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Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms. 1987 PDF
Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms. 1987 PDF
AND
SOPHISMS
MIR •
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Science
for Everyone
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.............................iiiiiiiiioiiiio...........
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B. H. JIaHre V. N. Lange
Mir
Publishers
Moscow
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Translated from the Russian by
Valerii Ilyushchenko, Cando Sc. (Phys.-Math.) Contents
First published 1987
Revised from the 1978 Russian edition
Preface 9
Chapter 1. Mechanics 11
1.1. The Amazing Adventures of a Subway Pas-
senger 11
1.2. Will the Propeller-Driven Sledge Move? 11
1.3. What Is a Boat Velocity? 12
1.4. The Strange Outcome of Combining Velocities 14
1.5. What is the Average Velocity? 15
1.6. Less Haste, Less Time Waste! 15
1.7. "Notwithstanding" the Law of Inertia 16
1.8. The Weight of a Diesel Locomotive Equals That
of the Train 16
1.9. Why Are the Ends of the Shafts Lying in Radial
Bearings Tapered? 17
1.10. The Wear on the Cylinder Walls of an Internal-
Combustion Engine 18
1.11. Rolling Friction Must Vanish 18
1.12. What Is the Force Exerted by a Table's Legs? 22
1.13. A Mysterious Lever 23
1.14. A Troublesome Reel 24
1.15. Was Aristotle Right? 25
1.16. Will a Bar Move? 25
1.17. What Force Is Applied to a Body? 26
1.18. Two Hand-Carts 28
1.19. What Is the Acceleration of the Centre of Gravi-
ty? 28
1.20. A Swift Cyclist 30
1.21. Following an Example by Miinchhausen 30
1.22. The Enigma of Universal Gravitation Forces 31
1.23. Which High Tides Are Higher? 31
Printed in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics 1.24. In What Way Is Work Dependent on Force and
Distance? 32
© l:I3AaTeJIbCTBO «IIpocBem;eHRe», 1978 1.25. A "Violation" of the Law of Conservation of
Energy 33
© English translation, Mil' Publishers, 1987 1.26. A Mysterious Disappearance of Energy 34
l _
G Contents 7
Contents
1.27. The Paradox of Rocket Engines 34 2.17. Boiling Water Cools Down Ice 59
1.28. Where Is the Energy Source? 35 2.18. Why Does Water Evaporate? 60
1.29. A Hoop and a Hill 35 2.19. An Italian Question 61
1.30. Brickwork Paradox 3G 2.20. How Can Water Be Boiled More Efficiently? Gl
1.31. What Is True? 36 2.21. Is It Possible to Be Burnt by Ice or to Melt Tin "',1
1.32. Is This Engine Possible? 37 in Hot Water? ,
1.33. Where Will a Car Overturn after a Sudden 2.22. How Much Fuel Will Be Spared? 61
Turn? 37 2.23. How Many Heat Capacities Has Iron? G2
1.34. A Simple Derivation of the Pendulum Formula 38 2.24. Why Heat Stoves? 63
1.35. Conical Pendulum 40 2.25. Why Is Such a Machine Not Constructed? G4
1.36. Are Transversal Waves Feasible in Liquids? 42 2.26. When Is Car's Efficiency Higher? 65
1.37. Do We Hear Interference in This Experiment? 42 2.27. Is Maxwell's Demon Feasible? 66
1.38. Why Is the Sound Intensified? 4.3
1.39. Will the Buggy Move? 43 Chapter 3. Electricity and Magnetism 68
1.40. Why are Submarines Uncomfortable? 44 3.1. Is Coulomb's Law Valid? 68
1.41. Has Water to Press onto Vessel's Bottom? 4.5 3.2. Should a Current Flow Through a Conductor
1.42. Hydrostatic Paradox 46 Which Shorts Battery Poles? . 69
1.43. A Physicist's Error 48 3.3. Is the Current in a Branch Equal to That in the
1.44. The Mystery of Garret Windows 49 Unbranched Part of the Circuit? 70
1.45. Why Do Velocities Differ? 50 3.4. What Current Can an Accumulator Battery
Generate? 71
Chapter 2. Heat And Molecular Physics 51 3.5. How Can Galvanometer Readings Be Decreased? 71
2.1. Do Sunken Ships Reach the Bottom? 51 3.6. Why Did the Current Fall? 72
2.2. What Is the Temperature at High Altitudes? 51 3.7. What Is the Resistance of an Electric Bulb? 72
2.3. In Spite of the Thermal Laws... 52 3.8. What Will a Voltmeter Indicate? 72
2.4. Why Doesn't Thermal Insulation Help? 52 3.9. What Value Must the Resistance Have? 74
2.5. Which Scale Is More Advantageous? 53 3.10. How Much Current Does the Device Consume? 75
2.6. What Is the Source of the Work? 54 3.11. The Mystery of Electrolysis 76
2.7. Does a Compressed Gas Possess Potential 3.12. How to Improve the Efficiency of an Electro-
Energy? 54 lytic Bath 76
2.8. Again Energy Vanishing... 55 3.1:3. Once More about the Conservation of Energy 77
2.9. Where does the Energy of the Fuel Burnt in a 3.14. Why Does the Energy in a Capacitor Rise? 78
Rocket Disappear? 55 3.15. A Single-Pole Magnet 79
2.10. Can a Body's Temperature Be Increased Without 3.16. Where Is the Energy Source of a Magnet? 80
Heat Being Transferred to the Body? 56 3.17. Are the Resistances of All Conductors Identical? 80
