A Model of the Mind–Body Complex

What we had described in the previous sections is the broad spectrum of ideas
relating to the mind–body complex. From this bird’s eye view of the nature, scope,
and functions of human mind in the Indian tradition, it is clear that there are distinct
and quite divergent views on the concept of mind and the senses. In some ways they
parallel those in the West. They are those like Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika thinkers who uphold
the substantive notion of the mind and those like the Buddhists who consider mind as
a process. Then, in AdvaitaVedānta and Sāṁkhya-Yoga, the mind is seen more like
a function. Further, some of the Buddhists like Buddhaghoṣa have asserted the
intentionality of the mind. It is also obvious that there are some major differences
between Indian and Western conceptions of the mind, which have profound
implications for psychological theory and practice. The descriptive accounts in
Western philosophies that consider mind as substance, process, function, or intention
are taken in the Indian tradition to a different level of discussion. Consequently,
some of the problems of Western conceptions are sidestepped and new approaches to
the study of mind become manifest. From the various descriptive accounts we
considered, it is possible to derive a model of the mind–body complex, ignoring the
many differences in detail between the different systems of Indian thought. The new
model is sufficiently distinct and different from the Western conceptions of the mind
to merit consideration by psychologists as a viable alternative. It is heuristic and has
important implications for psychology in general and Indian psychology in particular. The
following are some of the main features of the model with its metatheoretical base. They are
stated in a succinct summary form.

1. The mind is different from consciousness. Unlike consciousness, mind is

physical, albeit subtle, and is subject to physical laws that relate to subtle matter.
2. The mind is also different from the brain. Unlike the brain, the mind is subtle in
form and composition; and as such it is nonlocal in the sense that it is capable
of functioning without the normal space-time constraints.
3. The mind–body complex is the instrument of one’s thought, passion, and
action.
4. The mind in association with the brain and body becomes conditioned and is
consequently constrained and driven by bodily factors.
5. The prime manifestation of the conditioned mind is the ego.
6. The conditioned mind is so biased that the truth it seeks gets clouded and even
distorted; knowing in human condition becomes fallible; and behavior of the

person tends to be imperfect. Consequently, ultimate truth evades the condi-

tioned mind. Mind itself becomes an obstacle, if the human quest is for truth

and self-realization. This point is central to Śaṅkara’s thinking. It is further

discussed in some detail in the chapter on self.
7. Mind holding the reins, the person becomes the knower (jñātā), the doer (kartā)
and the enjoyer of the fruits of her actions (bhoktā). The mind in its agentic
function acts as the self. It is behind the empirical self as distinguished from
self, ātman, or puruṣa, which is consciousness as-such.
8. Mind does not generate consciousness; rather it reflects consciousness.
9. The person in search of identity misconstrues the mind as her true self and
hypostatizes the ego function as the enduring self. Consequently, self-gratifi-
cation replaces self-realization as the goal of one’s endeavor.
10. The mind may be functionally distinguished into three constituents—buddhi, ahaṁkāra,
and manas.
11. Buddhi, which is commonly translated as the intellect, is the psychic component. It is in a
sense the essential and core aspect of the mind. It is sattva at its best in human condition.
Uncorrupted it is almost like consciousness. It has the ability to reflect consciousness in its
purity. Buddhi is the seat of memory and instrument of discrimination and creative action. It
is also the depository of karma and the storehouse of saṁskāras and vāsanās, unconscious
complexes and instinctual tendencies.
12. Ahaṁkāra engenders the ego sense. It manifests as the “me” in each person.
Identity is its defining characteristic. It is the source of the distinction between
the self and the other. The ahaṁkāra aspect of the mind appropriates the
sensorially processed inputs, breaks the inherent nexus between knowing and
being, and creates an artificial distinction between them.
13. The manas is like a central processor. Attention is its defining characteristic;
filtering and analysis are its other functions. It also acts as the internal sense
organ.
14. The mind in its totality is the interfacing instrumentality that is connected at one
end with the brain and bodily processes of the person with which it is asso-
ciated. At the other end, the mind is poised to receive the light of consciousness
that illumines its content.
15. Thus, the mind is (a) the surface that reflects consciousness, (b) the ground
from which the contents of one’s cognition spring, (c) the seat of ego, and

