and the function of the road warrant
it, a more sophisticated structure can be considered. Similarly
to the unpaved drifts previously discussed, a retaining wall on the
downstream side of the drift combined with an apron prevents the
undermining of the structure. A head-wall on the upstream side
will make the structure more stable firstly by lengthening the
distance which th subsoil low has to traverse and, secondly, by
providing a more solid foundation on the upstream side, so that a
traffic load on this side is better distributed.
To ensure a smooth transition from the road to the drift
surface it is good practice to improve the stretch of road adjacent
to the drift approaches. This can be done by digging out the
existing soil over a width of one metre and a depth of one metre,
placing a layer of hand packed stones and backfilling with a
gravelly material. The backfilling should be done in layers not
exceeding 15 cm and these layers should be well compacted to obtain
a hard and. smooth transition.
N-13
LE - 3/7
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The retaining wall on the downstream side can be made of

gabions as described before or constructed in masonry as shown in
figure 11. G-abions are preferable, because they are more flexible
and can therefore .follow settlements of the subsoil more easily.
Longitudinal section
The concrete slab should be carried into the river banks,
well above the maximum flood level recorded. The approaches
should preferably not be steeper than 15 per cent and the
connections between the horizontal stretch and the approaches
should be rounded.
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NODULE STRUCTURES N-13
Learning Causeways LE-4/l

Element
LEARNING E1ENT OBJECTIVES

- explain what a causeway is;
- describe which specific design points are particular to a

causeway;
-. connnent on how to locate a causeway;
- describe how a typical small causeway is constructed.,
In engineering textbooks a water crossing having a number of

culverts to receive regular waterflows and which is submersed during
floods is described with a great number of names; culverts drift,
causeway, submersible bridge or vented drift. In this learning
element the structure is described as a causeway.
A causeway can be defined as a structure which has a double

function:
it allows the normal dry weather flow of a river/stream to
pass through the culverts below the roadway; and
the occasional floods pass both through the culverts and over
the roadway.
. t
r
Because they have this dual function causeways present

hydraulic problems which are peculiar to this type of structure
and great care should be taken with their construction. Many
causeways have failed because of a wrong location or a wrong
design.
Design
If the culverts are concentrated in the centre of the causeway,
the high speed water jets coming out of these culverts will cause
heavy scour at the sides of the culverts (figure 13A).
This implies that in designing causeways the culverts should

be distributed evenly throughout the length of the structure
(figure 13B).
When the water flows over the causeway it moves as shown. in

figure 14. The forward roller shown on the right moves the sand
forward. The back roller makes the sand surface on the left side
steeper and steeper until it collapses. This effect causes the
foundation to be exposed very quickly unless effective protective
measures are taken.
kuel
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A suitable "apron" of concrete or well-graded stones is
therefore absolutely necessary to break the energy of the falling
water0
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To improve the hydraulic properties of the causeway it is

recoxnniended. to have a one-way camber towards the downstream end
of the causeway. The rounding of the upstream edge further
contributes to a smooth discharge of the overflowing water.
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I'I-l3
IiE-4/5
As regards the culvert capacity, when suitable divergences

(flared end sections) are provided at the end of the pipes this
can be increased by as much as 50 per cent. Such sections are
manufactured in steel or concrete and should be considered when
more major causeways are constructed.
t_l
Ob
When roadside markers are provided to show the edges of the

causeway and to indicate the stream level, care should be taken
that these offer as little resistance as possible to the flow.
This means that such markers should be streamlined to the greatest
possible extent.
Location
The location of a causeway is - as with all, structures -
extremely important. Efforts should be made to locate the most
stable portion of the river bed, so that a better foundation can
be provided to the structure.
M-13
LE-4/6
Also, avoid locating a drift, bridge or causeway near or in

a river/stream bend. During floods the water will tend to cling
to the concave bend of the river and cause continuous erosion at
that side. At the convex bank silting will take place.
When a lot of debris (tree trunks or branches, etc.) floats
in the river there will be a danger that the culverts get blocked.
If this happens, usually a transverse flow will occur along the
upstream side of the culverts creating a deep trench which can
undermine the structure. To avoid this, debris diverting or
collecting structures, such as debris deflectors or racks, may be
necessary.
Construction
Two trenches are dug at the up and downstream edges of the

causeway. The trench at the downstream side should be at least
1.50 metres deep if an overflow of 50 cm over the roadway is
expected (see figure 16).
Between these trenches a suitable bed for the culverts is

prepared of a well-graded gravel material. The provision of a
7.5 cm concrete floor is recommended. This floor should be
indented to accommodate the shape of the culvert, so that the
culvert is evenly supported. After the culverts are laid the
head walls are constructed up to the road level and the area between
the head walls is backfilled with a well-graded stony/gravelly
material. Lean concrete may be used also as a backfilling
material, although the costs of the structure will be considerably
higher in this case.
S
F':
-l3
LE - 4/8
A 1:3:6 concrete surface layer of 10 cm thickness is laid

at a 3 per cent cross-fall, the highest point being at the up-
stream side. If possible, the upstream side edge is rounded.
The connections between the approaches and he horizontal stretch
are rounded to provide a smooth riding surface. Finally, the
aprons are oonstructed, as shon in figu.re 18. For this type of
small causeway the minimum width of the apron at the downstream
side should be lwo times the height of the causeway from the river
bed.
MODULE STRUOTtIRES M-13
Learning Bridges LE-5/l

Element
LEARNING ELEIENT OBJEOTIVES
- identify different types of bridges;

- describe how the foundation and superstructures of small
bridges should be constructed;
- describe the denomination and function of the various parts

of the bridge.
Bridges are used to provide "all weather" crossings over

streams and ri.vers. Since they are usually the most costly type
of water-crossing, they should only be constructed on higher class
"all weather" roads where the future traffic density is expected
to justify the costs of the structure. The following types of
bridges are commonly encountered on rural roads:
- single and multi-span bridges with wooden, steel or
reinforced concrete girders;
- masonry arch bridges (figure 4);
- bailey bridges.
less common are floating bridges and suspension bridges. All

bridges need to be designed according to the length of the span to
be crossed., the characteristics of the river and the expected
traffic load. This learning element will discuss the basic
principles of the construction of a girder bridge.
M-13
LE-5/2
S
Pigure 19 shows the nomenclature of the bridge components.
Poundati on
Abutments and piers

The supports on each bank of the river for the bridge
suprstracture (the girders and the deck) are Imown as abutments.
In case of wide rivers, the bridge superstructure will have some
intermediate supports known as piers. The clear distance between
two supports is called a span. Therefore, a bridge without piers
will have onlyone span, a single-span bridge, while a bridge with
M-l3
T-5/3
piers will be called two-span, three-span or, in general, multi-

span bridge.
1ZC)
SpO.v
The number o' spans should be as small as possible, because,

the greater the' number of piers, the more the flow of water under
the bridge will be obstructed. However, the bigger the span, the
stronger the girders need to be. For spans bigger than 10 metres
it will, therefore, be necessary to make cost comparisons.
To get an idea of the nature and thickness of the subsoil
layers at the place of the foundation a few trial pits should be
dug.
Then large bridges have to be constructed the advice of the

geology department on the bearing capacity of the foundation soil
layers is necessary.
M-13
LE-5/4
S
Although in minor structures the pressures on the foundation
are usually not that high, a good foundation is still extremely
important. The stability of the bridge depends on a solid
foundation which cannot be undermined by scour. It is, therefore,
essential to found the abutments and, piers either on rock or into
a layer of soil beneath the river bed. This layer should have a
sufficient bearing capacity and should be resistant to erosion
If such a layer cannot be found, the abutment/pier will either
have to be supported. by piles or by a 60-100 cm thick foundation
layer of a well compacted granular material laid at least 1 metre
below the maximum depth of scour. Remember that at a bridge, the
O speed of water usually increases, so that the scour is increased
as well.
-- Ow'
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1 unccMct
4w YiWItAW ck4I4 4 scour
yost failures of bridges occur because the foundation was not

dug deep enough. Abutments and. piers can be constructed of
concrete, masonry, gabions or timber.
When timber piles are used.. in combination with a concrete
the piles should be located under the lowest water
Oabutment/pier,
level, beeaue they will soon start rotting if they are exposed
to air..
When timber abutments are combined with timber piles, all
exposed beams should be protected by several layers of wood
preservative (creosote or other).
After the piles have been cut off at the same level the tops
have to be soaked in wood preservative before the or crossbeam
is laid.
422.
'Pe3s UA o &owte kt avtc!

wk &eoc6te.
This cap (usually 25 x 30 cm) is fastened to the piles with

long spikes hammered through a pre-drilled hole of a slightly
smaller diameter as the spike. These spikes should be hammered
at least 25 cm into the pile. Wing walls are constructed at both
ends of the abutment to support the earth fill of the road and to
extra protection against erosion. The angle with the line
provide
of the abutments is usually 45 per cent, but can be different if
warranted by the circumstances.
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.
When concrete or masonry abutments are constructed, it is

recoinniended that seepage holes are provided. These openings
allow the water left behind in the earth fill behind the abutments
to drain off. As a result water cannot press on the inside of
the abutment after excessive rainfall or floods have occurred.
The backfilling behind the abutment with a gravelly material or
rubble further improves this drainage (figure 23).
perstracture
Bridges hve to be designed to support different types of
loads:
The dead. weight of the superstructure (the girders, transverse

decking, running strips, etc.) and, where applicable, snow.
The live load of the traI'f ice (for rural roads usually not more
'than 10 tons).
The jact of the live load (bouncing o± traffic, effects of
brakingT
Wind.
The size and number of girders to be used depend on:
- the span to be crossed;
- the design load(s);
- the material used (steel, pre-stressed or reinforced concrete,

timber).
When timber is used care should be taken that it is a durable

(resistant to insects and rotting) type. Also the bending
strength should be high. The effective life of girders which are
either under-designed or of a species of wood with insufficient
bending strength is very short. Such girders will bend excessively
Sunder a load that will not break them. This results in considerable
friction and wear at the points where they rest on the cap or the
abutment. Rot begins at this point and the timber is soon useless.
Excessive bending also causes the floor planks of the transverse
decking to move up and down. and to wear out very quickly. A
5 metre span, single lane bridge, designed to carry trucks of a
maximum weight of 12 tons (8 ton front axle load and 4 ton rear
axle load) should have 30 x 30 cm hardwood girders spaced not more
than. 60 cm apart. Round (0 36 cm) or rectangular (20 x 40 cm)
girders can also be used.
These sizes are mentioned only to give an idea of the

approximate requirements. All bridge designs should be checked
by a qualified engineer. It is extremely important that timber
beams are free of cracks and. rot and that they are treated with
a suitable wood preservative before they are used.
When timber "caps" are applied the girders should be

fastened to the caps with spikes or toe nails. Before this is
done it should be checked that the tops of girders are at the same
level, so that the floor planks of the transverse decking will
rest evenly on each girder. Adjusting the level of the girders
can be done with hardwood wedges (or mortar when the girders rest
on a masonry/concrete abutment).
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]YI-13
S
7.5 cm thick planks of a length equal to the width of the
bridge are often used for the transverse decking. These planks
are spiked to the girders. Between the planks a small space is
left to allow for expansion due to swelling.
An alternative and better transverse decking can be provided
by using 5 x 10 cm planks, laid on edge to make a deck of 10 cm
thick. As each of these planks is laid, it is nailed to the one
next to it, so that we have, in effect, a solid deck of wood 10 cm
thick instead of a number of individual planks. This makes a
very stiff floor and helps to keep down vibration and movement in
the strLlcture. These planks need only be long enough to be
S supported by to girders. Quite often short planks of this size
can be purchased quite cheaply, so that for a similar or lesser
price a transverse decking of 10 cm thickness can be provided
instead of one 7.5 cm.
To protect the deck and give a smooth running surface for the
cars, runninstrips or running planks are provided. Figure 25
shows running strips bolted to a 75 cm thick transverse decking.
Running strips should be bolted, not spiked, to the decking,
because the spikes would soon work themselves loose. lCerbs are
bolted to the decking to prevent vehicles from sliding off into the
water. They also serve to provide a stronger floor, since the
floor planks are prevented from working themselves loose.
S
R2S
S ioe- TrnnUer ciectcoj

N-13
LE -5/10
A suitable size for kerbs is 15 x 15 cm.
It is good practice to provide an extra protection at the

places where high wear may be expected. These are especially
the places where the transverse decking is laid on the abutment
or caps. Roofing felt, rubber or a suitable plastic can provide
this protection.
S
MODULE S TRUC TUBES
Learning Module summary and checkpoint

Element
LEAR1ING EIENENT OBJECTIVES

- describe the most important factors to be considered before

a water-crossing is designed and located;
- describe simple designs of culverts, drifts, causeways and

single-span girder bridges;
- describe the essential design points of the above structures.
S U'1HARY
Structures are expensive when their cost is compared to the

cost of the rest of the road For this reason, their design and
location are extremely important and should be carefully considered
and checked before it is decided to build a particular type of
structure in a particular place.
Culverts, drifts, causeways and. bridges are widely used as
rural road water-crossings.
The foundations for all structures are extremely important
and adequate protective measures should be taken against erosion
and scour. Although such measures may seem costly an5, time-
consuming, they will, pay for themselves because a well-protected
structure will require less maintenance and will not collapse
because of erosion.
N-13
LE-6/2
S
Backfills should preferably be made of well-graded gravel
(sometimes rubble may be used) and should be well compacted.
Drifts provide a firm surface over which vehicles can pass a

water-way, provided the level of the water is low enough. Several
alternative designs exist which should be applied as described in
T1]'-3. Aprons should always be provided at the downstream side of
the drift.
When the function of the road and the traffic density warrant
more sophisticated structures, paved drifts, causeways and bridges
can be considered. Causeways are drifts which have a number of
culverts to receive regular waterfiows. During floods, the water
O passes through and over these structures.
Bridges provide weather" crossings over streanis/rivers

and can be of various types. Those most commonly encountered. on
rural roads are: single and multi-span girder bridges, masonry
arch bridges and bailey bridges. Bridge foundations should be
resting on rock or should be placed into a layer of erosion
resistant soil beneath the river bed.
NODUlE CBECICPOINT
Indicate True (T) or False (F)
The location of structures should be considered

at the time that the preliminary alignment is chosen.
The drift surface should be continued into the river

banks up to ti.e maximum flood level.
The culverts in a causeway should be concentrated

in the centre of the structure.
Aprons are required for all causeways and drifts.