2.11. From What M tal Should a Soldering Iron Be 3.18. Does Transformation Ratio Change for a Varia-
Made? 56 hie Transformer Load? 82
2.12. A Negative Length 56 3.19. At What Voltage Does a Neon Lamp Ignite? 82
2.13. Is the Law of the Energy Conservation Valid in 3.20. Which Ammeter Readings Are Correct? 83
All C a s e s ? ' 57 3.21. Why in a Series Circuit Is the Current Different? 84
2.14. The Mystery of Capillary Phenomena 58 3.22. How Can the Decrease in Temperature Be Ex-
2.15. "Clever" Matches 58 plained? 85
2.16. How Is a Wire Drawn? 59 3.23. Why Is the Magnetic Field Unchanged? 85
b
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8 Contents I Preface
3.24. How to Check Fuses? 86 Being in doubt, arrive at truth.
3.25. Why Did the Lamps Flash? 87
3.26. Why Are the Voltmeter Readings Different? 88 Cicero
3.27. Six Hectowatts "Are Equal to" Sixty Kilowatts! 89
3.28. The Certificate of an Electric Motor 89
3.29. Will the Capadtor Be Charged? 89 This book was written for senior schoolchildren
3.30. A Strange Case of Iron Magnetization 90 and presents a series of physical paradoxes and
Cha pter 4. Optics and Atomic Structure 92 sophisms differing in theme and complexity.
4.1. A Simple Method of Travelling into the Past 92 Some of them were known long ago, yet most are
4.2. The Overalls of a Metallurgist 93 published for the first time.
4.3. Where to Place a Mirror? 93 "Sophism" and "paradox" are Greek words. A
4.4. An Uncommon "Mirror" 94
4.5. Why Does a Rainbow Happen? 94 sophism (aocpiafla) is an argument, though appar-
4.6. Is It Possible to Increase Illumination Using a ently perfectly correct in form, actually contains
Diverging Lens? 95 an error that makes the final deduction ab-
4.7. The "Vice Versa" Lenses 97 surd. A well-known sophism is "That which you
4.8. When Do We Need a Longer Exposure Time in
Photography? 97 did not lose, you possess. You have not lost
4.9. A Wonderful Eye 97 horns, hence you possess them."
4.10. Why Do Wheels Rotate in the "Wrong" Direc- On the contrary, a paradox (napa60~0~) is
tioo? ~ a statement that seemingly contradicts common
4.11. How Does a Refracting Telescope Work? 98
4.12. Do Astronomers Need Telescopes? 98 sense, yet in fact is true. For example, as a pop-
4.13. What Aperture Setting Should Be Used? 99 ular Russian saying contends, "it is a fact,
4.14. Is the Construction of Hyperboloid Realizable? 99 however incredible" that when combining veloc-
4.15. Instead of a Laser 101 ities with the same direction, the resultant veloc-
4.16. Will the Colour Be Changed? 102
4.17. What Is the True Colour? 103 ity is smaller than their arithmetic sum (this
4.18. An Incident with R. Wood 103 is one of the inferences of the special theory of
4.19. Negative Light Pressure 104 relativity).
4.20. Why Do Identically Heated Bodies Glow Differ- A study of sophisms and paradoxes need not be
ently? 105
4.21. The Paradox of Rulers 105 thought of as a waste of time. Indeed, they were
4.22. The Paradox of the Lever 106 esteemed by such eminent scientists as Gottfried
4.23. How Much of Radium Did the Earth Contain Leibniz, Leonhard Euler, and Albert Einstein.
When It Was Born? 107 Einstein was very fastidious about his books, and
4.24. How Do Cosmic Rays Originate? 109
4.25. Nuclear Reactions and the Law of Mass Conser- yet he had a shelf full of books on mathematical
vation 110 jokes and puzzles. Maybe it was his early love of
4.26. Are There Electrons Inside an Atomic Nucleus? 110 original problems that developed his striking
Solutions 112 ability for nonstandard thinking, which makes
any discovery impossible. The study of many
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _OIIIIIi
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10 Preface Chapter 1
paradoxes has played an extraordinary role in Mechanics
the development of contemporary physics.
We hope that this small collection will help
its readers avoid making some mistakes. For
example, senior schoolchildren and flrst-year
students are often observed, in trying to solve
ballistic pendulum problems and the like, finding
the system's velocity following an elastic colli- L 1. The Amazing Adventures
sion by applying the law of conservation of me- of a Subway Passenger
chanical energy only. Such mistakes will hardly Every morning a muscovite goes to work by sub-
be made again after studying the sophism in way train. Although he starts work at the same
Problem 1.25 (a "violation" of the law of energy time every day, he arrives at the subway station
conservation). at various times each day. For simplicity we can
The first section of the collection contains the assume that the time he arrives at the station is
problems, the second section gives short solutions. quite random.
The latter are useful to check your own solutions On the face of it, he thought likely to assume
and in the cases when a problem is difficult to that the first train, after he reaches the platform,
solve on one's own. goes his way as often as it goes the opposite way.