(d) the storehouse of past actions and their effects. Because of such a com-
plexity, the reflections of consciousness in the mind are subjected to bias,
distortion, and misinterpretation. Further, the person misconstrues the ego as
the self.
16. The functioning mind with its ego gets entangled by its own complexity.
Entangled, the mind becomes unsteady and distracted. Exposed to the incoming
stimuli in the form of sensory inputs, excited by the internally generated
imagery and conditioned by saṁskāras and vasanās, the mind is constantly in a
state of flux. It is unsteady and prone to tension and turbulence. Such congenital
unsteadiness is the source of distortions in one’s perceptions. The unsteadiness
causes turbulence on its surface and prevents the mind from faithfully reflecting
consciousness. The mind of a person is not a tabula rasa. Nor is it in a
quiescent state. Rather it is imprinted with saṁskāras and vāsanās, is condi-
tioned by the accumulated karma, and is constantly fluctuating and unsteady.
17. In one’s quest for truth and perfection in being, there is therefore the basic need to make
the mind steady and turbulent-free. This can be accomplished by
disentangling the mind by systematic deconstruction of the ego.
18. There are several ways of doing this. One way is practice of yogic meditation, which
results in focussed attention that inhibits distractions. Practice of meditation needs to be
accompanied by an attitude of dispassionateness (vairāgya).
The practice of concentration and cultivation of vairāgya (dispassionateness)
are the twin principles guiding the practices of yoga to tame the mind and make
it steady. Other ways of deconstructing the ego include self-surrender by
practice of celestial love, devotion (bhakti), and action without attachment to
results (niṣkāma karma).
19. When the mind becomes steady and the ego is under control, the person tends
to be less biased and be in a position (a) to come closer to truth, (b) experience
consciousness as-such, (c) to narrow the gap between knowing and being, and
(d) have access to a variety of hidden human potentials.
20. Thus the mind in the Indian tradition is the vehicle of one’s journey from the
ordinary to the extraordinary states of experience, from rational thinking and
creative excellence in knowing to transcendental realization of being, from the
mundane to the moral, and from saṁsāra to spirituality. In all this, the link
between the mind and body cannot be ignored.
21. The senses in the Indian tradition are considered more than the physical
instruments or the physiological organs. They are also centers of power; and
they have a significant role in constructing one’s perceptual reality. The senses
register the energy patterns emanating from the world of objects and reflect
them on the manas. These reflections cause the manas to process the sensory
inputs. However, it is the manas that initiates and triggers the cognitive process.
In other words, the flow in the perceptual process is from the mind to the object
and not from the stimulus to the subject. This gives the impression that the
mind is actually going out to the object. Such a “travel” is not necessary
because the mind being subtle is nonlocal.
22. Manas has dual functions—(a) it processes the sensory inputs; and (b) acts also
as the sixth sense and receives the inputs from the internal states. In its function
(a) it is an aspect of the mind in addition to buddhi and ahaṁkāra.
23. Understanding the nature and functioning of the indriyas is necessary for
gaining control over them. Appropriate control of the functioning of indriyas is
helpful (a) to achieve cognitive excellence and (b) to reach transcognitive states.
24. Meditation in its various forms is helpful to gain control over the sensory
processes.
25. Just as the mind is a source of human suffering and also a resource for achieving
bliss, so are the senses. In their proper utilization lies human happiness.

MIND & BODY COMPLEX – Indian Psychology (Alternate extra for Mind Body
complex).
Mind is different from consciousness, unlike consciousness, the mind is physical, subtle, and
subject to physical laws that relate to subtle matter. Mind is different from the brain, and it is
capable of normal space-time constraints.

The mind-body complex is the instrument of one’s thought, passion, and action. Mind
associated with the brain and body becomes conditioned and is constrained and driven by
bodily factors. The primary manifestation of the conditioned mind is the ego. The
conditioned mind is so biased that the truth it seeks gets clouded and even distorted. behavior
becomes imperfect. Mind itself becomes an obstacle. The mind doesn’t generate
consciousness, rather it reflects consciousness. The mind may be functionally distinguished
into three constraints – Buddhi, Ahamkara, and Manas.

Buddhi

Essential and core aspects of the mind, uncorrupted it is almost like consciousness. It has the
ability to reflect consciousness in its purity. It is the seat of memory and instrument of
discrimination and creative action.

Ahamkara -Ego sense

Manifests ” me ” in person, the source of the distinction between self and other. It prevents
the yogi from achieving union with the higher self.

Manas – central processor

Attention is its defining characteristic, and filtering and analysis are its other core functions.
It also acts as an internal sense organ.

Mind is the a) surface that reflects consciousness, b) the ground from which the content of
one’s cognition springs. c) the seat of ego d) the storehouse of past actions and their effect.
The entangled mind becomes unsteady and distracted.

For perfection, mins should be spent disentangling and systematic deconstruction of ego.

There are several ways of doing this, one way is practicing yogic meditation which results in
focused attention that inhibits distraction.

When the mind is steady, ego is under control the person tends to be less biased and be in
position tends to be less biased and be in a position to come closer to truth, experience
consciousness, narrow the gap between knowing and being, and have access to a variety of
hidden human potentials.
Thus the mind in Indian tradition is the vehicle of one’s journey from ordinary to
extraordinary states of experience, from rational thinking.