It is not good to construct a structure in or
just after a river/stream bend.
Answer briefl :
Which factors need to be considered before type and location

of water-crossings are decided upon?
M-l3
liE - 6/3
7. Which different methods of providing a foundation for a

culvert pipe crossing do you know?
8. Which are the most important design points to be applied when

constructing a drift?
9. How should the culverts in a causeway be placed?
10. What is the function of:
seepage holes?
kerbs?
girders?
running strips?
11. How do you protect the downstream side of culverts/drifts/

causeways from erosion?
S TRUCTURES
Structures are costly and difficult to replace. Their

failure will make a road useless for long periods. Therefore:
- spend enough time in determining the best place for the

crossing;
- ensure that the right type of structure is chosen;
- ensure that the structure is designed to carry the expected

traffic loads and to resist scour;
- ensure that the construction is carried out according to

the design.
Before you choose a particular type of structure, assemble

the following data:
- what are the maximum and minimum quantities of water flowing

through the cross-section at the point of crossing?
- how often and for how long a period is the stream flooded?
- what is the situation at various points of crossing? Can

natural supports (rocky embankments, stony sections of the
river bed) be utilised? What type of soil is found at the
various alternative places of crossing?
- which local materials are available (lumber, rocks)?

- what will be the function and design of the road leasing to
the crossing?
- which skills are required and available to construct a

particular structure?
Depending on the circumstances, you may decide to construct
culverts (concrete pipes, box culverts, corrugated steel culverts),
a drift (non-surfaced, surfaced), a causeway or a bridge (timber,
masonry, concrete, steel).
PIELD INSTRUCTIONS N-13
LARGE-SIZED CULVERTS
Remember that:
- when the natural soil is soft or unstable a foundation has

to be provided to support the culvert. Such a foundation
can be flexible (floating timber in wet areas, a layer of
gravel in dryer conditions) or rigid (lean concrete);
box culverts need to be designed according to the required
size, the type of soil in the area and the layer of soil
S covering the culvert. Assemble the data mentioned in

FIELD INSTRUCTIONS - STRUCTURES so that a 13ll-founded
decision on the type of structure can be taken;
the minimum area of culvert space required is one-third of

the area of the waterway at times of flood. If the cross-
section of the waterway at a time of flooding is 30 m2 an
opening of at least 10 m2 should be provided;
- box culverts should be protected from scour by headwalls,

wingwalls and aprons;
- aprons can be made of different materials (reinforced concrete,

gabions, masonry) but a filter construction made of various
sizes of stone (the largest on top) is both cheap and effective;
- the gradient of the culvert should be between 3 and 5 per cent.
If a gradient steeper than 5 per cent is necessary, aprons are
essential!;
- whenever possible the opening of the culvert should be in

line with the water flow in the existing stream bed;
- you should ask for instruction booklets and appropriate tools
when you are requested to assemble corrugated steel pipes.
DRIFTS
Remember that:
- drifts are best applied in streams which are usually dry or

have a very small permanent water flow;
- drifts and causeways should not be located near or in a river

bend;
- different designs are used for streams with stony/gravelly

beds than for streams with beds of loose sand;
- it is best to construct the drift within the dry seasons and

as near as possible, towards the end of the dry season when
the water-table is lowest.
Construction
- Reehaxinel the water flow so that you obtain a dry working
space.
- Set out the centre-line of the drift with survey pegs

showing the future level of the drift surface.
- Set out reference pegs at the down-stream and the up-stream

sides of the drift. These pegs should be placed at a fixed
distance (say two metres) from the edges of the future
drift so that they will not be lost during construction.
The drift surface should preferably have a crossfall of
approximately 3 per cent towards the down-stream side. This
means that if your reference pegs are 10 metres apart the
one on the down-stream side should be 3Q cm lower than the
one on the up-stream side. In case of doubt, always follow
the gradient of the existing river bed. A string over the
tops of the survey and reference pegs shows the level of the
drift surface.
- The longitudinal section should be horizontal with two sloping

approaches joining the drift to the road. These approaches
should have a gradient of maximum 20 per cent (10 per cent is
better) and should carry on well above the highest flood level.
The transitions from the horizontal section to the approaches
should be gently curved so that a smooth-riding surface is
provided to the passing vehicles.
I FIELD INSTRUCTIONS M-l3
DRIFTS (contd.)
- Place multi-purpose pegs showing where the foundation trenches

will be excavated. These trenches should be wide enough to
allow sufficient working space to the masons or carpenters.
- Dig these trenches as deep as possible, preferably until you

have reached a solid layer (rock, hard soil). When you
encounter water very soon (high water-table) drain this water
as well as possible (buckets, pump, mitre drain) and continue
digging until further progress is impossible. In such
conditions, a gabion foundation wall is best. If gabions
are not available, fill the trench with rocks up to the water
level and continue with masonry until you have reached the
correct levels as shown by the strings.
- After completing the foundation wall(s) excavate the area in

between and place the hand-packed stone.
- Finish with a layer of concrete if specified in the design.
- Excavate as necessary for the apron on the down-stream side

of the drift, going from one metre depth at the drift edge
sloping upwards to the river bed. The width of the apron
should be minimum two metres but preferably more.
- First place small-sized stones, then larger-sized and put the

largest at river bed level.
Note: Alwa study the design carefully. Depending on the

design of the drift, sometimes a different work method will be
necessary.
- After the work on the drift itself has been completed, improve
(especially in sandy soils) the transiti.ons from the road
surface to the drift approaches.
- Dig trenches of one metre wide and one metre deep immediately
next to the drift approaches, across the width of the road.
- Place a layer of hand-packed stones at the bottom of the
S trench and backfill the trench with layers of gravel. Compact

each layer (maximum thickness 15 cm) thoroughly with hand-
ranimers.
CAUSEWAYS
Remember that:
- the culverts should be distributed evenly throughout the

length of the structure;
- an apron of reinforced co:ticrete or hand-packed stones is

essential to break the energy of the over-flowing water;
- causeways should have a one-way camber of 3 per cent towards

the down-stream edge and their up-stream edge should be
rounded;
- road-side markers should be streamlined to limit their

resistance to the over-flowing water;
- drifts and causeways should not be located near or in a

river bend but in a stable portion of the river bed so that
a good foundation can be constructed;
- the culvert bed should be a 15 cm gravel layer, preferably

topped by a 7.5 cm concrete floor;
- the minimum width of the apron should be two times the

height of the causeway from the river bed.. This width should
never be less than two metres;
- the depth of the foundation trench at the down-stream side
of the causeway should be at least the height of the expected
overflow of water over the structure.
Construction
- See FIELD INSTRUCTIONS - DRIFTS.
- Place reference pegs, survey pegs and multi-purpose pegs.
- Excavate the foundation trenches.

- Prepare the bed for the culverts. A layer of gravel (minimum
15 cm) preferably topped with a layer of 7.5 cm of concrete.
- Lay the culverts on the correct positions and at the correct

gradient (3.5 per cent).
- Construct the headwalls up to road level.

FIELD INSTRUCTIONS 1'[-l3
CAUSEWAYS (contd.)
- Backfill the area between the headwaLLs with a suitable

material and compact this material thoroughly.
- Pour a layer of concrete (10 cm) to provide a smooth surface

for the traffic. The transitions between the horizontal
stretch and the approaches should be gentle.
- Excavate the trench for the apron and place the stones (the
largest at river bed level near the down-stream edge of the
causeway).
BRIDGES
Remember that:
- bridges are expensive and their construction requires various

types of skills. Engineering advice and an approved design
should always be provided before the construction of a bridge
is started;
- the foundation of the bridge is extremely important. The

abutments (and piers, if these are built) should be founded
S on a solid layer of soil (or rock) which cannot be undermined

by scour;
timber used for bridges should be well treated with wood pre--
servative;
- wing walls provide protection against erosion and support the

road embankment;
- seepage holes are provided in the abutments to allow water

drainage from the road embankment behind the abutment;
- running strips are often provided to protect timber bridge

decks and to give a smooth riding surface;
- kerbs are provided to prevent vehicles from sliding off into
the water;
- places where high wear can be expected should be extra protected

with roofing felt, rubber or plastic.
Construction
- Set out the centre-line of the bridge and the positions of
the abutments (and. piers).
- Re-channel the water flow so that you have a dry working space.
Construct first one abutment, then the piers (ii' any) and then
the other abutment.
- Excavate the foundation as deep as possible. Try to reach a
hard, solid soil layer or bed-rock. In soft soil, when ground
water is encountered, continue the excavation until no longer
PIELD INSTRUCTIONS M-13
BRIDGES (contd..)
possible. Then provide a 1.50 m wide layer of stones/rubble

up to the ground water level. (Remember that generally this
type of foundation will be sufficient only when small bridges
are concerned. Bridges with larger spans, supporting
greater loads may require piling to provide sufficient support
to the foundations.)
- Provide a base of concrete (at least 10 cm thick) on top of

the (levelled) layer of stones. This concrete layer provides
a dry and strong base for the masonry abutment.
- Construct the abutment (or pier) to the required height.

Do not forget the seepage holes in the abutments!
- Lay the girders. Place the tops of the, girders at the same
level using hardwood wedges or mortar. Place suitably sized
pieces of strong plastic or rubber between the timber and
masonry at those places where high wear may be expected.
- Spike the transverse decking planks to the girders. Leave

a small space between these plants to allow for swelling.
- Bolt the planks for the running strips to the transverse decking.
Depending on the width of these planks, two or three should
be laid next to each other so that the running strips are wide
enough to be used by vehicles of different sizes.
- Bolt the kerbs to the decking.