The first two editions of the book were so But how was he amazed to find that half as many
popular that they quickly sold out. It has been trains go his way.
translated into Bulgarian, Roumanian, German He decided to clarify the reason for this mys-
(two editions in GDR), Japanese, and the lan- terious phenomenon and began to go to his work
guages of the peoples of the USSR. I ts success from another station farther away. His new ob-
stimulated me to compose new paradoxes and so- servations made him even more amazed, since
phisms, thus resulting in the present edition. In at the latter station the case was perfectly differ-
preparing it, I have omitted some problems, ent: the number of trains going his way was three
revised the text and solution of others, and added times as many as those going the opposite way.
new ones. Could you help the passenger to resolve the
Accomplishing his pleasant duty, the author strange behaviour of subway trains?
sincerely thanks all those who made comments
and remarks on the first and second editions of the
book, especially B. Yu. Kogan, who reviewed the 1.2. Will the Propeller-Driven Sledge Move?
third edition. Further advice will also be ac- A model propeller-driven sledge set in motion by
cepted with gratitude. a propeller is place'd on a conveyer belt. What
The author will the model's velocity be relative to the
12 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms
t"'\----J<1'
Fig. 1.1
Fig. 1.2
, _ 2x6 m+10 m/s 2 X4 S2 -13 / it is equal to the friction force of the wheels of
Do - 2 X 2s - m s. the train against the rails:
I F trac 1= k2 I P 2 I,
Indeed, this appears to be something like the
proverb: "More haste, less speed!". where P 2 is the train weight. Comparing both
expressions yields
1.4)? In some textbooks these measures are Q equal in magnitude to F appears if the latter
claimed to be taken to reduce friction. does not exceed the maximum friction force at
rest: I Qmax I = kiP I (Fig. 1.6a).
1.10. The Wear on the Cylinder Walls a
of an Internal- Combustion Engine
F F
An inspection of an internal-combustion engine I-
0 R
that has run for a long time shows that the walls .Q
-t::
of the cylinders are worn most at A and B l which
Q Q p
,j/, r/ /, % '/. r//;%
8 b
Fig. 1.6
In other words, the rolling friction coefficient plane of the figure). Decomposing, at points A
must always vanish! Yet in reality this coefficient, and B, forces F I and F 2 into components (not
though much less than that of sliding friction, shown in the figure) perpendicular and parallel
is nevertheless greater than zero. to the tilted plane, we make sure that the pres-
Where is the fault in our reasoning? sure forces exerted at A and B by table's legs on
the tilted plane prove to be different.
1.12. What Is the Force Exerted However, one can resolve the forces as shown
by a Table's Legs? in Fig. 1. 7b: at first decompose the force of gra-
vity P into the components PI and P 2 • The com-
Figure 1.7 shows a table resting on a tilted plane. ponent PI acts so as to set the table in motion
Let the force of gravity P, applied to the centre along the tilted plane and, since the table is at
of gravity C of the table, be replaced by two rest, it is compensated for by friction force. By
forces F I and F 2 parallel to P and passing through decomposing P 2 into the components R I and R 2
which pass through points A and B, we see that
these forces (the forces of the pressure of the ta-
ble's legs on the tilted plane) are equal.
Thus, the pressure exerted by the table's legs
appears to be dependent not only on the force of
gravity of the table, but also on the way of de-
composing the forces which conclusion contradicts
both common sense and experience. Hence, one
of our arguments is faulty.
Which one?
a b
Fig. 1.7 1.13. A Mysterious Lever
the ends of the table's legs, Le. points A and B Let a lever (Fig. 1.8) be balanced by the forces
(Fig. 1.7a). The moduli of the forces F I and F 2 F I and F 2 • A force F 3 applied to the lever end
must sum to I P I and their ratio must be inverse- along its length is commonly believed not to dis-
ly proportional to the distances from A and turb the equilibrium. However, we can "prove"
B to the line showing the direction of force P this to be wrong!
(the latter statement presumes that the table Let us take the resultant of forces F 2 and F 3
does not rotate with respect to the axis passing (call it R I ) and the force F I , extend it to intersect
throu~h its centre of ~ravity perpendicular to the at point C and add them. We then get a force
24 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms L Mechanics 25
R 2 , which is the resultant of all three forces: Note. If you try an experiment, you'd better
F l , F 2 , Fa· use a nearly full reel and the angle should not be
The figure depicts that the extension of force too small. •
R 2 , and hence its moment relative to the lever's
C
1.15. Was Aristotle Right?
The famous Greek philosopher Aristotle who
lived in the 4th century B.C. (384-322) is known,
not without reason, as The Father of Science. His
contribution to the development of natural science
including physics is tremendous. However,
Aristotle's views and deductions do not coincide
with those accepted now. Let us take one of his
arguments as an example.
He argued that a stone falls with a certain
velocity. If we fix another stone on top of the
original one, then the upper stone will push tne
Fig. 1.8 lower one, so the lower one will fall faster.
Meanwhile, it has now been strictly established
pivot 0, does not vanish. Therefore, the lever that all bodies, irrespective of their mass, fall
must rotate clockwise. with the same acceleration, i.e. in a given inter-
Is this conclusion true? val of time their velocities increase by the same
value.
What is then the error Aristotle made?
1.14. A Troublesome Reel
People who are engaged in needlework know 1.16. Will a Bar Move?
about the strange behaviour of reels of cotton
that have rolled under a piece of furniture. When Consider two bars with masses M l and M 2
you try to retrieve the reel by pulling at the thread resting on a horizontal perfectly smooth surface
keeping it horizontal, the reel obediently rolls out (Fig. 1.9). Let us apply a force F to the left bar
of its "hide-out". Yet try pulling it by a thread so that it acts through this bar on the right one.
at an angle and you will see the peculiar phe- According to Newton's third law the second bar
nomenon of the reel hiding even deeper. Why does will react upon the first one with an equal and
the reel behave in this odd way? opposite force -f. Since there is nO friction (the
26 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms 1. Mechanics 27
surface is perfectly smooth), the resultant force For example, it can be solved on the basis of dy-
R acting upon the left bar is balanced by the namic considerations (in other words, starting
from Newton's seeond law):
whence
Thus, however large the force F, it will never
shift M 1 ?!
F = ;; (v:-v~).
P=2H
Fig. 1.11
ly. Hence M 2 (Le. the system's centre of gravity) 1.22. The Enigma of Universal Gravitation
must fall with an acceleration smaller than g. Forces
How can this contradiction be resolved?