Manas has dual functions

 Sensory input
 Act as 6th sense
 Aspects of mind in addition to buddhi and ahamkara.
Understanding the nature and functioning of Indriyas is necessary for gaining control over
them. functioning of Indriyas is helpful for achieving cognitive functioning.

Meditation is helpful to gain control over the sensory processes. Mind is the source of
suffering as well as achieving bliss, and proper utilization of human happiness.

Mind and body are not separate entities, the body needs the mind, and the mind needs the
body, they are like bone and muscle, which have equal importance.

When you keep on studying them separately, you go into a separate path, which is actually
not in use

 The mind is different from brain, and it is capable of normal space time
constraints. Mind- part of person that thinks , feels and remembers
 Mind is different from consciousness. Unlike consciousness, the mind is
physical, albeit, subtle, and is subject to physical laws that relate to a subtle
manners.
 Mind body complex is the instrument of one’s thought, passion and action.
 Mind associate with brain and body becomes conditioned and is contrained
and driven by bodily factors.
 Primary manifestation of conditioned mind is ego
 Conditioned mind is so biased that the truth it seeks gets clouded and even
distorted behaviour become imperfect. Mind itself become obstacle.
 Mind holding the reins, the person becomes the knower (Jnata), the doer
(karta) and enjoyer of the fruits of her actions ( bhokta). It is behind the
empirical self as distinguished from self, atman, or purusa which is
consciousness as such.
 Mind doesn’t generate consciousness, rather it reflect consciousness.
 Person in search of identity misconstrues the mind as her true self and
hypostalizes the ego function as enduring self. Consequently the self
gratification replaces self- realization is the goal of one’s endeavor.
 The mind may be functionally distinguished into three constitutes – Buddhi,
Ahamkara and Manas
 Buddhi – Intellect. Essential and core aspect of mind. If
uncorrupted it is almost like consciousness. It has ability to reflect
consciousness in its purity. It is the seat of memory and instrument
of discrimination and creative action
 Ahamkara – Ego sense. Manifests ‘me’ in each person. Source of
distinction between self and other. It prevents the yogi from
achieving union with the higher self.
 Manas – Central processor. Attention is its defining characteristic
filtering and analysis are its other core. It also acts as internal sense
organ.
  Mind is the
 Surface that reflect consciousness
 The ground from which the content’s of one’s cognition spring
 The seat of ego
 The store house of past actions and their effect
 Entangled mind become unsteady and distracted
 For perfection, mind should be disentangling and systematic deconstruction of
ego
 There are several ways of doing this. One way in practice yogic meditation
which is results in focused attention that inhibits distraction.
 When mind is steady, ego is under control the person tends to be less biased
and be in position to
 Come closer to truth
 Experience consciousness
 Narrow the gap between knowing and being
 Have access to variety of hidden human potentials.
 Thus the mind in Indian Tradition is the vehicle of one’s journey from
ordinary to extra ordinary states of experience, from rational thinking.
 Understanding the nature of functioning of indriyas is necessary for gaining
control over them. Functioning of Indriyas is helpful for achieving cognitive
functions.
 Meditation is helpful to gain control over sensory processes.
 Mind is the source of suffering as well as achieving bliss, proper utilization of
human happiness