Module 14
Gravelling
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NODULE GRAVTELLING N- 14
earning LE-O/l
Element
Module learning objectives and content
MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

- describe the function and composition of the gravel layer;
- explain how a choice of whether or not to gravel should be made

and which alternatives to gravelling a particular alignment can
be considered;
- describe how quarries should be selected;
- describe the organisational structure of the rave1ling team

and the site organisation of the gravelling operation;
- prepare a workplan for gravelling;
- use gravelling administration and report forms;
- list equipment, tools and materials used for gravelling.
MODULE CONTENT
LE-1 Nature and definition o± gravelling

LE-2 Then to gravel and which methods to use
LE-3 Selection of quarry

LE-4 Organisational structure
LE-5 Organisation of the work
LE-6 Preparation of workplan

LE-7 Administration and monitoring
LE-8 Equipment, tools and materials
LE-9 Module suininary and checkpoint

MODULE G.RMTELL IN
Learning
Nature and definition of gravelling
Element
LEAENING- ELEMENT OBJEOTIV}S
- describe the function of the gravel layer;
- describe what gravel is and what should ideally be the propor-

tions of its components;
- mention and describe one alternative way to surface a road

with local materials.
NATURE AND DEFINITION

A road is gravelled to provide a surface layer which is passable
in dry and wet weather and does not deform under the expected traffic
loads. A gravel layer should therefore be of sufficient strength
and thickness. The strength comes from the stone particles which
should preferably be of various sizes. These stone particles lock
together and form a strong skeleton which spreads the traffic load
to the natural soil. Figure 1 shows that the pressure of the wheel
is concentrated at the point of contact with the soil and decreases
gradually. For this reason the best soil (gravel or bitumen) needs
to be on top.
H-l4
LE- 1/2
1rat ol\.
The stone particles should be kept together by a "binder", a

clayey material. This binder keeps the stone particles in place
and restrains the formation of corrugations. However, in wet
weather the presence of a clayey material is a disadvantage because
it softens when water is added so that ruts are easily formed and
the surface layer becomes slippery.
This means that the ideal composition of a gravel layer for

dry weather conditions is different from the one for wet weather
conditions. Therefore a compromise has to be made so that the
surface layer provides a good riding surface during dry, as well
as wet, weather conditions.
Very roughly, it can be assumed that a mixture of 5 to 65 per

cent stones, 20 to 40 per cent sand and 10 to 25 per cent clay will
provide a good surface layer. The higher proportions of clay are
admissible in dry areas. The wetter the area the more important
it i that the stone/sand proportion of the mixture is high and
"well graded".
1'-l4
LB -1/3
In some parts of the world, a very effective surface layer is

constructed from large (15 to 25 cm) stones which are carefully
placed with the largest face downwards and then wedged with smaller
stones and sand. However, extreme care should be taken if this
method is used. Because this surface layer is permeable rain-
water can penetrate into the underlying layer which may soften and
cause failures. This method is only suitable in areas where
(a) the natural soil does not contain a large proportion of clay
and (b) large-size stones are readily available. Furthermore,
local expertise with this method must exist and wages must be
fairly low as a large number of man/days are recjuired to complete
a kilometre of surfacing.
The great advantage of this type of surface layer is its
strength. and durability if properly laid on a suitable (sandy) base.
MODULE GRAVELLING- M-14
When to avel and which methods to use LE-2/l
LEARNING- ELEMENT OBJEOTIITES
- explain which factors should be considered when a policy

decision of whether or not to gravel a road is taken;
- describe what other alternatives there are if gravelling a

certain alignment would be impossible or too costly;
- discuss different methods of gravelling and their advantages/

disadvantages;
- describe which factors determine the choice of gravelling

-methods.
When to gravel
The basic functions of a gravel layer are (i) to ensure that
the road is assable at all times under all types of weather
conditions and. (ii) to prevent deformation of the road under normal
traffic loads. It follows, therefore, that natural soils which
already possess these required properties do not need an additional
gravel layer. Unfortunately for the road builder, such, soils do
not occur frequently in the places where they are needed so that
gravelling is usually required.
However, the necessary excavation, transport, spreading-and

compaction make gravelling very expensive. The gravelling opera-
tion can add between 10 to 100 per cent to th,e total construction
costs of the earth road, depending on a number of factors such, as
the type of road, thickness of the gravel layer, average hauling
distance from quarry to site, organisation and plarming, etc.
M-14
LE-2/2
S
Given the fact that transport is expensive and gravel is not
always readily available in many countries, it is understandable
that at present not all roads are gravelled. It is a fact, how-
ever, that gravel roads are easier and cheaper to maintain and last
longer than earth roads.
Usually, therefore, a policy decision on whether or not to

gravel a road or a number of roads will have to be made based on
the following criteria:
(i) what is the purpose of th,e road, i.e. h,ow essential is

it that the road remains open throughout the year?
what is the expected traffic density?
what is the composition of the natural soil?

wh.at would be the cost for gravelling, especially in
relation to th,e average hauling distance of suitable
materials?
When, in order to keep a road open during normal weather

conditions, it is clearly necessary to surface a road and gravel
is not readily available the following options will have to be
considered:
follow a different alignment;
do not construct th,e road;
5 (c) construct the road to bitumen standard;
accept th,e high cost of gravelling with, long h.atiling

distances;
construct the road to earth standards and accept that it

will have to be closed for longer periods;
only gravel those places which, require gravelling most (spot

improvement) so that the road will only be closed for short
periods when th.e weather is exceptionally bad;
crush rock either by hand or by (mobile) crusher wh.en suitable

rocky outcrops are available along or near the road.
The high costs of options Cc), (d) and (g) can usually only be
justified when the benefits of the roads and/or the future traffic
volumes are expected to be high. Before the road is constructed
the following data should therefore be assembled in the field, so
that a well-founded decis2.on concerning the above can be made:
to what extent does the. road require gravelling for tech.-

nical reasons (i.e. which sections will not be passable
even with light rains)?
how far from the road is the nearest source of suitable

gravel material?
Nethods of gravelling
In principle, the following methods can be used to gravel a
road:
use a mix of labour and equipment;
use labour for all activities, except hauling over
distances longer thai 100 metres.
Furthermore, different types ot' hauling equipment can be used

depending on such factors as aver.e hauling distance, hardness of
gravel material, method of loading, etc.
For example, tractors towing tipping trailers can be a very

economical way of transport when the hauling distance does not exceed
8 km. The trailers are more suited to manual loading than lorries
which are higher. Several trailers can be used. for one tractor,
so that one is loaded while the other transports material to the
site. On the other hand, lorries are better suited to longer
haul distances.
Another example is a quarry with rock which needs to be

crushed to suitable partic:Le sizes. The excavation can - depending
on the hardness of the rock - be done with a bulldozer, blasting or
hand tools such as pickaxes and crowbars. The crushing can be
done either with a (mobile) rock crusher or by hand. Spreading can
be done either by motor grader or with hand tools. With very short
haul distances (less than 100 metres) it is even possible to carry
out all activities with labour. The hauling can then economically
be done with, wheelbarrows.
N-l4
LE-2/4
In some parts of the world, where local expertise and means

are available, animal-drawn carts may be economical to use for
hauling of material (rook, soil).
Compaction can be done by the hauling equipment, small
vibrating pedestrian rollers, self-propelled rollers or by direct
methods (rain, traffic, etc.).
If you, therefore, want to apply the optimum technology in
a particular situation, it is necessary to cvefully consider all
possible alternatives before you decide to use a particular approach.
In any case, it is very useful to pose yourself the following
questions:
- what is the average distance from the quarry to the site?
- is labour available and willing to work on construction?
- which alternative methods of hauling can in principle be

used? (determined by hauling distance and. availability.)
- which methods of excavation and preparation of gravel material

are possible? (Depending on type and hardness of material.)
- which methods of loading, spreading and compaction are

possible?
Try to make realistic cost estimates for each alternative

before you choose the methodology to be applied.
In many cases it may prove worth while to experiment with

different methods on a small scale to find out what productivity
and cost levels can be achieved.
S MODULE GRAVELLING M-14
Learning Selection of quarry LE-3/l

Element
LEARJTING ELEMENT OBJECTIVES

- do some simple tests to find out whether a material is

suitable to be used for a surface layer;
- mention some ways to find quarries of good gravelling material;
- discribe and. explain the aspects to be considered when selecting

a quarry.
Materials which w±l1 form a good surf ac layer
Previous learning elements have discussed the function and the

preferred composition of the gravel layer in detail. Naturally
much depends on which materials are available in the area where
the road is located. Suitable surface layers have been made of
materials ranging from coral to very hard crushed stone. However,
great care should be taken when a particular material is selected.
While coral and most lime stones have the tendency to harden when
they are exposed to air, water and traffic compaction, several
types of rock will decompose to form clay after exposure to the
atmosphere and traffic.
If you have had. no experience with a particular material axd

the stone fraction of such a material is easy to crush with a small
hammer, have a sample of the material tested to prove its suitability!
The following simple tests give an indication of the suitab-
ility of a particular material.
A. Take a small sample, moisten it and mold it into a ball. The

presence of sand and fine stones can be found by the gritty feel
of the sample. When, after drying, the ball retains its shape,
can be assumed that a sufficient aniowit of binder (clayey
Sit material) is present.
N-14
LE-3/2
B. After flattening the wet sample, it should be difficult to

penetrate with a pencil, thereby indicating the presence of a
sufficient proportion of fine and coarse aggregates which inter-
lock together. When the proportion of binder is too high, the
wet sample can be easily penetrated. and will leave the hands
muddy and sticky.
How to find good quarries

The location of a quarry containing good gravelling material
is often very difficult. In some cases it is cheaper to crush
rock instead of hauling gravel over a long distance. When you
prospect for suitable sources, collect samples of suitable rock
and/or other material of which reasonable quantities are available
and estimate (i) the hauling distance to the road to be gravelled,
(ii) the required length of access road to the quarry and the type
of terrain in wh±ch this access road will have to be constructed.
A number of sources of information of where good gravel can

be found are:
the ministry or government department responsible for the
construction and/or maintenance of roads in a particular area.
In some cases surveys have been made, indicating possible
gravel deposits. Valuable information can often be obtained
from government supervisory staff such as road inspectors who
have been involved in gravelling work in the area. Even
information about old exhausted quarries can be very useful as
similar material can often be found in the surrounding areas;
- the local people. A good strategy is to leave samples of

suitable materials with the local administration with the
request to ask the local people to look for similar materials.
If possible, a reasonable reward should be promised to the
person who has located the quarry which will eventually be used;
- the exposed faces of road ditches or cuts in the area.

Driving along the road and examining stony outcrops does not
take a lot of time and can provide extremely valuable information.
]YI-l4
IiE-3/3
Selection of quarry
The following aspects need to be considered:
- what is the quality of the material?
- what are the costs to excavate ad transport the material?
These costs depend on a number of factors:
(1) is the land owned? Will compensation have to be paid?

If so, there are usually established procedures and
standard prices. You can normally obtain this data
from the local road departm.ent;
(ii) what is the average hauling distance?
(ili) how much of an overburden will have to be removed, to

reach the good material?
how long an access road wi,ll have to be constructed and
in which type of terrain?
how much good material is available? Try to estimate

the thickness and area of the deposit by digging holes
in a systematic manner;
Finally, it is important to find out whether or not the quarry
is located in low-lying terrain. If so, this may well cause
the quarry to become unworkable when it rains.
MODULE GRA. VETTING.
Learning Organisational structure

Element
I1EARNING ELEBNT OBJEOTIVES

- describe the organisational structure of the gravelling team;
- describe the functions and roles of the various people in the

gravefling organisation;
- describe the general rules of the gravelling site.
At different levels, a large number of people are involved

with gravelling. At headquarters, people are responsible for making
policy decisions on which roads should be gravelled and what resources
(labour, transport, money) will be available to carry out works in
different regions. In the regions engineers or senior supervisors
will be responsible for the general organisation of the works and
the mobilisation of these resources. At site level the supervisor
will be responsible for the organisation of the work and the
administration of labour, tools, equipment aud materials. At all
these levels the engineering/supervisory staff are assisted by
S various types of administrative and operating personnel. At
headquarters, we usually find executive officers and senior
accountants; in. the engineerts office - pay-clerks, accounting
personnel and mechanics; and at site level - storekeepers, plant
operators, drivers, carpenters, labourers, headmen and watchmen.
All these people have a specific role to play and have a place
in the organisation. What these functions are and how they relate
to each other can be drawn in an organisation chart (figure 2).
M-14
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N-14
LE-4/3
The responsibilities of the person,s rformin the different

functions in the orgar.iisatIon chart are:
S
N-14
For graveiling, a number of general rules have to be followed.