The law of gravitation can be written
F- mlm2
1.20. A Swift Cyclist - y R2 •
A cyclist is able to develop a thrust of 100 N By analyzing this relation-ship we can easily
without any special effort. If the friction force is arrive at some interesting· conclusions: as the
a constant equal to 50 N and the mass of the cy- distance between the bodies tends to zero the
clist and his bicycle is 100 kg, then the accelera- force of their mutual attraction must rise without
tion limit to infinity.
_ 100 N -50 N _ 0 2
Why then can we lift up, without much effort,
a - 100 kg -.5 mls . one body from the surface of another body (e.g.,
a stone from the Earth) or stand up after sitting
Given this acceleration the velocity after 20 on a chair?
min of cycling will be
v = 0.5 m/s 2 X 1200 s = 600 m/s. 1.23. Which High Tides are Higher?
High and low tides are well-known to be due to
Why, this is the velocity of rifle's bullet! the attraction of water by both the Sun and the
Moon. The Sun is 390 times farther from the
Earth than the Moon, while the Sun's mass is
1.21. Following an Example by Miinchhausen 27 X 106 times that of the Moon, so that every
We heartily laugh when we read how the boast- object on Earth is attracted to the Sun 27~0~06 =
ful Baron Miinchhausen drags himself and his 180 times stronger than they are to the Moon.
horse out of a swamp by pulling his hair up. Therefore high tides due to the Sun should be
But does not a cyclist mounting a pavement act higher than ones due to the Moon. However, in
in the same way? Indeed when the front wheel of fact the tides due to the Moon are higher.
his bicycle approaches pavement he pulls up the How can this paradox be explained?
handle-bars, the front of the bicycle rising, and
the cyclist can move from the road to pavement
without dashing.
Why does the cyclist succeed where Miinchhau-
sen fails?
32 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms 1. Mechanics 33
1.24. In What Way Is Work Dependent on But this is not the whole of it! Another manip-
Force and Distance? ulation is possible. Let us divide Eq. (2) by
Eq. (1), viz.,
When two quantities A and B are directly pro-
portional, the relationship is expressed thus k 2S
1 kiF·
A = kB,
By denoting the ratio k 2 /k I as k~ we get
where k is called the proportionality factor. F = k.S (5)
The amount of work A produced by a force F
along a distance S is proportional to both the which means that the force gets larger, the great-
force and the distance. Hence, two equalities er the distance covered due to its effect.
must be satisfied, Le. How could you explain all these absurdities?
A = kIF (1)
and 1.25. A "Violation" of the Law of the
Conservation of Energy
A = k 2 S. (2) The following argument seems to prove a viola-
By multiplying these equalities term by term we tion of the law of the energy conservation.
get Suppose that a resting hand-cart of mass m
is hit by and retains a projectile of the same mass.
A2 = k I k 2FS. (3) The projectile had been flying horizontally be-
fore the collision at a velocity v in the same direc-
Let us denote the product k I k 2 as k;. Then equ- tion as the hand-cart. As a result of this impact
ality (3) can be rewritten
the hand-cart and projectile will together set in
A2 = k;FS. motion at an initial velocity which can be found
from the law of the conservation of momentum
By taking the root of both sides of the equation
we get
1.26. A Mysterious Disappearance of Energy In order to lift a body above the ground work
must be done to increase the body's potential
By lifting up a bucket of coal to a third floor stove energy. This work comes from different sources.
we increase the potential energy of the coal by For example, an elevator draws its energy from
about 800 J (the force of gravity on the coal is the main power network, an aircraft takes off
about 80 N and it is raised by about 10 m). utilizing the energy developed when fuel is oxi-
Where will this additional potential energy go to dized (burnt) in its engine.
when this co al is burnt in sto ve? But what is the source of the energy llsed to
raise stratospheric and meteorological sounding
balloons having no engines?
1.27. The Paradox of Rocket Engines
Modern liquid-propellant rocket engines devel-
op a thrust of about 2000 N, with a kilogram of 1.29. A Hoop and a Hill
the propellant and oxidizer mixture being burnt
By rolling down a hill of height J! a hoop's poten-
per 1 s. Hence, at the minimum velocity needed
tial energy decrcilses hy fn[.{JI. If friction is neglig-
for launching an Earth artificial satellite (orbi-
ibly small, then its kinetic energy will be in-
tal velocity is about 8 kmls) the power devel-
creased by the same value, i.e.
oped per kilogram of burnt mixture must be
mv 2
N = Fv = 2000 N 8000 mls = 16
X rngH = -2-'
X 10 Jls = 16,000 kW = 16 MW .
6
Whence the final velocity of tho hoop is
Meanwhile, the heat of combustion of the com- v=V2gH.
monly used mixture of kerosene and nitric acid
is about 6300 kJ Ikg (about 1500 kcal/kg), i.e. If H is set to be <'1. D Ill, we find
burning one kilogram of the mixture per second
v= V2 X 9.8 m/s 2
X 1. 9 TIl ==" 9.1) m/s.
r
I
1. Mechanics 37
36 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms
I
However, in practice the velocity of a hoop 1.32. Is This Engine Possible?
that has rolled down such a hill is about 7 mis, Suppose that water flows down the bent tube
Le. about one and a half less. Such a large discrep- I
I
shown in Fig. 1.12. Since it moves along an arc
ancy cannot be explained as being due to fric- a centripetal force acting from the side of tube
tion. Then what is the real reason? I
The first equation shows that centripetal accel- The more suddenly a car, motorcycle, or bicycle
eration is inversely proportional to the distance has to turn, the larger the centripetal force will
be needed t? keep it upright and, unfortunately,
between the moving point and the rotation axis,
the more lIkely the vehicle is to overturn. It
while the second equation suggests the opposite,
can be stated for sure that the larger the centri-
that is acceleration is directly proportional to
petal force during a turn, the more probable is
rotation radius. But surely only one equation can an accident.
be true!