Fundamental Assumptions of Indian Psychology

Indian Psychology directly follows the above generalisations as fundamental postulates,
assimilates these, and develops on the following fundamental assumptions:
1. The essence of human personality is Atman the Self, which is different from body or mind,
and which governs these.
2. Atman or Self is of the nature of Pure Consciousness, and it enlightens both mind and
body, and gives life to these.
3. The essence of the entire universe is cosmic conscious- ness, and Atma the individual
consciousness is directly related to it.
4. The whole universe is an off-shoot of ihe Pure Conscious¬ ness (Brahman), and is
produced, sustained, governed by it and dissolved in it. According lo'Visistadvaita. Universe
is the body of Brahman. Human body and mind follows-the same principle. Both are
governed by soul.
5. Corresponding to individual body, individual mind and the individual self, there is the
cosmic body or the physical universe (called Viral), cosmic mind (called hiranyagarbha) and
cosmic consciousness.
6. The individual body is directly related to the cosmic ■body, and so is individual mind to
cosmic mind, and individual self to cosmic self.
7. Consciousness pervades the entire universe, and it ani¬ mates all organic and inorganic
matter. The difference in degrees of life in lower organism and higher organism is merely due
to the degrees in the quantum of consciousness and its threefold nature or gima (sattvika,
rajasika or tamasika). This has been explained by Sankhya. 1 The scope of Indian psycho¬
logy, therefore, is the entire life pervading the physical atom, the amoeba, the vegetable
kingdom, and the animal kingdom. From the point of view of Indian philosophy, even an
attom possesses consciousness, but it is characterised by inertia (tamas). We may make a
deeper study of consciousness in man, because we are concerned about it, but we cannot shut
our eyes towards the eternal truth that consciousness governs the entire universe. There have
been different shades of opinion regarding the relation of consciousness and the world of
matter. Upanisads declare that, all this world is Brahman (sarvarii idam khalu Brahman).
Sahkhya declares independent existence of matter, but accepts the non-consciousness of the
same, and proclaims that all life is the product of Conscious¬ ness (Purusa) and matter.
Matter is insentient without Purusa. Vedanta (leaving aside Advaita) believes that the relation
bet¬ ween matter and consciousness is that of adjective and substan¬ tive, or body and soul,
owned and owner, heat and fire, colour and object etc. Advaita denies the existence of matter
apart from consciousness. Barring Advaita and Mahayana Buddhism, all schools of Indian
philosophy affirm the existence of the universe. Nevertheless, it has been declared
unequivocally that consciousness reigns supreme. The subject of Indian psycho¬ logy is,
therefore, consciousness proper, that is the be-all and end-all of all life and thought.
8. Indian psychology assumes that individual consciousness is directly related to the universal
consciousness. Different DarSanas explain the relation in diverse ways. SSnkhya believes in
plurality of puru§as (or plurality of individual consciousnesses) but concedes to the unity in
diversity. Upanisads declare identity of the two, and so does Advaita, illustrating the relation
between ripple and sea, pot-ether and cosmic- ether or reflection of sun in water and the sun.
The philosophi¬ cal discussion about the minute details regarding the mutual relation of
individual consciousness and cosmic consciousness, whether it is of slight difference, or of
non-difference, is not so important from the psychological point of view. The relation exists,
and it is a psychological truth for us. It is on this assumption that Indian psychology ventures
to enter into the so-called mystical realms of superconscious,—a topic beyond the scope of
Western psychology.
9. Another epistemological assumption is the nature of knowledge and its valid sources.
Indian psychology, in the wake of Indian philosophy, classifies knowledge into three types:
the direct cognition (pratyaksa), inference (paroksa) and intuition'(aparoksa). Nyaya
psychology deals with these in detail. Intuition or yogi-pratyak$a has been discussed
primarily by VaiSesika, Vedanta and Jaina, and exhaustively by Yoga. These are discussed in
the relevant chapters below.
It is a fact that individual mind can transcend the realms of limited cognition, and enter super-
cognition or intuitional state. Swami Vivekananda explains this in simple words: “There is
continuity of mind, as the Yogis call it. The mind is universal. Your mind, my mind, all these
little minds, are fragments of that universal mind, little waves in the ocean; and on account of
this continuity, we can convey our thou¬ ghts directly to one another.” Hence Indian
psychology does not regard that there is any mystery in intuition, telepathy or extra-sensory
perception (ESP).
The above facts regarding the philosophical basis of Indian psychology have been mentioned
to clarify the point that Indian psychology has altogether a different foundation from that of
Western psychology. While Western psychology is an off-shoot of Western philosophy and
science, Indian psycho¬ logy emerges from Indian philosophy; the antithesis between East
and West (and their philosophies) explains the mutual dissimilitude between Indian
psychology and Western psychology. Here some readers may have sincere doubt regar¬ ding
even the existence of anything like Indian psychology, because whenever we read anything
about psychology, it is the Western psychology. But the facts mentioned in the following
pages vouchsafe the fact that Indian psychology not only exists, but surpasses Western
psychology in scope, methodology and validity of conclusions. It solves a number of
problems concerning psychology, which remain unsolved in the West.
After a full understanding of Indian psychology, the Western mind if not accepting the total
superiority of Indian psychology, shall have to make this much concession of accepting that
Indian psychology is complementary (not supplementary) to Western psychology and that
synthesis of both is at once necessary. He will agree with Edgar Sheffield Brightman in
saying, “The West cannot afford to neglect the gifts which wisemen from the East may
bring,” 1 or with Gordon W. Allport of Harvard University, who mentioning some questions
of curiosity regarding meditation and mental discipline of Indians declares, “Ignorance of
Eastern thought leads us to give callow and mischievous answers to such questions as these.”
It would, therefore, not be out of place to make a resume of Western psychology—to begin
with, spotlighting the un¬ solved problems of Western psychology and its limitations, and to
make a brief statement of facts explaining how Indian psychology solves these problems.