Everyone on site should be aware of these rules, which are made to
ensure that the gravelling can be carrLed out as planned.
Routine niaintenance and servicing of equipment
Repair of equipment
Storing fuel and oil

S
Issue and. return o± tools and. materials
Supply of drinking water

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Payment of wages
MODULE GRAVELLING M-14
Learning Organisation of the work LE-5/l

Element

After you have learned this element you should. be able to:
- describe the preparatory activities to be carried out before

the start of the gravelling;
explain how the quarry should be laid out;
describe how the workers and equipment should be organised;
- describe various methods of organising the hauling and

dumping of gravel and discuss their respective advantages!
disadvantages.
Before the gravelling can start, a number of preparatory

activities have to be carried out:
(a) a suitable camp site has to be located.. In principle, this

site should. be as close as possible to the quarry to keep the
time used for transport between camp and quarry to the essential
minimum. If, on the other hand, a fresh water source is
nearby, you should carefully consider the advantages and
disadvantages o± choosing a particular location before you
make your final choice;
a good access road to the quarry has to be constructed. This

road should be wide enough to allow two lorries/tractors
+ trailers/donkey carts (whatever means of hauling is used)
coming from opposite directions to pass easily. In areas where
it rains frequently you may consider providing a gravel layer
of a minimum width of 3 metres to ensure that the access road
stays passable even during rains;
the camp and stores have to be constructed. Ensure that at
least one (or, if many people will he staying in the camp,
S more as required) latrine is prepared and that a place for

taking a shower and washing is available.
I (a) trees and. bushes must be cleared from the quarry site and the
topsoi (overburden) covering the good gravel material must
be removed and. stockpiled. This topsoil should be respread
after the guarry has been exhausted;
(e) when the topsoil has been removed, the loading bays (places
where the transport will be loaded) should be prepared. It
is recommended to stockpile, in advance, a volume of gravel
sufficient for two days' gravelling. This allows a good
control of the excavation gang which, ideally, should stay
two days ahead of the loaders;
S (±) turning bays should. be prepared along the road. The distance
in between two turning bays should be a maximum of 100 metres;
so that no time and fuel is wasted during the gravQlling
operation;
finally, the road. to be gravelled should be repaired as
necessary. Pot4ioles s1.ould be filled and. the camber should
be restored where required. A length of road equivalent to
one day's production should be prepared before the first load
is transported.
It is recommended to limit the number of workers carrying out
these preparatory activities to about 25. It is usually
possible to select suitable gang leaders from this first
group of workers. You can do this by carefully observing
individuals who demonstrate a positive attitude towards the
work as well as manmanagement and. leadership abilities.
0P 11flE QJRR
The quarry should be operated in such a way that the lorries/

tractors ± trailers/donkey carts can enter and leave without being
in each dther's way. Unnecessary waiting time is very expensive
and. should be avoided
Figures 3 and 4 show two plans for a quarry layout. Figure 3

iilnstrales that a wider access road. and. more turning space is
M-14
L-5/3
required when a quarry has only one access. The ring-road

solution shown on figure 4 is very good. as it allows the vehicles
to enter and leave the quarry and to manoeuvre with a miniiirum of
interference. There is a circular traffic flow and the access
road to and from the quarry can be constructed to a width
sufficient for one vehicle only.
fload
Lae. 4urnin
p\o.cZ equice
. jyi roc OOWS
eL
M-l4
LE-5/4
To facilitate the loading and to increase the daily production,

you should ensure that at all times the vehicles to be loaded are
situated at the lowest level possible..
In level terrain this can be done as shown on figure 5a (stages

1, 2 and. 3). In a hillsid.e quarry the material can best be
excavated in steps (figure 5b).
This rule is extremely important as loading from above is
far easier and loading productivity will increase considerably if
the vehicles are placed in a low position.
M-14
LE-5/5
:t:t 5b
A great advantage of using trailers for gravelling is that

more than one trailer can be used for each pulling vehicle. This
means that, while one trailer is transported to site, one or two
others can be loaded. The pulling vehicle will therefore never
have to wait as is the case when lorries are used. Also, when
loading Ls done by hand, well-designed trailers are easier to load
than lorries because of their low loading height.
When trailers are used, organjse the work in such a way that
full trailers are waiting by the time the tractors arrive in the
. quarry. The main objective is to keep the expensive hauling
equmexit(the tractors) running throughout the day.
Organisatjon of the- workers
The quarry: excavation, stockpiling and loading
The best way to manage and control large groups of labourers

is to form several groups performing well-defined tasks.
As far as the quarry is concerned, this means that a number

of sub-groups should work on excavation, while others work on
loading.
LE-5/6
When the gravel is relatively easy to excavate, one way of

organising the work is as follows: The workers doing excavation
work in one section of the quarry stockpile heaps of loose material
to be loaded the following day. The volume per day to be excavated
and stockpiled by each gai should be set out before the work starts,.
This volume should be sufficient for next dayt a loading.
The loading groups are then given a daily task to fill a

specific number of hauling vehicles. Each group should work with
its own vehicle until the daily number of trips have been made.
The following day the groups move to each other's sections:

the loading of the vehicles can now be done in that section where
the excavation groups have stockpiled the loose material the
previous day. The excavation and stockpiling should be. carried
out in the section where the vehicles were loaded the day before.
Learning element 6 "Preparation of Workplan" gives some details

on average productivity (output per man/day) which may be expected
from workers doing excavation, loading and spreading.
When the gravel is very hard to excavate, it may be easier and
more productive to combine the excavation and loading into one task.
A larger group of workers is then responsible for the excavation
loading of a specified number of vehicles. The advantage of
system js that the workers can have turns among themselves on
Othis
the more difficult excavation work and that the whole group has the
responsibility for loading the required quantity of gravel.
Hauling, dumpinand spreading

Always aim to organise the dumping in such a way that waiting
time of the vehicles is minimised. Make sure that enough turning
places are available along the road and that the distance between
them does not exceed 100 metres.
There are two ways to organise the dumping; towards or away

from the quarry. There are a number of advantages/disadvantages
for each of these methods: gravelling towards the quarry can be
in such a way that the vehicles have only very short
Sorganised
waiting times even if four or five loaded vehicles arrive at the
Same time. The vehicles turn in between the uarr and the
N-14
LE-5/7
dum.in lace and reverse until the have reached the oint where
the gravel should be off-loaded. After dumping, they drive back
to the quarry and. the next vehicle dumps the next load.
However, the use of this method means that the vehicles always
drive over (sections of) earth road, which may cause these sections
to be damaged especially in rainy periods. If it rains, it may
even become impossible to continue graveiling, as the earth road
will become muddy and slippery. Also (if tractors/trailers are
used), reversing can pose considerable problems - in particular,
uphill reversing requires very skilled drivers.
Gravelling away from the quarry does not have such problems
as the vehicles always drive over already graveiled sections.
This method has the additional advantage that the hauling vehicles
frequently pass over the freshly-dumped gravel and compact the layer
thoroughly. The drivers should be instructed to drive in such a
way that the whole width is copacted and. no ruts are formed.
However, gravelling away from the quarry also has its

disadvantages.
(i) If a number o± loaded vehicles arrive at the same time,
waiting time will be considerable as the gravel dumped by the
first vehicle will have to be spread before the next vehicle
can pass over it.
Unless a ring-road can be constructed (which is only possible

in exceptional circumstances), drivers will tend to return to
the quarry passing over and damaging the shoulders and ditches
of the road.
Gravelling away from the quarry means that the greatest number
of workers will be required in the .beginning stages of the
work and that the first workers will have to be laid off very
soon. (The longer the hauling distance, the less workers
are needed for Joading, excavating and spreading - see LE-6,
planning.)
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LE-5/8
It is often best therefore to organise the graveiling in such

a way that, to the extent possible, the advantages of both methods
are exploited. LE-6 describes how a plan is made for the gravelling
of a road - starting from the middle, working towards the quarry,
returning to the middle and working away from the quarry to the end
of the road.
0±' course, even when the velling direction in general is
towards a quarry, the actual dumpin can be done away from the
quarry (e.g. start at chainage point 3+c, and gravel up to point
3+500, then return to point 2+500 and gravel to point 3000, etc.).
in this way, the loaded hauling vehicles compact the gravel layer
but also the employment and layoff of workers can be well organised -
as described in LE-6.
At the thunp site the width and length of the area to be
gravelled by each load should be clearly indicated. Remember that
the compacted thickness of a gravel layer is only about 80 per cent
of the non-compacted thickness. In other words, in order to get
a compacted thickness of 10 cm, a non-compacted layer of approx-
imately 12.5 cm will have to be provided.
Thus a 3 m3 load of loose gravel is sufficient to provide 10 cm

compacted gravel layer for a surface of 24 x 80% = 24). If,
for example, a road width of 4 m is to be graveld, you should

Sinstruct your gang leader to set out rectangles with a width of
4 metres and a length of 6 metres. Ensure that the road surface
is re aired and sha ed correctlL before any gravel is dumped.
The vehicle driver should be instructed to dump the entire load
within one rectangle. To facilitate the work of the spreaders,
the vehicle should slowly move forward while dumping the load so
that the gravel is distributed equally along the length of the
rectangle.
The labourers then spread -bhe gravel with special spreading
rakes or, if these are not available, with hoes or forked hoes.
Oversized pieces (bigger than cm) should be crushed with sledge-
hammers or removed - to be used for drainage protection works
(scour checks, lining of eroded djtches, etc.).
N-l4
S IiE.-5/9
The camber of the finished layer should be equal to that of

the earth road. Por gravel roads, a minimum camber of 5 per cent
is recommended.
Since the different activities are not equally arduous

(spreading is easier than excavating or loading) and tasks do not
finish at the same time (loading and spreading tend to finish later
than excavation), you can consider to rotate the workers so that
everybody gets his turn at each of the activities. This rotation
can, for example, be organised on a weekly basis after each worker
has done one activity during five or six working days. If there
5 are older persons or women among the workers it is best to utilise

these workers for spreading. In this case, only the labourers
working on loading and excavation would change jobs.
S
MODULE GRAVELLING M-14
Learning Preparation of workplan LE-6 /i

Element

- list the inputs required for labour-based gravelling;
- make a workplan for labour-based gravelling;
- use one method of monitoring the gravelling operation.
A workplan for the gravelling should give information on

inptts, quarry location and hauling distance and expected outputs.
Inputs
The inputs required for labour-based gravelling are:
- supervisory personnel (senior supervisor and gang leaders);
- skilled operators/drivers for the hauling equipment;
- other skilled personnel (mechanic, carpenter, storekeeper);
- labourers for preparatory and main gravelling activities;
- hauling equipment (which can be lorries/tractor-drawn,

animal-drawn or wheelbarrows, depending on average hauling
distance and availability);
- spare parts and fuel (if mechanical power is used);
- hand tools;
- setting out and controlling aids (camberboards, pegs, strings,

tape measures);
- site camp (housing, sanitary facilities, stores).
The quantity of inputs required depends to a great extent on

two factors:
(1) the availability of hauling equipment (how many lorries,

tractors/trailers or animal-drawn carts can be made available
for the project and how many on average can be expected to be
operational throughout the project?).
N-14
LE- 6 / 2
S
(2) the average hauling distance.
Table 1 shows how many trips per day can be expected from a
tractor having two trailers, one being hauled, while the other is
loaded. It also indicates the optimal number of tractors for
each hauling distance and the number of workers required. The
output of the workers is estLmated to be 3 in3 per man/day for
excavation, 6 m3 (loose) per man/day for loading, and 12 in3 per
man/day for spreading. The quantity of material transported
per trip is assumed to be 3 m3. The average speed of the
tractor/trailer combination is estimated to be 15 km/hour.
Table 1:
Hauling distance No. of trips Optimum no. Number of workers

(one way) per tractor of tractors (exc. loading,
per day (6 hr. spreading)
availability) Exc Load Spread Total
0-1 18 2 36 18 9 63
1-2 12 3 36 18 9 63
2-3 9 4 36 18 9 63
3-4 7 4 28 14 7 49
4-5 6 4 24 12 6 42
5-6 5 4 20 10 5 35
6-7 4 4 16 8 4 28
7-8 3 4 12 6 3 21
This table can be used for planning purposes but the figures
given should be tested in the field and adapted to the local
conditions. Por example, the output per man/day may be higher
if the worker works on piece rate. When the hauling route is in
very good condition, a higher average speed may be possible. With
other types of transport different speeds will be obtained, etc...
By experimenting and studying the works for a period of two/three
days, it should be possible to arrive at realistic figures for a
particular situation.
After you have estimated the type and number of pieces of

hauling equipment and the number of trips you expect these to make
per day, you can estimate the number of workers required.
M-14
LE-6/3
The workplan
The length of road section gravelied per trip can be calculated
by dividing the quantity of material transported by Ci) the gravelied
width of the road, and (ii) the thickness of the loose gravel
required.
For example, when it is specified that a road should have a
gravelled width of 4 metres and the thickness of the layer of
(loose) gravel should be 0.15 metre, one load of 3 cubic metres
will gravel a length of 3/0.6=5 metres.
Figure 6 shows the location of the quarry. Since this
information is of vital importance, this sketch should always be
attached to the workplan. It is good practice to make the final
sketch on the reverse side of the workplan.
N-14
LE-6 /4
Table 2 is an example of a prepared workplan based on table 1.

