The Science of Psychology

Psychology
 Greek words “ psyche” which means “soul” or “mind”, and “logos”, which means “study”
 It is defined as the scientific study of the behavior and mental processes of living organisms, with
special attention to human behavior.

What is psychology?
 defined as the scientific study of human behavior that aims to understand why people behave as they do.
 considered a science because it answers question on the basis of facts through observations
 is one of the behavioral sciences together with anthropology, sociology, economics, political science and
history.
 As a study, psychology enables individual to learn more quickly and choose a vocation more
intelligently, helps a person achieve emotional equilibrium and make a better social adjustments, resolve
problems wisely and to develop into a well-integrated and happy individual.

Characteristics of Human Behavior

1. Human behavior follows an orderly pattern.
2. Human behavior can be known.
3. Knowledge of human behavior is tentative but superior to ignorance.
4. Natural phenomena have natural causes.
5. Nothing is self-evident.
6. Knowledge is derived from the acquisition of experiences

Goals of Psychology
1. To describe the different ways of how people behave. It is the accurate and detailed record of behavioral
observations.
2. To explain the various causes of why certain processes and behaviors occurs.
3. To predict and determine how the organism will behave in a certain situation.
4. To control or change an organism’s behavior and mental processes by learning how to modify or alter
undesirable behavior.

Historical Background
The earliest evidence of the origin of psychology was found in the writings of the ancient Greek philosophers
about the nature of life.
Aristotle (4th century B.C.)
• Who believed that at birth, the mind is a tabula rasa, a blank sheet, and that the experiences
encountered during one’s lifetime are impressed upon the mind

St. Agustine
 considered the next great precursor of the modern psychologist because of his skill in introspection and
his curiosity about psychological phenomena

Rene Descartes (1596-1650) left his mark on the history of psychology through his concept of reflex action,
which has a significant place in both physiology and psychology

19th Century
 Psychology began to achieve the status of an independent science when a group of German philosophers
started to use scientific methodology in their psychological studies.
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)
 establish the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig in 1879
 called the founder of modern experimental psychology
Two Theories
1. Faculty Psychology (was a doctrine on mental powers)
- the mind had a few principal faculties, such as thinking, feeling, and willing, that accounted for its
activities
- encouraged early 19th century phrenologists like Franz Gall (1758-1828) to localize special faculties in
the parts of the brain
2. Association Psychology
 It limited the mind’s contents to ideas coming by way of the senses, which then become associated
through principles such as similarity, contrast, and contiguity
 All mental activity was explained through the association of ideas.
Experimental Psychology
 Ernst B. Weber (1795-1878) a physiologist, introduce the birth of laboratory psychology
“Weber’s Law”: A difference that is just perceptible bears a constant ratio to the size of the standard stimulus.
Meaning, more weight must be added to a heavier weight if the difference is to be perceived; greater length
must be added to a longer line if the change in length is to be noticeable. (Psychology’s 1st quantitative law)

Gustav T. Fechner (1801-1887)

 extended and publicized Weber’s findings in his book Psychophysics (1860)
 discovered that by changing a physical stimulus slowly and noting the steps of judgment expressed
(expressed as the number of just-noticeable-differences or j.n.d.’s), a relationship can be established
between a physical series and a psychological series
Webner-Fechner Law: S = K log R;
where S=sensation, K=constant and R=stimulus
Psychophysical methods determined the psychology’s 1st laboratory procedures, used in the study of sensory
processes and serves as the basis for scaling of measured attitudes.

Herman von Helmholtz (1821-1894)

 Specific aspects of mind-body problem
 measured the speed of the nerve, set forth a theory of color vision, and offered an explanation for the
perception of musical tones

Statistical Psychology
Friedrich Bessel (1784-1846)
- “Personal equation”
Sir Francis Galton (1884)
- established anthropometric laboratory in London, confirming and extending the findings of Bessel
- invented the statistical technique of correlation and developed the index, to be named the coefficient of
correlation

Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)

 studies in learning and memory that was inspired by Fechner’s measurement of sensation

Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

 “Theory of Evolution”

Anton Mesmer (Frenchman) (1734-1815)

 medicine and psychiatry especially from the treatment of mentally ill (Hypnotism)

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

 Austrian physician, the founder of psychoanalysis (the branch of medical psychology)

Beginning of 20th century

 American psychologists became interested in the developments in Germany and went there to get their
training and helped establish the science of psychology in the United States:
1. William James (1842-1910) - Considered to be the “dean of American Psychologists”
2. G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924)
3. James Catell (1860-1944)
4. Edward Titchener (1867-1927)
 The first formal laboratory was set up at the John Hopkins University in 1883.