NATURE OF INDIAN PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology is the science of consciousness, and its scope is the study of consciousness which
pervades the entire universe from the invisible atom to the man, the highest of the living
organisms. The Ultimate Reality according to majority of the Indian philosophical systems is
Pure Consciousness. Individual Consciousness is directly related to it like spark and fire,
wave and ocean etc.
Indian psychology is embedded in Indian philosophy. The fundamental doctrines of Indian
philosophy which have bearing on psychology, and the psychological deductions therefrom
have been mentioned in Chapter I above. A few principles such as ethical principle of life.
Law of Karma and liberation are repeated below for clarification.
1. The Ethical Principle of Life
Upanisads emphasise the purity of character as the basis of higher life and self-realization.
Samkhya mentions threefold misery in the world and that the final means of deliverance from
it is unattachment and discrimination. Yoga mentions panca- klesas, the fivefold misery and
emphasises yama and niyama as the first preliminary steps for spiritual progress. Sankara
talks of fourfold qualities necessary for a spiritual aspirant e.g. Viraga, Viveka, sadhana-
sampat and mumuksatva. The third quality sadhana-sampat includes the ethical principles
empha¬ sised by Patanjali or Buddha or Mahavira. Ethics of all the Indian Philosophers have
been almost identical. Pure ethical life is the foundation of spiritual progress.
2. Law of Karma
Upanisads declare it as an eternal law. Samkhya affirms it. Nyaya reiterates the same with a
little modifications. It mentions that the birth of a child depends upon the Karma of the
parents and of the soul. The conjunction of the seeds is only a second- ary cause. Karmic
residium continue from birth to birth. Man is free only at the cessation of Karma. The three-
fold division into prarabdha, sancita and agami have been explained by Vedanta. The concept
of karmasaya and alayavijnana is the contribution of Yoga and Buddha respectively. Details
about the process and fructification of Karma have been given by Yoga and Jaina system.
3. Sanskaras
The theory of Sanskaras is a corollary of the Law of Karma. The nature of the next birth is
determined by the kar¬ ma of the individual. The soul retains with him the subtle body
consisting of Prana, Manas, the past Karma and Ahamkara. The Karmas contain the past
impressions of ex¬ perience in the previous birth. These past impressions (sans¬ karas)
determine the direction of the Jtva in the present life. This is explained in Upanisads. Nyaya
talks of 3 kinds of Sans¬ karas viz. velocity (vega), bhavana and elasticity (B.P. and S.M.
158), Yoga describes two types of Samskaras—the individual tendencies (Vasana) and good
or bad actions (dharmadharma). The seat of Samskaras is karmasaya and it results in Karma-
vipaka or the fruit of action which determines the nature of the next birth, especially the
family in which one is destined to be born, the longevity, and the pleasures of life (jati, ayu
and bhoga). The goal of yoga is the destruction of the Karmasaya.
4. Liberation
The ultimate goal of life according to all the Indian philoso¬ phies is liberation, self-
realization, Moksa or Kaivalyam. It is the state of destruction of bondage, cessation of
transmigration, annihilation of karma, destruction of the subtle body, lifting of the veil of
ignorance (according to Advaita), release from three-fold misery (according to Samkhya) or
fivefold kleSa (according to yoga), understanding the true nature of the Self and attaining the
state of Superconsciousness. Knowledge of psycho¬ logy must lead to the understanding of
the true nature of the Self, and hence the principle of liberation is a part of the sub¬ ject-
matter of Indian psychology.
The circumstances when final release takes place have been mentioned by Nyaya (N.V, III.
2.60). Release is possible through true knowledge of the defects like pain, births, activity and
ignorance (N.S.I, 1.2). Samkhya states that release takes place automatically when the dance
of Prakrti ceases before the Purusa, and Purusa detaches himself from Prakrti. There is an
urge for eternal happiness and eternal existence in the human mind. Indian philosophy leads
to that goal.
5. Means of Liberation
The means of liberation have been mentioned in all the philo¬ sophies. Upanisads emphasise
knowledge of the true nature of the self. Samkhya emphasises the discrimination (viveka) and
knowledge of the true nature of Prakrti. Nyaya emphasises true knowledge through
purification of the self, withdrawal from the senses and concentration and meditat ion.
Advaita emphasises Jnanayoga, or the path of knowledge. Ramanuja emphasises Bhakti-
yoga. Patanjali emphasises Raja-yoga. Buddhism emphasises high ethical life. Jainism
emphasises ethics and meditation (like that of Yoga). Each philosophical system has given
details about the divergent means for libera¬ tion. This topic has been beautifully summarised
by Swami Vivekananda, “Each soul is potentially divine. The goal is to manifest the divinity
within by controlling nature, external and internal. Do this either by work, or worship, or
psychic con¬ trol, philosophy, by one, or more, or all of these—and be free.”

Eastern Versus Western Psychology

B.F. Skinner and Swami Akhilananda

The East (Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism) and West (Western academia, science, medicine)
offer two different and illuminating approaches to the study of the mind, and are emblematic
of philosophical and epistemological study of the brain. They approach the brain differently,
looking at things at different levels and have their own benefits and limitations. In the end
and as the left and right hemispheres of the brain do, the two approaches should complement
each other, and each has influenced the other.
Psychology both Eastern and Western are important ways of understanding things and
expanding the mind. The first half of this article looks at the intuitive, mystical Eastern
psychology. The second half looks at the empirical, academic Western Psychology. They are
different and both competing and complimenting studies of the human brain.  Both have their
limits. Even when put together they still give a disjointed, limited view of the brain.