Note that table 1 is only valid for the assumptions made on
e LE-6. (Excavation 3 m3/man/day, loading 6 m3/man/day,
spreading 12 m3/man/day, tractor speed 15 km/hour, quantity of
material transported per trip 3 in3.)
The actual inputs and outputs should be recorded carefully on
daily/weekly and monthly report forms. This data can later serve
as a basis for even more accurate planning.
Table 2
OIRKPLAN GPAVIjLING- Project:

Date:
:i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Hauling Length Trips per Av. No. No. of No. of

Planned Metres
distance within tractor of gravel- workers working
daily
(HD) (kin) HD per day tractors trips led (table 1; days
inter- (Table 1) working (total) per day within
val (m) HD
interval
2-3 500 9 4 36 180 63 2.8
3-4 1 000 7 4 28 140 49 7.2
,l 000 120 42 8.4
r5
-6
6-7
1 000
1 000
6
5
4
4
4
4
24
20
16
100
80
35
28
10.0
12.5
7-8 1 000 3 4 12 60 21 16.7
Total 5 500 Total planned working days 57.6
Total planned man/days 1 933
As you can see, this workplan is theoretical. It is not

possible to achieve the optimum number of man/days calculated
because the numbers of working days used in the calculations are
fractions. Also, it is not practical to employ 63 workers on day 1
and dismiss 14 of these workers at the end of day 3.
M-14
LE-6 /5
A good way to achieve a minimum number of man/days and to

avoid probJ.,ems with employment and lay-off is the following:
- carry out the build-up and the lay-off of the labour force
in a limited, number of steps;
start gravelling in the middle of the road with a hauling

distance in the middle of the range and work towards the
quarry;
- when the quarry, or the nearest point to it on the road,

is reached, return to the middle of the road and. continue
towards the far end.
In the example of table 2 and figure 6, this means:
- start gravelling at chainage point 3500 (6 km from the quarry)

with a labour force o 35. Theoretically th gravelling
from chainage point 3 500 to chainage point 2 500 takes 10
working days (table 2). Therefore:
- employ 7 more Labourers from working day 11.
- the gravelling from chainage point 2500 to chainage point 1500

takes 8.4 working days. Therefore:
- employ 7 more labourers from working day 20.
- the gravelling from chainage point l5OO to chainage point O500

- employ 14 more labourers from working day 27.

- lay off 35 labourers from working day 30.


S
M-14
Table 3
You now use:
Workers Working days Man/days
35 xlO 350
42 x 9 378
49. x 7 343
63 x 3 189
28 xl3 364
21 x 17 357
59 1981
You should aim to gradually lay off your labourers towards

the end of the project, as otherwise the productivity tends to
go down. By arranging the employmen± in this way, you are also
able to select and keep the best workers for the longest period
o± ±ime.
Of course the camp, the quarry and access road to the
civarry need to be prepared before the tractors and trailers arrive.
As mentioned in LE-5, this should be done with a maximum of 25
labourers. The number of man/days required depends on the quantity
. of work to be done and. the final workplan should include an estimate
based on a realistic quantity survey.
You can now make the final workplan. It is good practice to
inike this plan viib1e on a bar chart. Figure 7 shows how to do
this.
A A
'V.)
I S
N NH I
1vI_14
JIE-6/8
It is immediately clear from this figure that:
C-ravelling is carried out from chainage 3500 to 0+000 and

subsequently from 3500 to 5500.
C-ravelling between, for example, chainage 4500 and 5+500 is
planned to be carried out in 17 working days using an average
of 21 labourers and 4 traOtor/trajler combinations.
Figure 8 shows how the weekly report data can be visualised
to allow a comparison of the actual and the planned progress to
be made.
At the end of each week the actual length g.ravelled is plotted

and all relevant data such as actual number of tractors/trailers,
actual labour force and number of working days are noted as shown.
At the end of week 6, the actual progress was 3 km of gravelling.
Twenty-eight working days and 1,138 man/days were used to produce
this result. The gravelling is two working days behind schedule
and 67 man/days more than planned were used.
It can be seen that this is mainly due to the fact that in

week 3 only 3 tractors were working. The employment of new workers
was consequently delayed until week 4 and only 375 metres of road
were gravelled.
a
-i4
IiE-6/9
0
3
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f1:
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II
, %
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t& liii
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iti 144tH
M-14
LE-6 /10
In week 5, 6 days were worked and 840 metres were gravelled.

In week 6, only 3 working days were available (public holiday,
rain) and. one tractor had broken down. In this week only 340
metres were gravelled.
This planning and monitoring system is particularly suited
to the gravelling operation as it not only shows how much is done
and which resources are used, but also the original targets
are or are not achieved.
S
MODULE GRAVELLI NG- M-14
Learning Administration and monitoring TE- 7/i

Element
LEARNING- ELVIENT OBJECTIVES

- use the various graveiling report foiuis;
- describe why these foiiiis are necessary and what they are
recording.
.G-raveliing is a complicated and expensive operation, involving

a considerable number of skilled personnel (operators, drivers,
mechanics) as well as various types of equipment.
To keep track of the results and the inputs required to achieve
these results, a good administrative and reporting system is
essential. This system should monitor the progress, the use of
tools and materials, the number of man/days of skilled and
unskilled personnel, the usage of fuel and lubricants, the number
of vehicle-kilometres or hours, etc. Several forms have to be
regularly completed for this purpose.
Daily/weekly report
This report describes how many and which type of people are
working on the different activities, the number and type of
vehicles working, the number of loads transported, the length of
road gravelled and other relevant information. It should be
filled on a daily basis and summarised at the end of the week.
Weekly report
At the end of each week the infoi-ination of the daily report
is added/summarised and additional information on the fuel, oil,
tools and equipment situation is recorded.
M-14
LE-7/2
S
Stores ledger
In this ledger all materials, hand tools, oil, fuel, etc. are
recorded. Every time an item is received, issued or returned
the storekeeper must make an entry in this book. It should
always be possible to:
physically check the balance of usable and unusable items and
compare it with the balance as recorded in the ledger; and
find out when and to whom tools/materials/fuel have been

issued.
Monthly report'
This report suinmarises the daily/weekly reports and the
information of the work tickets. It should be completed by a
senior supervisor in the presence of the supervisor in charge of
gravelling. All information (progress, kilometrage of vehicles,
fuel consumption, store balance, man/days) should be physically
checked by the senior supervisor before the report is submitted
to the site engineer.
Work tickets
On these forms travel with project vehicles is authorised.
Details of vehicle - services, fuel, oil and lubricant consumption -
should be recorded on these forms as and when they occur.
Normally only one person should authorise travel with project

vehicles and each driver/operator should have his own vehicle. The
names of these persons and their signatures should be shown on the
work ticket so that unauthorised use of the vehicle can be
controlled. The information recorded on the work ticket is
summarised on monthly report at the end of each month.
Muster rolls
It is recouiinended to keep separate muster rolls for the regular
(monthly employed) personnel and the unskilled (daily employed)
labour. It is good practice to keep duplicates of each muster roll,
so that a record is always available on site even at those times
when the original muster rolls are required at headquarters for
preparing and checking of payrolls.
Sample of daily/weekly report and instructions for use
S
Sample of monthly report and £nstructions for use
I
S
Sample of stores ledger and instructions for use
S
Sample of work ticket and instructions for use
M-l4
LE-7/7
S
Sample of muster roll and. LnstructionS for use
5 NODULE RPVELLING M-l4
Learning Equipment, tools and materials LE-8/l

Element
LEARNING ELENENT OBJECTIVES

After you have learned this elment you should be able to:
- list the types of equipment, tools, materials and consumable

stores available for the gravelling;
- describe the design and quality requirements of the most

important hand tools for gravelling;
- describe how fuel should be handled and recorded.
For the gravelling operation you have at your disposal the

equ.ipment, tools, materials and consumable stores listed on
pp. LE-8/2 and LE-8/3.
Remember to keep from the beginning good records of the numbers
and the condition of all items allocated to you. Check and record
the mileage/kilometrage or hours indicated on the various machines/
vehicles and ensure that all meters are working. If not, report
this immediately to avoid problems in the future. Fuel constunption
should be checked regularly and compared to meter readings to
S avoid misuse of fuel. The supervisor in charge of equipment should
know by experience approximately what the average fuel consumption
for each vehicle should be. When it is evident that this consumption
is either too high or too low, he should find out what the cause is
(leaking tanks, faulty speedometers, misuse of fuel, etc.).
I[-i4
LE-8/2
List of equipmerzt
Description Licence number Number on site
S
IVIl4
LE-8/3
List of tools and spare parts
Description Number in store
S
N-14
IE-8/4
LLst of materials
Description Number on site
S
M-14
I LE-8/5
]list of consumable items
Description Number on site

M-14
LE-8/6
S
type of
The following remarks can be made concerning each
equipment/vehicle
S
IE-l4
IiE-8/7
For the gravelling equipment/vehicles the following service

schedule should be adhered to:
When a piece of equipment/vehicle breaks down the repair should

be carried out as follows:
S
M-14
LE-8/8
Tools
Excavating, loading and spreading of gravel are very "tool-
wearing" activities. For this reason it is extremely important
that tools for gravelling are well designed and have a good
quality. Pickaxes should be of the heavy type (weight of head
between 3 and 3..6 kg) and fitted with a handle with an elliptical
cro ss-section.
Shovels should be of the heavy duty, round-mouth type. The

blade thickness should be a minimum of 1.75 mm.
The rakes for spreading should be of the heavy duty type.
Garden rakes are definitely not suitable for spreading work.
Special rakes have been designed for gravelling (see Guide to
Tools and Equipment, page 1.53) and it may be possible to
manufacture these locally.
Sledge-hammers should have a double-faced head and weigh
between 3 and 4.5 kg. They re used to crush over-sized material
on the spreading site. Sledge-hammer handles should ideally be
between 75 and 90 cm long, with an elliptical cross-section and
a raised safety grip to minimise the danger of the tool slipping
out of the hands of the worker.
Oonsumable items
Of these, fuel is certainly the most costly and most frequently
used. Proper handling, storage and recording of fuel consumption
is therefore of utmost importance. Then fuel is kept in drums,
these should be handled gently to avoid leakages and damage of the
drums. Also, take care to leave the drum standing for a few
hours after it has been filled before you use the diesel petrol
to fill vehicles. There is always a danger that the fuel has
mixed with condensed water in. the drum. After leaving the drum
for a while the lighter fuel will be on top of, and separated from,
any water there may be in the container.
Then issuing fuel, keep separate records for each vehicle and
note (i) the date of issue, (ii) the quantity and type of fuel
issued and (iii) the registration number of the vehicle. The
driver should sign for receipt of the fuel. Usually the same
information should be recorded on the work ticket of the vehicle
concerned.
MODULE G-EAVELLING
Learning Module summary and checkpoint

Element
LEARNING ELEMENT OBJEOTIVES

After you have learned this element you should:
- know what the purpose of gravelling is;
- know how to plan, organise, implement and monitor the

gravelling operation;
- know how gravel quarries are selected.
SUMMARY
The fimctions of a gravel layer are: (i) to provide an
all-weather surface to a road and (ii) to prevent the formation
of ruts and pot-holes by the passing traffic.
The decision of whether or not to gravel a road depends on
the function of the road, the expected traffic density, the nature
of the natural soil and the cost of gravelling.
Different methods of gravelling should be considered before
gravelling is started. bepending on. the hauling distance,
S different methods of hauling may be economical. Depending on
labour availability, cost and motivation, some or most of the
gravelling activities can be carried out with labour-intensive
methods.
There are several simple field tests to determine whether a
particular material is suitable to be used for gravelling. In
case of doubt, have a sample tested in a soils laboratory.
Quarries can be found with the assistance of government
departments responsible for road construction/maintenance, the
local population, the local administration, or by a personal survey
of exposed faces of road ditches or cuts in the area.
S When selecting a quarry the quality of the material, as well

as the costs of excavation and transport, should be considered.
M-l4
LE-9/2
Before the gravelling operation can start, preparatory activities

have to be carried out: the location and construction of a site
camp, the construction of an access road to the quarry, the prepar-
ation of the quarry, the preparation of turning bays along the road
and the necessary reshaping and repair of the earth road.
The quarry work, the hauling and the spreading should be

orgénised in such a way that waiting time of vehicles arid people
is minimised and loading and spreading can be done with a minimum
of effort.
A proper workplan for gravelling is extremely important. The
plan should giv.e information on inputs (workers, machines) product-
ivities, outputs and timing of the work.
A good administrative and reporting system is essential to
keep track of thethputs (workers, tools, materials, fuel), outputs
(kilometres gravelled with a particular hauling distance) and
productivities (number of loads trnsported per vehicle per day,
number of man/days spent on each activity, etc.).
Reporting is done on daily, weekly and monthly report forms.
For gravelling, four categories of items are required: equip-

ment, tools, materials and consumable stores. It is important
to record the condition and quantity of each category from the
of the works.
Sbeginning
Hand tools for gravelling should be of the heavy duty type.
MODULE CUE0KPOINT
Indicate True (T) or False (F):
G.ravelling is always necessary whan a road carries

more than 20 vehicles per day
Hauling gravel over long distances can he justi-
fied if the future traffic volumes and the
benefits of an all-weather road are expected
to be high
Spreading gravel with a motor grader is always
cheaper and better than spreading by manual
labour
Depending on the hauling distance, different
ways of hauling may be economical to use
5 Vehicles to be loaded by manual labour should