38 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms 1. Mechanics 30
However, does not it seem strange that the di- Under a uniformly accelerated motion time,
rection in which the car overturns is always oppo- distance, and acceleration are related
site to the direction of the centripetal force, Le.
'--2-
by steering abruptly to the left a car will usual-
ly overturn on its right side and vice versa? t = V+.
How can you explain the contradiction? By substituting into this equation the accele-
ration value for motion along AB and its length
f .34. A Simple Derivation a
of the Pendulum Formula
II
In physics textbooks the formula for the period / I
of swing of a pendulum is given without proof. I I
Meanwhile it is possible to suggest a simple deri- I I
vation of the dependence of oscillation period on
the p0f1dulum's length and the acceleration due / I
to gravity. This derivation does not require any I I
advanced mathematics and we now present it. / I
At small deflection angles (and it is only for / I
such conditions that the conventional pendulum / I
formula is valid) the arc AB (see Fig. 1.13) can /
<..,.
I~a_ Pl A
be approximated by the chord AB. Given the
""" --- - -J..-J-=--==--- ~ Q
isosceles triangle AOB it is possible to write 8 \
AB = 20B cos eG = 21 cos eG. \ p
I
L
40 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms 1. Mechanics 41
Why then does the formula in the textbooks name conical pendulum) making an angle a
contain the factor 2Jt, i.e. about 6.28, instead of with the vertical as shown in Fig. 1.14. Let us
8? find the angle when the angular velocity of the
rotation is w.
1.35. Conical Pendulum The ball is, evidently, acted upon by only two
forces, i.e. the thread tension force T and the
A centrifugal machine has a disc with a wire arc force of gravity P . mg. Their resultant F is
fastened on its axis. From the midpoint of the a centripetal force. Since the ball moves within
the horizontal plane, the forces F and P form a
right angle. Therefore
I F I = I P I tan a = mig I tan a.
By Newton's second law the modulus of the
resultant F can be expressed via the centripetal
acceleration of the ball a = w2 R = w 2 [ sin a
as follows
I F I = mw 2 [ sin a.
By equating both expressions for the modulus of
F we have
mw 2 [ sin a = mig I tan a
or, after reducing by m sin a:
CJ)2[ = _Ig_l_ •
cos a
This expression rearranges to
I
L
44 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms
X 30 em = 3500 cm3
48 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms 1. Mechanics 49
and so the weight of water in both vessels should pIes in Problems 1.15 and 1.41. Here is another
be example.
I Po I =VDg = 3.5 X 10- 3 m 3 X 103 kg/m 3
At the beginning of the twentieth century air-
ships and air balloons were filled with hydrogen.
X 9.8 m/s 2 = 34.3 N In the battles of the First World War they be-
while the weight of each vessel together with came easy targets, since if they were hit by bullets
water should be or projectiles, the hydrogen invariably exploded
I Po I + I P I = 34.3 N + 3.92 N ~ 38.2 N. destroying the balloon and its crew. The losses
were so great that soon the belligerents were
Thus, the first vessel presses down on its support forced to stop using the air balloons for military
with 62.7 N - 38.2 N = 24.5 N more force than purposes.
it should, while the second vessel exerts However, a strange airship then appeared over
38.2 N -18.6 N = 19.6 N less force. London: she was hit repeatedly but with no ca-
That's sheer nonsense, as if an object's weight tastrophic consequences. It turned out that the
(here that 0of a water-fIlled vessel) changes if Germans started using helium -filled airships in
rotated 180 around a horizontal axis?! 1918.
This contradiction to common sense was When this became known, one; physicist said:
called hydrostatic paradox. Although some histo- "Helium is twice as heavy as hydrogen, hence
rians have ascribed its discovery to the French the aerodynamic lift of balloons must be halved".
physicist, mathematician, and philosopher Blaise In fact, the aerodynamic lift of a helium balloon
Pascal (1623-1662), it was in fact detected and is practically the same as that of a hydrogen bal-
properly explained by the Dutch scientist Si- loon.
mon Stevin (1548-1620), who became famous for How can this be explained?
his ~ork on mathematics, mechanics, and engi-
neermg. The misunderstanding is due to the fact 1.44. The Mystery of Garret Windows
that Pascal was unaware of Stevin's work, and
constructed and described the device to demon- This is what a reader of the Soviet magazine
strate the hydrostatic paradox. Knowledge is Power wrote about: "In autumn and
What is the origin of the paradox? winter the wind blows so strongly in our village
that tiles fall off roofs.
1.43. A Physicist's Error "We were discussing how to save tiling, when
an old man said: 'You need to put garret windows
"Errare humanum est" (to err is human) states in the pediments. ' We were astonished at this ad-
the Latin proverb. And indeed, even the great vice yet began to check it only to find that whe-
people make errors as can be seen from the exam- rever there were garret windows the tiling was
1.-01216
50 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms
L
52 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms
itself" from hot bodies to cooler ones and stops Q2 = 0.1 kg X 4.19 kJ/(kg·oR) X 80 R
as soon as the temperatures of both bodies are = 33.5kJ,
the same. Nevertheless, the problem can be sol- i.e. in the latter case we appear to heat water by
ved. expending 8.4 kJ less heat.
Try to find out the solution. Is this the case?