EASTERN PSYCHOLOGY

Eastern psychology is tied into the Eastern (Buddhist, Hindu, Taoist) philosophy and
theology, is more subjective and inward-looking that the academic West’s scientific
approach.  It works to serve not just the mentally disordered but everyone.  It attempts
through many methods– meditation, yoga, tai chi, personal self-reflection– to bring the
individual to higher emotional consciousless and enlightenment.
 

Eastern Psychology, Philosophy and Religion as One Not Separates

In the West, psychology is separate from other sciences, religions and often even philosophy.
Traditionally it is considered bad, and even unethical and unscientific, to mix them together.
Some in the West consider theology and science to be like oil and water. 
 In the East, however, philosophy, psychology, theology and the way of life are all mixed
together, and considered parts of one whole. 
“If we look deeply into such ways of life of Buddhism and Taoism, Vedanta and Yoga, we do
not find either philosophy or religion as these are understood in the West. We find something
more nearly resembling psychotherapy”– Philosopher Alan Watts, Psychotherapy East &
West
If you know Buddhist, Taoist and Hindu philosophy and techniques for enlightenment and
leading a proper religious life, you essentially know their psychology. Buddhism is about
clearing and expanding the mind through meditation, mindfulness and proper living, which is
both a philosophical and psychological methodology. Same with the yoga and meditation of
Hinduism, and the Tai Chi of Taoism. It is about mystical awareness.
Really, Eastern psychology is a mystical reflection and exploration. Buddhists regularly talk
about the shallowness of symbolic language, categorization, labels. 

Eastern Psychology Focuses on Everyone, Not Just the Mentally Ill or Troubled 

While traditionally Western clinical psychology and psychiatry were designed for the
treatment of the mentally ill or people having troubles, Eastern psychology was designed for
everyone, including the normal and healthy. Eastern psychologists say that a problem with
such Western psychology is that it applies its conclusions for treating the mentally ill to
everyone, which they feel is an incorrect approach.  
Buddhist, Hindu and Taoist philosophies are designed to bring normal people into higher
states of enlightenment and knowledge of the universe, being of better conduct and living
better lives, and being harmonious with the universe. Eastern psychological techniques–
mindfulness, meditation, self reflection, yoga, self reflection– are for everyone, not just the
mentally troubled. 
In recent years, Western psychology has caught on to this, as evidence by the integration of
Eastern psychological practices of mindfulness, meditation and yoga into clinical psychology
and daily life, along with the field of positive psychology. 
“Positive psychology is the study of happiness. Psychology has traditionally focused on
dysfunction—people with mental illness or other issues—and how to treat it. Positive
psychology, in contrast, is a field that examines how ordinary people can become happier and
more fulfilled.”–  Positive psychology, Psychology Today

Eastern Psychology Is About Looking Inward At The Self 

Hinduism and Buddhism were well ahead of their time, at least compared to Western
psychology and science, in that they focused on the inner self, studying one’s own mind. That
was the center of study and spiritual practice, and one’s inner self laboratory of psychological
experimentation. Hinduism and Buddhism consider one’s self a reflection or microcosm of
the universe. Also, from a practical standpoint, it is all we one can really study and know. 
This reflection and study of the self is intuitive and subjective. This goes against the tenets of
the West’s scientific method. However, the East sees the limits of the Western psychology
that only studies only that which can be objectively and externally measured. There is much
in psychology, in the self and the universe that is personal, unmeasurable and unquantifiable:
emotional feeling, aesthetic experience, mystic experience, much of the religious experience.
Much of the universe is beyond science and even human logic and symbolic language.
Mysticism attempts to become closer with the transcendental universe in personal, a-rational
ways. 
While early Western psychology shied away from introspection and personal subjectivity,
this Eastern study of the inner works of the mind was centuries ahead of Western
psychology’s cognitive psychology that used scientific methods to study the inner workings
of the mind. In fact, the West’s behaviorism and structuralism intentionally avoided the
‘untestable’ inner workings of the mind, and were criticized even by Western psychologists
for this blind spot. That something cannot be scientifically studied, or that you choose to
ignore it, doesn’t make it non-existant or unimportant. It makes the study unwhole.
It is true that this exploration is subjective to the person, and this is a limit and a problem.
However, the human experience, all human experience, is subjective and the studying of this
subjectivity is important to understanding humans. And while it is limiting and corrupting, it
is also a path that the Eastern psychologists take to expand their mind. All explorations and
modes of study– all attempts to expand the mind– have limits and problems.