always be positioned as low as possible
1vL4 4
LE-9/3
S
Answer briefly:
Which preparatory activities need to be carried out before
the excavation and hauling of the gravelling can start and
roughly how much time do you estimate to be required for each
of these preparatory activities when a labour force of
20 workers is employed? N,B. Assume quantities of work to
be done whenever required.
How would you go about locating a gravel quarry?
Which factors need to be considered when, from three different

quarries, one has to be selected?
List briefly the procedures to be followed for the routine

maintenance, servicing and repair of equipment.
How do you organise the work in the quarry?
Which information is given in the gravelling workplan?
S
FIELD INSTRUCTIONS M-l4
SELECTION OF QUARRY - G-RA.VELLING
Remember that:
- information on the location of gravel can usually be obtained

from:
the ministry or government department responsible for

the construction and maintenance of roads;
the local people (leave samples of the type of material

you want them to find); and
driving in the surroundings and examining exposed faces

of road ditches or cuts;
- the choice between several quarries should depend on the

quality of the material and the cost of its excavation and
transport to the site;
- you should find out who owns the land and whether compensation
will have to be paid. If this is the case, inquire about
the regulations in respect of payment of compensation;
- quarries in a depression may be difficult to drain when it

rains. Organise the excavation in such a way that the rain
water will not form big pools.
A simple test to provide an indication of the suitability ci'

a particular material:
- take a sample of the material and sprinkle some water over it;
- mold it into a ball by pressing it hard. You can feel the

presence of sand and stones (gritty) and the volume will not
become a great deal smaller (the stones and sand form a
skeleton);
- leave the sample aside for drying. When, after drying, it

does not fall apart, you can assume that a sufficient amount
o± binder (clayey material) is present;
- take another sample; moisten it and make a flat, thick

pancake. Take a pencil and try to penetrate the sample in
SELECTION OF QUARRY - G-RAVELLING (eontd.)
different places. If the pencil penetrates easily without

resistance and the wet sample leaves your hands muddy and
sticky, this indicates that the proportion of fines (clay,
silt) is likely to be too high and the material is not suitable;
- take a few of the bigger stony particles, moisten them and

press hard between finger and thumb. If you manage to
crumble the particles or if they break very easily it is
likely that they either consist of hard clay or decomposed
S rock and therefore are not suitable to form the stone fraction
of the gravel layer.
Note: Several types of lime stone or coral have been success-

fully used in gravel layers. If you are in doubt, consult your
engineer or try to get advice from a soils laboratory.
S
COMPOSITION OF THE GBAVEL LAYER
Remember that:
- a good gravel layer should have stony particles which provide

the necessary strength. and a clay fraction which binds the
layer together. In wetter areas the clay fraction should
be smaller, in dryer areas more clay can be permitted. The
clay fraction should be between 10 and 25 per cent of the total
volime of the layer, the rest of the layer should consist of
stones of various sizes and sand.
ORG-ANISATIONAIi STRUCTURE - G.RAITELLING
Project-specific, to be completed by the instructor.

FIELD INSTRUOTION& M-14
GENERAL RULES - GRAVELLING-
Remember that:
Routine maintenance and servicing of equipment
Repair of equipment
Storing of fuel and oil
Issue and return of tools and materials

PIELD INSTRUOTIONS M-14
GENERAL RULES - GRAVELLING (contd.)
Supply of drinking water
Payment of wages
S K Project-specific, to 1e completed by the instructor.

ORG-ANISATION OF TEE WORK - GRAVELLING
Remember that:
Preparatory work
- A large number of preparatory activities have to be carried

out before the gravelling can start. These activities have
to be carried out when the equipment is still working elsewhere.
Ensure that the following preparatory activities have been
carried out before the hauling equipment is moved to the site:
the location of a suitable site for the camp and the

construction of accommodation, stores and latrines;
the construcion of an access road to the quarry;
the clearing Df the quarry aite and the reu'.oval of the

overburden on top of the gravel;
the preparation of loading bays in the quarry and turning

bays along the road;
the stockpiling of a two-day supply of gravel; and
the repair and. re-shaping of a sufficiently long section

of road.
The quarry
- The quarry should be laid out in such a way that the hauling
equipment can enter and leave without being in each other's
way.
- Vehicles to be loaded should be placed as low as possible.
- When tractors with several trailers are used, full trailers

should be waiting when the tractors return with empty trailers
to the quarry.
The workers should be working in different groups on excavation,

loading and spreading. The excavating and loading groups in
the quarry should each work with their own piece of hauling
equipment (lorry, tractor/trailer, donkey cart, or whatever is
used).
ORGANISATION OF THE WORK - GR1.VELLING (contd.)
- Tasks should be given to groups of workers to excavate a

certain volume and to load and spread a certain number of
vehicle loads.
- Sometimes it is easier to combine excavation and loading

into a single activity. A larger group of workers is then
required. If possible, however, it is preferable to separate
excavation and loading, as mentioned above, because it will
then be possible to stockpile a volume of gravel in advance.
his will make it easier for you to plan, programme and control
S the daily number of trips of gravel to be transported to the
site.
Hauling, dumping and. spreading
- The hauling, dumping and spreading should be organised in

such a way that:
(1) waiting time of the hauling equipment is minimum;
the gravel is compacted on the same day as it was dumped

and spread;
the employment and dismissal of the casual workers can

be done in steps. Find out for each situation how
these objectives can best be achieved. You can gravel
towards or away from the quarry and you can start gravelling
at different chainage points of the road (see FIELD
INSTRUCTIONS - PLMNING AND MONITORING - RA.LLING).
- The road surface should be repaired and shaped correctly

before any gravel is dumped.
- Pegs should be used to mark the area to be gravelled by each
load.
- The layer thickness of compacted gravel is only about 80 per

cent of the layer thickness of the not-compacted gravel.
- Gravel pieces bigger than 5 cm should be crushed with sledge-

5 hammers or (in the case of suitably sized. hard. stones) be used
for drainage protection works.
PLANNING- AND MONITORING - G-RkVELLING-
Remember that:
a workplan for gravelling should give information on inputs

(supervision, labour, equipment and materials), expected
outputs (number of loads transported, number of metres
gravelled per day), hauling distance(s) and location(s)
of quarry(ies);
in order to make a workplan you have to estimate productivities
(number of m3 one man can excavate/load/spread per day).
Determine these productivities by monitoring the work
performance of daily-paid workers for a period or obtain
guidelines from your headquarters;
- you also need to know the hauling distances, the quantity of

material transported by one vehicle and the average speed of
these vehicles. Examples of data for gravelling with tractor/
trailers are given in N-l4, LE-6;
- when you have a certain number of vehicles available for the
gravelling, assume when you are planning that at least 25 per
cent will not be operating (services, breakdowns, other work,
etc.);
you should plan in such a way that the employment and dismissal
of workers can be done in steps. One way to do this is to
start gravelling at the middle hauling distance, to gravel
towards the quarry, to return to the start point and to gravel
away from the quarry until the job is finished (see example
M-l4, IiE-6);
at the end of each week the information of the actual inputs

and outputs should be taken from the weekly report and shown
on the workplan. If there are big differences between the
expected outputs (workplan) and actual outputs (weekly report),
find out why and report the reasons to your supervisor. (Wrong
assumptions on productivities, more breakdowns than expected,
shortages of fuel, shortages of labour, etc.)
FIELD INSTRUOTIONS M-14
ADMINISTRATION AND REPORTING- - G-BAVELLING-
Remember that:
Daily report
Weekly report
Monthly report
Stores ledger

ADMINISTRATIO'T AND REPORTING - GRAVELLING- (contd.)
Work tickets
I'Iuster rolls

FIELD INSTRUCTIONS M- 14
JQUIPMENT, TOOLS AND MATERIALS - C-RAVELLING-

Remember that:
- you should, from the beginning, keep good records of the

numbers, types and condition of the equipment, tools and
materials issued. to you;
- you should note meter readings of fuel-consuming vehicles

on a regular basis and compare these readings with the
actual fuel consumption of these vehicles;
- hand-tools for gravelling (pickaxes, sledge-hammers, mattocks,

shovels, crowbars, rakes) should be of the heavy duty type,
well designed and of a good quality;
- fuel should be properly stored and handled and separate records

should be kept for each vehiele.
Service schedule for the gravelling equipment/vehic1es
Repair of gravelling equipment/vehicles

Module 15
Maintenance
MAINTENANCE M-15
Learning Module learning objectives aaad content LE -o / 1

Element
MODULE LEARNING- OBJECTIVES

- explain why maintenance is necessary and what the purpose of

maintenance is;
- describe routine maintenance activities;
- discuss some factors influencing the choice of routine

maintenance methods;
- describe when, how and for which purposes equipment should be

used;
- describe different systems to carry out routine maintenance and

mention some advantages/disadvantages of those systems;
- describe which tools are necessary and how they are administered.
MODULE CONTE
LE-O Module leanaing objectives and content
LB-i Nature and definition of maintenance
LE-2 Routine maintenance activities
LE-3 Choice of methods for routine maintenance
LE-4 Routine maintenance with equipment
LE-5 Routine maintenance with labour only

MODULE MAINTENANCE M-l5
Learning Nature and definition of maintenance LE-l/1

Element
LEARNING ELEIYIENT OBJECTIVES
After you have learned, this element you should be able to:
- explain why maintenance is necessary;
- describe a number of common failures occurring because

maintenance is insufficient;
- describe three different types of maintenance.
However well roads are constructed, without regular maintenance

they are doomed to deteriorate and eventually disappear. At first,
there will be only slight damage when, because of a flattened camber
the surface drainage will become inadeq,uate. kfter rainfall, water
will be left behind in the lower places of the road surface layer,
softening and weakening such places. The passing traffic will then
eventually and ixievitably form pot-]aoles (figure 1).
EU-kt djk'c
I
N-15
LE -1/2
.Another characteristic is the formation of ruts, caused by the

tendency of most drivers to follow tracks previously made. This
tendency is reinforced when grass and other vegetation on the
shoulders of the road formation are not kept short.
Finally, corrugations are very often formed, especially on
granular soils. Their rapidity of formation depends mostly on the
amount and type of traffic and the soil type.
The second stage of deterioration is more serious. A flattened

camber combined with silted ditches give the road an entirely
different cross-section (figure 2).
As you can see, there is nowhere the water can go, which means
that it will either be stagnant in the middle of the road if the road
runs through level terrain or move downwards in the longitudinal
direction if the road runs through sloping terrain. Where traffic
has formed ruts, these ruts will act as channels which will be
deepened and widened after every rainfall.
The third stage of deterioration occurs when the cross-drainage

(culverts) become blocked. When the road formation is still higher
than the surrounding area, the road will act as a. dam, which in
N-15
LE -1/5
principle is still trafficable although the saturation with water will

have a weakening effect. However, as soon as the water starts
crossing the road, very serious damage will occur in a very short time.
Then a road is well-designed and constructed, most of these problems
can be avoided by regular maintenance.
This type of maintenance is called routine maintenance.
Then special problems occur such as landslides, rockfalls, culvert
damage or road washaways, a special task force is required to
reconstruct the road. In many cases, such problems are caused by
design or construction mistakes. It is very important therefore to
examine certain failures have occurred.
Is the capacity of the culvert/strLlcture sufficient?
Do headwalls or retaining walls require strengthening?
Has a water course shifted its route?

Are embankment slopes or cut faces adequately protected against
erosion?
This type of maintenance is called special maintenance. The
work involved varies from case to case and, as explained above, it is
essential to remember that detailed examinations of the failures
occur are necessary.
Even when the routine maintenance is carried out with great care,
after a number of years natural wear and tear will necessitate the
upgrading of a road. For exth roads this upgrading would mean a
thorough reshaping and where necessary raising the level of the crown
of the road above the surrounding environment. For gravel roads, it
covers the replacement of the gravel surface. All aspects of (re-)
gravelling are described in detail in module M_14. For bitumen roads
it usually consists of the provision of a surface dressing. These
activities are called periodic maintenance.
MODULE MAINTENMTOE M-15
Learning Routine maintenance activities LE-2/l

Element

- list the routine maintenance activities;
- explain why these activities are necessary;
- explain when,, instead of maintenance, realignment or

reconstruction are required.
ACTIVITIES
The activities to be carried out thider routine maintenance are:
- the filling of pct-ho1ës and/or ruts with.niãte'rial similar to

material used for the road surface layer;
- the ompactiOri of this material;
- the maintaining of the correct camber of the road by retrieving

loose material which has been transported to the edges of the
road and respreading and compaction of this material;
- the removal of corrugations;
- the cutting of vegetation growing on the verges of the road.