2.4. Why Doesn't Thermal Insulation Help? 2) In fact the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius
(1701-1744) p~oposed a scale, for which the boiling point
A copper tube with an outer diameter of 1 em of water was denoted as 0°, while the ice melting point as
serves as a vapor transfer line. To lower thermal 100°. The Celsius scale was updated in 1745 by Celsius'
compatriot Martin Stromer (1707-1770).
losses it was blanketed with a 5 mm thick layer
54
Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms 2. Heat and Molecular Physics 55
2.6. What Is the Source of the Work? the internal energy of air does not practically
change.
A system in order to perform work needs energy Then what is the source of the energy for
by the law of energy conservation. Thus, to liit brakes and doors?
a piston by expanding, the gas under a piston in a
cylinder needs to ~e heated. 2.8. Again Energy Vanishing...
However, sometimes the same results can be
achieved by acting oppositely. If we fill iron Bending a steel strip we transfer energy to it.
ball with water and seal it hermetically and then If we place a bent strip in a glass so that the walls
cool down the ball to below ooe by taking away do not allow the strip to straighten and pour co?-
heat, the freezing water will break the b9.11, i.e. centrated sulphuric acid into the glass, the str~p
it will perform work. will gradually dissolve and the energy stored III
Where is the energy source for destroying the it will vanish, too.
ball? But can energy vanish in reality?
L
56 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms 2. Heat and Molecular Physics 57
2.10. Can a Body's Temperature Be Increased Then let us lower the temperature still fur-
Without Heat Being Transferred ther. Could a body's dimensions become nega-
to the Body? tive?
The question in the heading might sound ab- 2.13. Is the Law of the Energy Conservation
surd, just like "Can we heat a body without hea- Valid in All Cases?
ting it?". For all its seemingly absurd nature,
the answer is yes. Figure 2.1 depicts two tubes differing in the posi-
Try to produce examples of a body whose tem- tions of their bulges. If we pump air from the
perature rose without heat exchange with envi- tubes, immerse their open ends in a cup filled
ronment!
However, the level of mercury in the left-hand 2.16. How Is a Wire Drawn?
tube will be higher than that in the right-hand
one, whence it follows that for the same work per- Figure 2.2 is a sketch of how a thin wire is drawn
formed the change in the potential energy of the from a thick one. As can be seen from the figure,
tubes is different. This statement seems in evi- the cross section of wire rod is decreased by pas-
dent con~radiction with the law of the energy
conservatiOn.
What is the fault in the above analysis?
Suppose a litre of boiling water having the ter cannot obtain it from the environment be-
temperature of WO°C is poured into a jug contai- cause their temperatures are the same.
ning 1.3 kg of ice at O°C. The jug has a mass of Then why does the water evaporate?
1 kg and is made from a material with a specific
heat capacity of 0.838 kJ /(kg. 0C). What tempera- 2.19. An Italian Question
ture will be set in the jug after the water and ice
have mixed? An Italian student was asked during an exam:
We set up a thermal balance equation: the heat "As you know, the boiling point of olive oil is
given up by hot water is 1 kg x4.19 kJ / (kg. 0C) higher than the melting point of tin. Explain
/ (100°C - t), the heat obtained by the jug why it is possible to fry food in olive oil in a
is 1 kg X 0.838 kJ/(kg.°C) t, the heat needed pan." (The best I talian saucepans are made fi'om
to melt the ice is 1.3 kg X 335 kJ /kg, the heat tinned copper.)
needed to heat the water produced from the ice What is the answer?
is 1.3 kg X 4.19 kJ/(kg.°C) t.
From the law of the conservation of energy we 2.20. How Can Water Be Boiled More
get: Efficiently?
1 kg X 4.19 kJ /(kg· "C) (WO°C - t) = 1 kg It is known that the boiling point of water falls
X 0.838 kJ /(kg. DC) t + 1.3 kg X 335 kJ /kg with pressure. Why then do we not pump the air
out of saucepans?
+ 1.3 kg X 4.19kJ/(kg·oC)t. This would allow economizing on fuel, wouldn't
it?
By solving this equation we find that t =
_1.6°C, i.e. the boiling water has cooled the 2.21. Is It Possihle to Be Burnt by Ice
ice. How can this strange result be explained? or to Melt Tin in Hot Water?
Paradoxically enough both these phenomena are
2.18. Why Does Water Evaporate? possible.
Could you explain under what conditions?
Heat transfer from one body to another occurs
only when there is a temperature difference be-
tween them. Therefore it seems incomprehensible 2.22. How Much Fuel Will Be Spared?
why water in a plate or a glass having the tempe- An inventor has learnt about three inventions:
rature of the surrounding air is gradually evapo- the application of the first one would save 30%
rated. You know that in order to evaporate a liq- fuel, the second one would spare 25 %, while the
uid heat has to be transferred to it but the wa- third one would spare 45 %. OUf man decided
62 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms 2. Heat and Molecular Physics 63
to construct a machine to combine all three in- 2.24. Why Heat Stoves?
ventions and he aimed to spare 30% + 25% +
45% = 100%. Suppose that in late autumn you visit your da-
To what degree are the hopes of the inventor cha in the country. You find the temperature in
justified? the rooms to be about O°C and decide to warm the
room using the stove. Let us calculate the chan-
ges in the internal energy of the air in the room if
2.23. How Many Heat Capacities Has Iron? the thermometer's mercury column climbs to
the level of 20°C.