Eastern Psychotherapy

Along with studying and reflection on the inner workings of the mind, early Eastern
psychology had many clinical psychology and cognitive therapy methods that are used today
in the West.
In the video ‘The Roots of Buddhist Psychology,’ Buddhist psychologist and meditation
expert Jack Kornfield talks about the Buddhist method that intertwines practices such as
mindfulness, meditation and introspection with moral and ethical living of loving kindness,
charity and environmentalism. He says one should work to rid oneself of delusions, and
realize that all one needs is in the self. One key method is to mindfully watch how one reacts
to situations– what triggers anger, sadness– and observe what one really feels. The goals is to
be aware and fix things as needed. A key is to be open and not avoid painful thoughts or bad
things about the world. Awareness and enlightenment are keys both as a philosophy and
cognitive/clinical therapy. Kornfield says one should rid oneself of the ego (a delusion), or at
least see it for what it is. And he says true enlightenment is when the mind and the universe
are inseparable. As you see, Buddhist psychology and philosophy are one. 
The Taoists believe that one should live in harmony with nature, and its psychology works to
fix bad habits and thoughts that prevent this. 
Much Taoist psychology work is beyond words, such as Tai Chi. Taoists believe it is not just
words and thoughts that are important, but even the way one moves, even walks across a
room. This is mystical.
But, again, as with Buddhism and Hinduism, Taoism isn’t just trying to deal with normal
living, but to raise one’s mind and consciousness to a higher, beyond-normal level. This is
how it ties into its theology.
Eastern Psychology Is Concerned With Society And Earth, Not Just the Individual

While Eastern Psychology works with the individual, including teaching him or her to work
on the self while living in a troubled, distracting, materialistic and often corrupt society, it
also is concerned with society as a whole and the whole universe. Remember that the Eastern
religions see everything as intertwined, not separate. 
While Western psychology often sees mental illness as one who does not fit in with society,
the East often sees the society itself as being the ill one. The East often sees that the
enlightened will be seen as mentally ill by the West, because the enlightened person’s
thoughts and ways do not conform. Eastern psychology is concerned with social greed,
corruption, war, ethnic and racial hatred, and often views them as the result of the people’s
errant inner thoughts.
Duly note that when we talk about ‘Western psychology’ we talk about traditional white
psychology. Many non-geographically Eastern aboriginal religions and beliefs are much in
alignment with the East not the white west. The below is a comparison of Buddhism and
American Indian beliefs.

WESTERN PSYCHOLOGY AND THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD 

Western psychology, a relatively modern area that studies human minds and behavior using
the scientific method.  It studies humans using observation and measurable sensory
information. 
This method has produced much important information about humans and animals, but the
scientific method cannot study or know about some areas, such as theology, what emotions
feel like, subjective experience, mystical experience, aesthetics and other integral parts of the
human and human experience. 
Western psychologists and others have realized the limitations of this scientific psychology,
and have integrated Eastern theology, psychology and practices, in particular into clinical
psychology. Studying both Eastern and Western psychology, one comes to the conclusion
that both approaches are essential, and should be integrated. It is not an either/or but a
both/and.

Western Psychology as Science

Unlike the centuries old Eastern psychology, Western Psychology of the academic Europe
and North America is a relatively recent area, started in the mid-1800s. Western psychology
is the scientific study of human minds and behavior, traditionally approaching from a strictly
scientific point of view.
“Psychology is the science that studies why human beings and animals behave as they do.
Psychologists are interested in understanding the whole range of human experience, including
the reasons for people’s motives, thoughts, feelings and emotions. These problems have
puzzled man for centuries. But the scientific study of such problems only began in the mid-
1800s . . . Psychologists have learned much about behavior and experience, but they have
made only a beginning. There is a great deal they know little about, and a lot to be
discovered. Suppose you ask yourself ‘How does my brain function as a mind?’ You would
be asking a question that has baffled investigators for hundreds of years. The question is still
largely unanswered, but it is being studied by many psychologists’ collaboration with
neurophysiologists and other scientists.”– Hadley Cantril, Psychology Professor at Princeton
University (Cantril 1978) 
As it is a science, psychology uses the scientific empirical method used in all areas of
Western science.
The scientific method is the process where scientists collectively and over time try to create
reliably objective representations, theories and/or models of the world and the things in it. It
is applied to all areas of science, including chemistry, biology, physics, engineering and
medicine. In particular, it creates theories and experimentally tests them through the senses
and observations. It attempts to be objective and remove the scientists’ biases, though biases
can never be entirely escaped. 
“The scientific method has four steps: 1. Observation and description of a phenomenon or
group of phenomena. 2. Formulation of an hypothesis to explain the phenomena. In physics,
the hypothesis often takes the form of a causal mechanism or a mathematical relation. 3. Use
of the hypothesis to predict the existence of other phenomena, or to predict quantitatively the
results of new observations. 4. Performance of experimental tests of the predictions by
several independent experimenters and properly performed experiments . . . If the
experiments bear out the hypothesis it may come to be regarded as a theory or law of nature
(more on the concepts of hypothesis, model, theory and law below). If the experiments do not
bear out the hypothesis, it must be rejected or modified. What is key in the description of the
scientific method just given is the predictive power (the ability to get more out of the theory
than you put in; see Barrow, 1991) of the hypothesis or theory, as tested by experiment. It is
often said in science that theories can never be proved, only disproved. There is always the
possibility that a new observation or a new experiment will conflict with a long-standing
theory.”– University of Rochester Physics and Astronomy Professor Frank L. H. Wolf  (Wolf
2016) 
The science of psychology avoids individual introspection, experimentation through
subjective personal feelings, intuition. It considers many areas such as palm reading, crystals
and mystic intuition to be pseudoscience. It is wary of the way lay people use personal or
anecdotal experiences as proof of broader laws. They know that such personal experience is
subjective and formed by personal and often irrational biases.
There are many areas, schools and specialties in Western psychology. The following shows a
few major ones, demonstrating how the scientific method is used and how each area has its
limitations.
. 
Structuralism