The verges of the road include the shoulders of the road.
formation and the stretches of ground sloping down from the
shoulders to the side drains;
- the repair of erosion channels which have been formed on the

running surface, the shoulders or the ditch slopes;
- the clearing of waste material such as debris, vegetation and

silt from the ditches, catchwater drains and run-off drains;
- the maintaining of the original cross-sections of ditches,

catchwater drains and. run-off drains;
- the clearing of silt and debris from culverts, drifts and

other structures to allow a free flow of water.
M-15
LE-2/2
It is important to remember that whenever routine maintenance

becomes excessive (something which will have to be judged from case
to case) reconstru,ction or realignment may be in order. If, for
example, a culvert gets completely silted up after only a few rains,
it is cpiite likely that either it is placed too low or not laid in
the correct slope downwards. In both cases, the water cannot flow
freely so that the silt can settle. The re-positioning of this
culvert will, in the long term, certainly prove to be cheaper than
the continuous removing of silt.
Always ensure that the workers responsible for carrying out
certain activities have the right type and quality of tools to do
the job. For example, a long-handled shovel should be provided
for the cleaning of culvert pipes. Also, maintenance workers
should have the possibility to repair/sharpen their todis when
necessary. It is good practice for example to carry a number of
maintenance tools and materiaTh (pliel's, bolts,. nuts for wheelbarrows,
a saw and. some hardwood wedges to repair handles, etc.) during
inspection tours. Workers can Sign for such tools and keep them
for a limited period, returning them during the next inspection tour.
MODULE MAINTENAIWE
Learning
Element
Choice of methods for routine maintenance

- discuss some factors which influence the choice of routine

maintenance methods for gravel and earth roads.
S MAINTENANCE BY MEN, MACI]INES OR A COMBINATION OF THE TWO?
It is possible to carry out a.11 the above activities by manual

methods provided that suitable tools are supplied. In fact, many
of these activities can only be carrie4 out by manual methods
(culvert cleanixig, clearing of ditches with obstructions such as
scour checks, culverts, ove±thanging trees, clearing of catchment
drains, filling of pot-holes). In thQe cases, however, where a
smooth riding surface is of prime importance, the use of a motor-
grader (in &ry weather in combination with water bowser and roller)
may be indispensable. We are thinking of heavily trafficked gravel
roads with a high design speed where corrugations will form rapidly.
On the other hand, the great rnajority of rural roads do not carry
more than 30 vehicles per day. On such roads, an entirely smooth
riding surface is not required, since speeds greater than 30-40 km/hour
are neither essential nor desirable. The main requirement of this
type of road is an .all-year-roundpassability so that access into the
rural areas is guaranteed.
It is also very important to consider how the road was
constructed in the first place and what state it is in, before a
maintenance method is chosen. If, for example, the road has not
been constructed to very exact grades and cross falls, a motor grader
could do serious damage to the gravel layer by shifting the gravel
from the higher to the lower spots. This could not only result in an
uneven thiclmess of the gravel layer, but in some places even in a.
Stotal exposure of the earth foundation (figure 3).
M-15
43. LE-5/2
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M-l5
LE-3/3
Finally, a factor to be considered when the gravelled width of

the ru.rming surface is not great (say, 4 metres) is that a motor grader
will often move inferior material from the shoulders onto the gravel,
thereby reducing the effectiveness of the gravel layer.
Sunimarising, before a maintenance method is adopted for a

particular road, it is important to consider:
what is the purpose and function of the road?
how many vehicles per day are expected to use it?

is the road designed to be used at high speeds, i.e. is
a smooth riding surface essential?
(iv) how was the road con.stru.cted and gravelled? - to exact

grades and cross falls or with a gravel layer following
an earth formation which was not strictly to level at
the time of gravelling?
is a motor grader likely to damage the surface layer by

disturbing the uniformity of thicimbss of this layer
(see (iv) or, when the gravelled width is limited, by
placing inferior iñaterial on top of this layer?
where is the road located? A±e there any possibilities

to engage local labour to do the routine maintenance?
T1-4 discusses maintenance with eq.uipment and IiE-5 maintenance

by labou3. If a routine maintenance system by labour is considered,
factors like labour availability, willingness and motivation become
iniportrit. The first two may be influenced by offering
Oextremely
part-time employment while motivation can be improved by providing
the right type of The entives. Which type of incentives can be
successfully applied depends on the country situation (several types
of contract systems have been used in different countries).
MODULE MAINTENANCE M-15
Learning Routine maintenance with equipment LE-4/l

Element

- describe for which purposes a motor grader is used and how

the operations should be carried out;
- explain for which purposes tractors with drawn equipment

can be useful.
ROUTThE MAINTENANCE OF GRkVEL ROADS USING EQUIPMENT
Running surface
In those cases where the type of road and the traffic density
justify the use of a motor grader the machine is used to:
remove corrugations;
retrieve the gravel moved by the traffic to the edge of

the road and respread this material over the road surface;
correct the road. profile in order to maintain the original
cross falls.
It is important to ensure that the corrugations are removed to

their full depth to prevent the remaining low spots from becoming
filled with uncoinpacted material which will easily be washed away
during following rains. Also, if the corrugations are not fully
removed, they will reform very rapidly.
The removal of corrugations is best done with the cutting edge

well in advance of the rest of the blade. In spreading loose gravel,
the grader should start its first rim with the blade well over the
shoulder with the cutting edge behind the rest of the blade. When
more than very light grading has been done, it will be necessary to
compact the loose material which is left distributed over the road
surface Since the layer of loose gravel will usually not have a
thickness greater than 5 centimetres, three passes of either an
8-10 ton smooth-wheel roller or a 2-ton vibrating roller should provide
adequate compaction.
I'1-l5
LE-4/2
It is often advantageous to carry out major maintenance work

after rains when the gravel or soil is suitably moist so that
adequate compaction is more easily achieved. As a rule of thumb.
it can be assumed that a re-grading should be carried out after the
passage of approximately 1,500 vehicles.
Even when a motor grader is used there are many tasks which
can only be undertaken by labour. Examples of such activities
are clearing of culverts, filling and compacting of pot-holes,
repair of masonry work and cutting of grass. Different ways in
which this labour can be organised are described in LE-5 "Routine
maintenance with labour only".
Where tractors are available it is often worthwhile to

experiinenb with locally made "drags", such as old tractor tyres,
heavy brushes, worn grader blades or steel joists. Such implements
can be very useful to spread loose, dry material (especially when
the angle at which such implements are drawn can be varied) and
dispersing corra.gations before they become compacted. The frequency
with which such dragging should be carried out depends on the type
of drag, the traffic density and the soil type. As a rough
estimate, it can be assumed that roads carrying around 100 vehicles
per day ideally require dragging twice per week with heavy drags
(steel joists). Roads carrying around 50 vehicles per day should
be dragged approximately once every ten days. When the daily
traffic is less than 50 vehicles per day, less frequent dragging
will be required. By inspecting the roads regularly you should
be able to determine the necessary frequency of dragging and to
establish a prograimne accordingly. The lighter the drag the more
frequently the dragging should be carried out. Very light drags
(discarded tyres) are only suitable for roads not carrying more than
20 vehicles per day.
It is often advantageous to have grass growing on the shoulders

and ditch slopes, as the roots will hold the soil together and
decrease or even totally prevent erosion by surface water. Where
tractors are used for dragging purposes, it is also possible to
combine these with towed grass-cutting machines of which a large
M-15
LE-4/3
variety is available. Such machines are, of course, most effective

when the shoulders and slopes have been constructed to an even cross
fall and when the grass is reasonably short. If grass and vegetation
have grown high, obstacles (stones, etc.) may be hidden and could
damage the machine. Also the capacity of most machines would
probably be insufficient in such cases, so that manual cutting
would be preferable.
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M-15
11E-4/4
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MODULE MAINTENANCE
Learning
Element Routine maintenance with labour only
LEARNING ELENENT OBJECTIVES
- describe different systems to carry out routine maintenance
and mention some advantages/disadvantages of those systems;
- describe which hand tools are used for routine maintenance.
As we have noted, labour can, in principle, handle all activities

described in LE-2. The only activity for which equipment (whether
motor grader or tractor drawn equipment) is more suitable is the
removal of corrugations. Since these corrugations occur mostly on
heavily trafficked, high-speed gravel roads, this automatically implies
that such roads are less suited to the "labour-only maintenance
systems". However, even when equipment is used for the maintenance
of the running surface, many routine maintenance activities still have
to be carried out by labour.
On those roads where corrugations do not form rapidly or where

a smooth riding surface is not essential (IE-3), the running surface
can be perfectly well maintained by labour, so that in these cases
a "labour only" routine maintenance system can be applied.
Several systems are possible:
A. Routine maintenance by gangs of labour employed on a
permanent basis by a ministry or maintenance organisation. Such
gangs are usually based in maintenance camps and have transport at
their disposal. Although mostly such gangs are used in combination
with equipment to carry out those activities which cannot be done
by equipment, in principle they could carry out all routine maintenance
activities. However, several factors make this system less effective.
'irstly, it is quite common that breakdowns or lack of funds cause
N-l5
-5 / 2
the available transport to be grounded at the camp, so that routine

maintenance activities can only be carried out in the immediate
surroundings of the camp. Secondly, the labourers are often not
motivated to have a high output, unless the system allows incentives
(such as free time or extra money) to be used. Thirdly, a lot of
time is spent on transporting the labour to and from the site of
work. With camps situated 150 km apart, as much as four working
hours may be lost with transport when work has to be carried out at
a point of 75 km from the camp.
The administration and organisation of this system are
relatively easy as the gangs are (1) permanently employed, (ii) based
on one site. "This facilitates issues like payment and supervision
and is probably the reason why permanently employed labour gangs
combined with equipment are the most commonly occurring maintenance
system.
B.Routine maint enançe On a contract basi. In principle,
this system doe iot have aily of the disadvantages mentioned above
because the wo'k is carried out by people living along the roads to
be maintained. If, in the recent past, the road has been con-
structed using labour-based methods, it is best to contract workers
who have been involved in the construction activities, not only
because they have some essential know-how of the required activities
. but also because it is often known which individuals are most
reliable and hardworking. Each individual (or group at people) is
given a contract to keep a stretch (section) of road in good order.
What is iineant by "in good order" is specified in the contract which
describes in detail the activities to be carried out by the
contractor (LE-2). This contract should also indicate:
when" the section will be inspected;
which tools will be provided;
the amount to be raid to the contractor at the end of a
specified period (usually one month);
the date of payment;
the actions to be taken when the conditions of the
contract are not fulfilled.
M-15
LE-5/3
S
Point (v) means that, if the work is not carried out as
specified in the contract, payment is withheld until the next
payment date. When, by that time, the work is done satis-
factorily, the contractor is paid fully for the two contract
periods. If at the end. of the second contract period, the
contractor has still failed to produce the required results,
the contract is terminated (depending on the proceedings
adopted) and a different contractor (or group) is engaged. In
this case, no payment at all is made to the contractor but the
money which. has been withheld is used to pay for the maintenance
work required to bring the road back to its original condition.
S
Length of section
Since the contractors live in the area and would often be
small-scale farmers, the length of each section to be maintained
by one contractor should be deteniined in such a way that this
man has sufficient time to attend to his other activities. In
other words, the maintenance activity should be an additional
source of income not taking more than half of his available
working time. The length of a road section to be maintained
varies with:
- the ninnber and size of the vehicles using the road;
- the soil type (does it erode quickly?);
- the type of vegetation on the shoulders and ditch slopes