Two iron balls with the same diameter are heated As we mentioned in Problem 2.7, under near-to-
from 20°C to 100°C. One is placed on a horizon- normal conditions (Le. at temperatures close to
tal plane, while the other one is suspended by a O°C and under pressures of about 105 Pa) air be-
haves like an ideal gas, whose internal energy is
proportional to the mass m and absolute tempera-
ture T of the gas
U = ex mT,
where a is a proportionality factor dependent on
the gas and it can be shown that it is equal to
Fig. 2.3 the quantity of heat needed to heat a unit mass
of the gas by one degree Centigrade at a constant
virtually inextensible thread (Fig. 2.3). It would volume; therefore in thermodynamics it is
seem that the formula called the specific heat capacity at a constant vol-
ume and denoted as C v'
!iQ = me !it When the rooms of dacha are heated the air
warms and expands, so some of it passes under the
implies that the heat transferred to the balls closed doors, and through cracks in the walls and
must be identical. In fact, the quantity of heat windows. The mass of air inside a room is
transferred to the first ball is somewhat larger. changed, but the volume of the rooms and the
This means that the heat capacity of the iron used air pressure remain constant. Therefore the change
to manufacture the first ball is also larger, al- in the air's internal energy can be written as
though the balls were cut from a single ingot.
Why might this be? What is the heat capacity !iU = U2 - UI =
am 2 T 2 -amiT I
given for iron in tables? = a (m 2 T 2 -mIT I ).
1
64 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms
)
1.--_( _____
Fig. 2.4
3.3. Is the Current in a Branch Equal to That Had we multiplied the initial equation by
in the Unbranched Part of the Circuit? (1 0 - 1 2 ) instead of (1 0 - 11) we would have
Two electrical bulbs are connected as shown in 12 = I o!
Fig. 3.2. By denoting the current in Bulb 1 as What is the matter?
proposal was accepted, but the young physicists II hand, the voltage can be found from Ohm:s law
were surprised to find that the resistance box did I by multiplying the resistanc~ of the sectIOn of
not affect the galvanometer readings. After thin- the circuit between these pomts by the eurrent
king for a while, they understood what had hap- I running through it. . .
pened. Consider a circuit composed of two Identlcal
How did they explain their results? I galvanic cells connected as shown in Fig. 3.3.
I
3.6. Why Did the Current Fall? I
To increase the current flowing in a circuit, an A
additional cell was connected in series with the
galvanic cell used as the energy source. The cur-
rent not only did not increase, but, quite the op-
posite, fell significantly.
In what case should this be possible? 8
By measuring the resistance of a 100 W electric By denoting the electromotive foree of the cells
bulb with ohmmeter, a schoolboy found it to be as E and their internal resistance as R, the cur-
35 Ohm. To check the result, he decided to cal- rent in the circuit will be
culate the resistance from power and the rated vol-
tage (220 V) indicated on the bulb. 1= 2E =..£
2R R
Using the formula R = U 2 IW, the schoolboy
was surprised to get 484 Ohm, Le. about 14 It would seem that if a voltmeter is connected
times higher than he had measured. to A and B it should indicate the potential differ-
How can you explain this difference in the re- ence
sults? E
rpA-rpB=IR=lf R=E,
3.8. Wbat Will a Voltmeter Indicate? since the current running in the circuit is. ElI!
The potential difference between any two points and the resistanee of the section of the ClrcUlt
of an electric circuit can be measured by a volt- conneeted in parallel with the voltmeter is R.
meter connected to these points. On the other In faet, the voltmeter will read zero. A para-
doxical situation that seems improbable at first
74 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms 3. Electricity and Magnetism 75
sight has arisen: the circuit is passing current, Why then are the load and the source resis-
yet the potential difference between its ends is tances matched to be as equal as possible, even
zero. though the efficiency will thus only be 50 % ?
Why is this possible?
3.9. What Value Must the Resistance Have? 3.10. How Much Current Does
the Device Consume?
Consider the circuit in Fig. 3.4. The resistance of
the load is R and the resistance of the source is A device consuming 50 W is connected through
another resistor of 40 Ohm to a power supply
of 120 V.
Let us calculate the current through the de-
vice from these data.
-, R
To solve the problem, note that the voltage
across the device and the voltage across the other
I resistor must be equal to the sum of the network
~
voltage, i.e.
U dey + Ures = U net ·
I
l
78 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms 3. Electricity and Magnetism 79
If then the switch is set in position 2, the ca- has been increased as much as the capacitance
pacitors will be connected in parallel forming a has been decreased (q = CV), i.e. to V 2 = 500 V.
battery with the capacity of 2 X 20 !-tF = 40 !-t F . Whence, after removing the dielectric, we
The potential difference across the terminals will have for the capacitor energy
be 50 V, i.e. half the voltage developed across
capacitor C2, because the initial charge is now W 2 = 0.2 X 10- 6 F X 25 X 104 V 2 = 0.025 J.
divided into two. 2
By using these data let us calculate from the
above formula the energy stored in the battery, What is the source of the extra energy? The
i.e. capacitor has not been connected to a current
source, has it?
- 40 X 10- 6 F (50
W 2 -- V)2 _ 0 0" J
2 - .;) .
This is only half the energy initially possessed 3.15. A Single-Pole Magnet
by capacitor C2.
Where has the other half of the energy disap- I t is commonly believed that each magnet must
peared? have two poles, Nand S. However, the argument
below seems to disprove this.
Let us take a steel ball and cut it through from
3.14. Why Does the Energy the surface to the centre into pyramidal polyhed-
in a Capacitor Rise?
N
A plane capacitor with a capacitance C1 =
1 !-tF is made using a thin glass plate, with a
relative dielectric permittivity of Brei = 5, as
the dielectric, and is charged to a potential differ-
ence VI = 100 V.
6 s
Using the formula given in the last problem we Fig. 3.6
obtain for the energy stored in the capacitor
WI =1X1O- ~X104 V =0.005 J.