In 1879 Wilhelm Wundt introduced the first formal experimental psychology, and his area of
study was called structuralism. He worked to study the conscious mind– totally ignoring the
unconscious mind–, and intentionally studied it using the scientific methods he saw being
used in chemistry and physics.
An obvious limitation of structuralism is that it was limited in its study conscious mind.
Behaviorism

Another major psychology school/movement that shows both the objective scientific method
and its limits was behavior psychology or behaviorism.  The earlier pictured B.F. Skinner
was the leader in this area.
Behavioralism studied the outward behavior of humans and animals. It dismissed the inward
personal experiences and non-symbolic thoughts of the subjects, as they could not be
objectively measured. Behavioralism studied how humans and non-human animals outwardly
reacted (behavior) to events, stimuli and actions, and could even be used to alter human
behavior. Pavlov’s dog that drooled at the ringing of a bell in anticipation of food is perhaps
the most famous example.

Looking Inside Scientifically: Cognitive Psychology

Psychologists and philosophers saw the obvious blindspot of structuralism and behaviorism:
They ignored the inner experience of the mind. The inner experience is hard to study
externally, but that does not make it any less real or any less important a subject.  
The next major movement was cognitive psychology and cognitive science that worked to
study the inner works of the mind: how the mind works, processes information, comes to
judgments, the emotions, attention, etc.
This area also uses the scientific method, and often incorporates biologists, biochemists,
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Along with old school testing methods, cognitive science
uses MRI, brain scans to study how the brain reacts under different circumstances from sleep
to art perception to fear. It may be a study of the inside of the brain, but it is no less scientific
than behaviorism.
Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis and theories have been refuted over the years, and often
called pseudoscience in part because they are testable by the scientific method, but he is
credited with studying the subconscious mind, and showing how it affects the conscious
mind.
Structuralism, behaviorism and cognitive psychology are just three of many areas of
psychological study, but show the progression of the areas of study and the use of the
scientific method.

Moving Beyond The Limits of Science in Western Psychology 

In recent times, people in the West have seen these limits in Western psychology, in
particular in the clinical and therapeutic ways where they are dealing with real individuals
with personal problems. The West has incorporated many Eastern psychology theories in
practices. Meditation, self-introspection, yoga, mindfulness and acupuncture are
commonplace these days in the West, including in mainstream psychology.  
Humanistic psychology is a clinical psychology that values the private, subjective experience
and even says it is more important to the individual. New age religions incorporate both
Western science and Eastern practices.

SUMMARY OF EASTERN VERSUS WESTERN PSYCHOLOGY, AND THE

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE SPIRITUAL AND SCIENTIFIC VIEWS 

“To put it at its simplest: science takes things apart to see how they work. Religion puts
things together to see what they mean. And we need them both, the way we need the two
hemispheres of the brain.”– Rabbi Jonathan Sacks
Eastern and Western psychology study and focus on different aspects of the mind. Each has
its own scope and methodology.
Eastern psychology is intuitive and mystical in its approach, and studies the self, its emotions,
feelings, mystical experience of things. It is of the belief that studying the self is studying the
universe— a theory consistent with mystical experiences where things appear to be one,
where there is no ‘self versus other.’ It studies things and addresses questions that cannot be
addressed by science. However, its limits are that it is subjective and much of its findings
cannot be verified empirically.
Western psychology uses the scientific method to study the human brain and mind. It is an
exacting tool, which is its strength. However, its limits are that there are things that are
beyond empirical study. Science can only study that which can be objectively measured and
‘seen.’ Further, science is a work in progress, with theories proven wrong, adapted and fixed.
This is both its strength and its weakness.
Each method is limited, and both complementary and conflicting. Such is the nature of
human existence. 
While the brain and body simultaneously use both hemispheres of the brain, some say that
religion, or spirituality, is a proverbial right brain activity, while science is a proverbially left
brain activity.