Kinds of Medical Health Professionals

1. Psychologists - teach, research, administer and interpret psychological tests, serve as consultants to business ,
industrial, military or other government agencies
2. Psychiatrist – a medical doctor who treats mental illness through psychotherapy or through pharmacotherapy
3. Counselor - gives practical, rational, and doable helping skills, but is not allowed to treat serious mental
disorders
 Schools of Psychology
1. Structuralism (1875-1930)
- Developed in Germany in the late 19th century
- primary concerned with discovering the structure of mind because they believed that the mind is made
up of building blocks in the form of various types of sensations and perceptions, and that these building
blocks could be discovered through introspection or looking into one’s own mind.
Two main leaders of Structuralism:
1. Wilhelm Wundt (Vil’helm Voont)
 1879 established the 1st experimental laboratory at Leipzig, Germany
 Known as the “ Father of Modern Psychology”

2. Edward B. Titchener – is a student of Wundt and sought to identify “the basic elements of consciousness”

2. Functionalism (1890-1930)
 Emphasized on the importance of how behavior functions to allow people and animals adapt to their
environment.
William James
- theory of mental life and behavior that is concerned with how an organism uses its perceptual abilities to
function in its environment
- Wrote the “Principles of Psychology” (the first modern psychology textbook)

3. Behaviorism (1913 – present)

 founded by John B. Watson (1878-1958)
 A psychological theory that claims all mental states can be reduced to statements of observable
behaviors.
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936),
a Russian psychologist who is famous for the “conditional response” (Classical Conditioning)
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990), one of the 20th century’s most famous psychologists (Operant Conditioning –
learning by consequences)
 developed the “air-crib”, a modified crib designed to take care of infants’ needs and “skinners box”, a
laboratory device for animal experimentation

4. Gestalt Pattern/Configuration (1912-1940)

 was founded by Max Wertheimer
 It is a school of thought that looks at the human mind and behavior as a whole.
 It also emphasizes the significance of studying any phenomenon in its overall form
 Its concept applies to everything, objects, ideas, thinking processes and human relationship.

5. Psychoanalysis (1900 – present)

 was founded by Sigmund Freud, an Austrian neurologist
 exerted much influence on personality theory and on the methods of treating personality disorders
 The Freudian or psychoanalytic theory stressed the role of motives and cravings, often hidden and
repressed in the subconscious or unconscious minds, which results in abnormal behavior.

Carl Jung (1875-1961)

 believed that personality is the strongest force in determining human behavior (men and women are
either extrovert or introvert)
 sometimes called “analytical school”
Alfred Adler (1870-1937)
 believed that the strongest human urge is not sexual emotion, but the unconscious attempts of an
individual to overcome the feeling of inferiority (known as the theory of individualism)

6. Humanistic (1950s – present)

• Emphasizes the unique qualities of humans, especially their freedom of choice and decision making, as
well as their potential for growth.
• Person-Centered
 Carl R. Rogers (1902-1987) is considered one of the founding fathers of psychotherapy research and
was honored for his pioneering research by the American Psychological Association in 1956.
 Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) developed the theory of human motivation (Maslow’s Hierarchy of
Needs)
* 5 General Categories of Human Needs; physiological, safety, belonging/love, esteem and self-confidence.
 Common Methods Used In Research
1. Introspection - a method of mental self-analysis wherein the psychologist studies himself, records his feelings
and experiences, analyzes these, and later interprets them
2. Observation
3. Life-History Method – the extensive study of individuals by tracing the development of a particular behavior
4. Survey Method or Group Method
- uses data obtained from respondents through written questionnaires or interviews
- used in obtaining norms, surveys, or opinion polls
5. Experimental Method – the study of behavior inside the laboratory under controlled conditions
6. Statistical Method

Various Branches of Psychology

1. General Psychology - explains the underlying principles of human behavior; includes the study of how and why people
behave as they do, in relation to the structural and functional mechanisms of the human body

2. Comparative Psychology - is the study of behavior and mental processes of the different species (also known as animal
psychology)
3. Development or Genetic Psychology - is the study of human behavior in all aspects of growth and development (the
entire life of an individual)

4. Child Psychology - is the study of human behavior from prenatal until early adolescence stages

5. Adolescence Psychology
- is the study of behavior from puberty to later life

6. Senescence Psychology - is the study of human behavior in old age

7. Abnormal Psychology - is the study of the etiology or cause of personality defects or behavior which deviates from the
average reaction

8. Experimental Psychology - deals with the investigation of different types of behavior through observation and
experiment in psychological laboratories (aim is to understand the fundamental causes of behavior)

9. Differential Psychology - is the study of differences and similarities between individuals, social groups and races

10. Dynamic Psychology - is a scientific interpretation of mental phenomena emphasizing internal drives and motives as
the cause of behavior
- In contemporary psychology, this is also referred to as personality psychology.

11. Physiological Psychology - is the study of the functions of the different organs of the body, especially the nervous
system and their bearing on behavior and mental processes

12. Educational Psychology - is concerned with the psychological aspects of teaching and of formal learning processes in
schools.

13. Applied Psychology - Is used in medicine, education, law, business, industry and in many other fields. Psychology, as
applied in medicine, is called psychiatry. It is concerned with the treatment of mental diseases.

14. Legal Psychology - is the application of the principles of human behavior in law or any legal proceedings

15. Clinical Psychology - pertains to the diagnosis and evaluation of a person who has a problem in relation to events
surrounding him or her

16. Business Psychology - deals with consumer behavior where psychological methods are used to gain more clients and
impress prospective buyers

17. Industrial and Engineering Psychology

- is a branch of applied psychology which investigates problems and situations in business firms and industries
- it is concerned with improving workers’ efficiency and the promotion of their welfare.
- deals with the equipment design and the task of individuals who operate them

18. Vocational Guidance - is used in the scientific selection of a suitable employment or vocation
- aims to help students choose their future occupations or careers

19. Mental Hygiene - is the science of preventing mental illness and preserving mental health through the use of
psychology, psychiatry and education

20. Social psychology - is the study of people’s behavior in relation to their families, groups and communities