(how fast do'es it grow i.e. how frequently will it have
to be cut?);
- the gradients of the road section (steep sections will

erode quicker and require more maintenance);
- the type of cross-section (are there big fills or big cuts

with exposed faces?);
- the number of drainage structures such as culverts, fords

and bridges.
Experience with labour-based maintenance projects indicates
that a section of road with a length of between one and two
kilometres (depending on the factors described above) can be
5 maintained in good order by one individual who is occupied on
a half-time basis. Remember that this experience was with
rural roads of a formation width o± 5.5 metres and with a traffic
density of less than 20 vehicles per days
N-15
LE-5/4
0ganisation
Since this system is a contract system where only results
are important, it is not necessary to check how many days or
hours are worked nor whether the contractor carries out the
work himself or is assisted by others. If the road is in
"good order" payments are made whatever the methods used.
This system cn only work well if inspection tours are

made on a regular basis (say once every two weeks) and pay-
ment is made promptly on the dates specified in the contract
document (of bourse, only when the work is properly carried
out). If this is not done, the contractor will soon feel
discouraged, lose all motivation and neglect his maintenance
work. This is easy to understand if you place yourself in his
position!
A maintenance inspector, if employed full time on this

activity and having a 4-wheel drive vehicle plus driver at his
disposal, can cover approximately 150 kilometres of road. He
should then be able to visit every contractor twice per month,
once for paying and once for a thorough inspection of the works.
Additional supervision can also be provided by a gang leader!
headman who could be the best contractor on the road and is paid
extra to supervise the other contractors. In this case, a
bicycle should be provided. After a while it may be possible
to reduce the visits of the maintenance inspector to once a
month, so that he can cover more kilometres.
Tools
Whatever system is used, it is essential to provide the

maintenance workers with good quality hand tools and equipment
adapted to the various activities they have to carry out.
Hand tools and light equipment suitable for routinemaintenance
are:
Tools and light equipment Estimated life (months)
(maintenance use only)
hoe 9
grass slasher 4
bush knife 9
shovel 12
long-handled shovel
(culvert cleaning) 12
.ake 12
pickaxe 36
sharpening file 12
hand-raxnmer 36
wheelbarrow 24
Each maintenance worker should have the tools marked with

an asterisk. Whether the mmarked tools are required depends
on the situation. For example, if gravel deposits are located
in the vicinity o± the road, a pickaxe could be issued to allow
the worker to excavate grael. If a road section has culverts
with a narrow diameter the worker should have a long-handled
shovel.
When the tools are issued, the worker should sign. for their
receipt. It iS
good practice to clearly mark the tools so that
they cannot be replaced by other inferior or older ones. It is
essential to have regular (at least once per month) tools
inspections to check the number and condition of the tools.
Such monitoring will help you to anticipate the need for replace-
ment of tools and will enable you to adjust the estimated life
figures given above. The average lifetime of a tool is likely
to vary from area to areas Simple standard forms developed for
this purpose will provide necessary data relevant to other areas
in the country. If such forms are used, ensure that they are
filled in on a regular basisl
If the tools inspection is done on pay-day, the cost of
"lost" tools can be deducted from the salary or contract sum of
the worker. Whenever inspection rounds or payment rounds are
made a number of new tools/light equipment should be carried to
be exchanged for worn or broken ones handed in by the workers.
M-15
LE-5/6
0-ravel
At the time that the road is gravelled, it is reconmiended

to leave heaps of gravel along the road to be used for repairing
pot-holes or ruts. Piles of 3 in3 at intervals of 100 metres
would be sufficient for this purpose. Take care that, firstly,
the heap of gravel is dumped in a safe place (e.g. not in the
inside curve where it may obstruct the sight) and, secondly, it
does not obstruct existing foot paths. Of course, it should
be easily accessible to the maintenance workers.
It is extremely important to provide these stockpiles of

gravel as otherwise pot-holes and ruts will be filled with
inferior material and the surface layer wi11 soon be spoilt.
Inspection of the works

Before payment is made to the contractor his work shouJ,d
be inspected. This inspection should be fair and equal to
all contractors. An inspection report should be completed
at least once per month and should contain the following
information: name and type of road; name of contractor;
section for which contractor is responsible; date of inspection;
condition of surface, ditches, culverts, structures; first
payment withheld; instructions given to contractor; second
payment withheld; dismissal and replacement.
Inspection report form
MODULE MAINTENANCE - M-l5
Learning Module summary and. checkpoint LE-6/l

Element

After you have learned this element you should:
- lmow the purpose of routine maintenance, special

maintenance and periodic maintenance;
- know which options exist to carry out routine maintenance;
- know the advantages/disadvantages of each option;
- be able to describe which tools and equipment can be

used for maintenance.
SUMMARY
Routine maintenance is essential to prevent a fast deterior-
ation of the road and to avoid unnecessary damage under normal
weather and traffic conditions.
When major failures occur (landslides, culvert damage, wash-
outs), examine why these have happened befOre repairs are started.
Higher costs are well justified when the cause of the failure
can be found and rectifIed.
Periodic maintenance is necessary after a number of years
to bring the road back to its original state. This type of
maintenance normally involves re-shaping and re-surfacing.
Depending on the type and function of the road and its
average daily traffic, different methods to carry out routine
maintenance can be considered. The use of manual labour for
most of the routine maintenance activities can often be econom-
ical and very effective. If labour-based maintenance methods
are considered the workers should be motivated to continue the
work effectively even in the long run. This means that incentive
systems (rewards for effective work, penalties for poor work)
should be introduced. Which systems can be applied (time off,
extra pay, etc.) depends on the country situation and the local
customs.
N-l5
LE-6/2
Often a combination of (various types of) equipment and

labour can be used. Tractors with various types of drags can
be quite effective in removing corrugations. Labour can be
organised in different ways (gangs of labour living in road
camps, village contracts, contracts to individuals).
When a road is being gravelled, stockpiles of gravel should
be dumped at regular intervals along the road to be used for
filling pot-holes and ruts.
MODULE CUEOKPOINT
Indicate True (T) or False (F):
Corrugations are formed after every rain
Routine maintenance is done to keep the road

as much as possible in its original (after
construction) condition
When a culvert is bloäked/broken or not

functioning well it i.s sufficientto repair
it into its original state
The removal of corrugations needs to be done
every two months for gravel and earth roads
When grass and vegetation have grown high,
grass cutters have to be accompanied by
one or two workers
Answer briefly:
What are the activities to be carried out under routine
maintenance?
What is periodic maintenance?

M-15
LE-6/3
What is the purpose of grading a road?
Which systems are possible to organise routine maintenance?

What are the disadvantages of each system?
Which type of tools should be provided for routine

maintenance?
S
ROUTINE MAINTENANCE ACTIVITIES
The activities to be carried out under routine maintenance are:
- the filling of pot-holes and/or ruts with similar material as

the material used for the road surface layer and the compaction
of this material;
- the maintaining of the correct camber of the road by retrieving

loose material which has been transported to the edges of the
road and the respreading and compaction of this material;
- the removal of corrugations;
- the cutting of vegetation growing on the road;

- the repair of erosion channels;
- the clearing of waste material such as debris, vegetation and

silt from the ditches, catchwater drains and run-off drains;
- the maintaining of the original cross-sections of ditches,

catchwater drains and run-off drains;
- the clearing of silt and debris from culverts, drifts and

other structures to allow a free flow of water.
Remember that:
- when the road is gravelled heaps of gravel should be provided

S at regular intervals along the road for routine maintenance
purposes.
ROUTII MAINTENANCE - TOOLS AD EQUIPMENT

The following tools and maintenance equipment should be
available in the store for routine maintenance:
estimated life
(months, maintenance only)
- hoe 9
- grass slasher 4
- bush knife 9
- shovel 12
S -
-
long-handled shovel
rake
12
12
- pickaxe 36
- hand-rammer 36
- wheelbarrow 24
- sharpening file, pliers, bolts and nuts for wheelbarrows,
grinding wheels, whetstones, claw-hammers, hardwood wedges,
50 per cent spare handles for each type of tool described above.
Remember that:
- when tools are issued the worker should sign for receipt;
- tools should be clearly marked;
- inspections should be held at regular intervals at the site

stores to check the number and the condition of the tools.
I
MAINTENANCE - GENERAL
Remember that:
- there are three types of maintenance: routine maintenance

(the upkeep of the original shape and conditions of the
road), special maintenance (the repair of specific failures)
and erjodic maintenance (the upgrading of a road to its
original condition after a number of years);
- when special maintenance has to be carried out, you should

always determine why the failure has occurred and reconstruct
the road in such a way that another similar failure will be
avoided;
- routine maintenance workers have to carry out various types

of activities (see FIELD INSTRUCTIONS - ROUTINE MAINTENANCE
ACTIVITIES). They should be given proper tools to carry out
these activities as well as the means to maintain these tools;
- different methods of routine maintenance (men, machines) can be

appropriate for different types of roads. Always examine
and discuss the possibility to use alternative methods of
routine maintenance with your engineer or headquarters;
- corrugations should be removed to their full depth and the

loose material should be compacted. It is preferable to carry
out this work after rains when the soil contains a certain
amount of moisture. In some cases tractor-drawn drags may
be sufficient to remove corrugations. The frequency of
dragging depends on the weight of the drag, the traffic
density and the type of soil being dragged;
- grass growing on the shoulders of the road and the ditch slopes
holds the soil together and will check the erosion by surface
water. The grass should be kept reasonably short;
- "labour-only" maintenance systems are best suited to those
roads where corrugations do not form rapidly or where a
perfectly smooth riding surface is not essential. "Labour-
only" maintenance systems can be supported and complemented
by "dragging" programmes or occasional gradings. Care should
MAINTENANCE - G-ENERA.L (contd.)
be taken that motor graders only are used on those roads

which have been constructed to exact grades and cross-falls.
If this has not been the case, the grader could easily do
more harm than goods
- if a "maintenance by contract" system is used, it is best

to use individuals who have been involved with the construction
of the road concerned. The contract should describe clearly
the responsibilities of the contractor, dates of payment and
inspection, tools to be provided and conditions of the work.
Regular inspections and payments are essential with this
maintenance system. The length o± road section to be
maintained by one contractor varies with the traffic density,
topography, the type of road concerned, the number of drainage
structures, the frequency of rain and the type of vegetation
on the road. Experience has indicated that this length varies
generally between 1 and 2 1cm, assuming the contractor spends
some 100 man/hours per month on the road.
MAINTENANCE INSPECTION REPORT

(Completed sample + instructions on how the forms should be
completed).

GUIDE TO THE TRAINING OF SUPERVISORS FOR LABOUR-BASED ROAD CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE 1B09 - 888 - v2 - Engl

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GUIDE TO THE TRAINING OF SUPERVISORS FOR LABOUR-BASED ROAD CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE 1B09 - 888 - v2 - Engl

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GUIDE

LS. Karisson and J.J. de Veen

International Labour Office Geneva

Trainees' manual, Part 2: ISBN 92-2-102828-3

Ffrst published 1981

The Instructors Manual is divided into three parts. The

The second serves as an ititroduction to the training

The third part is the instructors text of the training

The Trainees Manual contains the basic material for a

1. This system has been developed by the ILO tO enable individual

In all, there are 15 modules. Each deals with a particular

Field instructions are added at the end of each module

Setting up training courses is resource consuming, especially

This Guide has been produced with the financial assistance

Andreas Wiederkehr, an engineer/trainer who has developed

1. Messrs. Edmonds and de Veen are both members of the Technology

THE PROGRANE: T1'-O Module learning objectives and content

PLANNING: LF-O Module learning objectives and content

REPORTING AJ T-O Module learning objectives and content

4. SETTING UP AND L-O Nodule learning objectives and content

5, WORK ORGANISATION: IE-O Nodule learning objectives and content

TOOLS AND IiE-O Nodule learning objectives and content

10. DRAINAGE: T-0 Nodule learning objectives and content

12. CONCRETE T-0 Nodule learning objectives and. content

GRkVELLING: LE-O Module learning objectives and content

MAINTENANCE LE-O Module learning objectives and content

ADDITIONAL TO Field instructions

Learning Module learning objectives and content LE-O/l

MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

LE-O Module learning objectives and content

Learning Nature, definition and types of drains

LEARNING ELEMENT OBJECTIVES

- know why a drainage system is necessary;

- recognise the different parts of the drainage system and be able

NATURE MiD DEFINITION

- äa±chwater drains which catch the surface water before it

- Bcour checks which prevent erosion in the ditches by slowing

- Water-table drainage which will lower the level of undergroun.d

All these drains have to work together if the results are to be

REMEMBER: TEE DRAINAGE SYSTEM IS TEE MOST IMPORTANT OF ALL TEE

Learning Road surface drainage LE-2/l

LEARNING ELEMENT OBJECTIVES

- Imow why an adequate surface drainage is important;

- Imow how to construct a proper surface drainage in various

The purpose of the road surface drainage is to prevent water from

In curves with a radius of less than 30 in, the camber is sub-

In hilly terrain where the road width is reduced, it can also be

IT IS MOST I1\[PORT.ANT THAT THE CORRECT MEASUREMENTS

The camber is controlled by using a camber board in coiiiunction

Learning Side drains and mitre drains LE-3/l

LE.ARNING ELEMENT OBJECTIVES

- know the functiono±' side drains and mitre drains;

- know the correct dimensions of the drains;

- know how to construct the side drain/mitre drain and how to

ride aroi n neasure ri vt#S (ovc c14cJY OV9)

On flat or slightly undulating terra.inyou should aim to

Cons±ructing the side ditches

There possible they should. be placed at the intervals shown

Mitre drain intervals

S Road gradient should not exceed

Learning Catchwater drains and scour checks LE-4/l

LEARNING ELEMENT OBJECTIVES

- describe the function of catcliwater drains and scour checks;

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