6 2
3.16. Where Is the Energy Source We choose two arbitrary points on the ring A
of a Magnet? and B and use R to denote the resistance of the
Let us bring a magnet from above onto an iron larger arc of the ring separated by these points,
object. If the weight of the object and the dis- and r for the resistance of the smaller arc.
tance between it and the magnet are not too large, By Ohm's law, the potential difference across
the iron object will be attracted to the magnet. ArB in terms of the current and the resistance of
If the object's weight is P and the vertical dis- the smaller arc is
tance to the magnet is h, then the work of the
magnet against gravity is A = Ph. (1)
The magnitude of the work in any particular
case is not large, yet the experiment can be re- The same argument yields the potential differ-
peated as many times as desired without visible ence for larger arc BRA, viz.
changes with the magnet and its "magnetic force"
does not weaken. 'Pn -'PA = IR. (2)
Does this not violate the law of the conservation
of energy? Since both parts have the same end points
the left-hand sides of both equations must be
3.17. Are the Resistances the same, because each point can only have one
of All Conductors Identical? potential value. Whence we conclude that the
right-hand sides of both equations must be the
A metallic ring (Fig. 3.7) is placed in an alterna- same, too, i.e.
ting magnetic field. As a result, an induction cur-
Ir = IR.
3.18. Does Transformation Ratio Change for a applied across the lamp, the latter will flash
Variable Transformer Load? when the voltmeter (an electromagnetic one)
When a larger load is connected to a transformer
power consumed from the network is increased.
Hence, the current in the primary coil increases,
too. The higher current must magnetize transfor-
mer core more strongly and while before the max- v
imum magnetic flux was <PI' after the increase
in the load it will be <P 2 > <Pl'
The electromotive force induced in the secon-
dary coil is determined by the number of turns
and the rate of change of magnetic flux in time: Fig. 3.8
~<I>
e=-~. reads 50 V. If we repeat the experiment by plug-
ging the apparatus into a DC electricity source,
With the initial load the magnetic flux has
the lamp will flash when the voltmeter pointer
changed from 0 to <PI during a quarter of a pe- approaches 70 V.
riod, while for the larger load it changed from 0
What is the actual ignition potential of a neon
to <P 2. Since <P z > <PI' the rate of change of lamp?
magnetic flux is larger for the larger load. There-
fore the electromotive force induced in the second 3.20. Which Ammeter Readings Are Correct?
coil must also increase.
In practice the transformation ratio is inde- The circuit in Fig. 3.9 was assembled with amme-
pendent of the load which means that our reaso-
ning was faulty.
Where exactly did we go wrong?
an AC mains the second ammeter gave readings When the switch S in the circuit in Fig. 3.10
more than one and a half much those on the sec- is closed, fIlament's temperature falls. Mean-
ond ammeter. while, this seems not to be the case.
What is the reason for this discrepancy? In fact, when the switch is open, only a f1la-
ment current If runs through the filament, re-
leasing the heat per unit time of
s~
currents to be the same:
II = If + 0.5Ia and 1 2 = If -0.5I a ·
Thus, the heat released by both currents per unit
time is
Qz= ~ I~+ ~ I~=Rli+0.25Rg,
i.e. more than with the switch open.
Then why does the temperature fall?
Fig. 3.10
3.23. Why Is the Magnetic Field Unchanged?
A laboratory was investigating the behaviour of
semiconductors in AC magnetic field. In order to
Why? Don't they record the same current run- produce the magnetic field a coil was wound
ning in the filament of the electron tube shown? around a cardboard spool and the AC mains cur-
I
I
I
t
T
I
86 I
Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms I 3. Electricity and Magnetism 87
rent passed through it. Then an alternating mag- I t will only flash if both fuses are in good r~pair,
netic field is produced inside the coil in which those for wires 8 and 2 or 8 and 1, respe~tlVely.
a specimen can be placed. To my great surprise, the lamp flashed III both
Since it was desirable for the experiment that cases. I t also flashed when I plugged it between
the magnetic field be as intense as possible, the
technical assistant wound three identical coils, ap. No. 17 ap. No. 18
one on top of the other, expecting to produce, I I I I
when connected in parallel, a field three times I I I I
more intense.
However, it was demonstrated that the magne-
tic field of the three coils was about the same as
that of a single one. The laboratory head whom a O----.!;~~-+-------+---E~3--rJ
the technical assistant asked for help explained
what had happened although he noted that the
triple-coil circuit was not senseless.
Why did the field remain unchanged and why,
nevertheless, were three coils better than one?
~:--E:~::
Fig. 3.11
- 1 PP
3.24. How to Check Fuses? points Band C, although that test was certainly
unnecessary. .
In apartment No. 19, where I lived, the light Everything is clear, I thought, there IS a break
once went out suddenly. Using a control lamp it in the wiring between the fuse box and my apart-
was cleared up that the electricity to the apart- ment! However, as I was returning I rechecked
ment's fuse box had ceased. Looking for the cause my deductions and ...
of the damage I went to main's staircase fuse Meanwhile, you think it over, too.
box with the control lamp to check the fuses.
(A four-wire supply circuit is used in our apart-
ment block as shown in Fig. 3.11.) 3.25. Why Did the Lamps Flash?
To check the fuses, I reasoned it would be suf- Practical lessons are being held in two adjacent
ficient to plug the control lamp between points A
rooms. The bell rang and the pupils took their
and D. However, I couldn't do this, because the
connections to the "zero" wire were thoroughly seats. One quickly assembled a circui~ a!1d after
insulated, which I did not want to remove. showing to the teacher, he plugged It mto ~he
mains. However, the circuit did not work. Whilst
Well, I decided, then the control lamp must
be plugged between points A and B or A and C. the first pupil was checking the con.nec~ion~, o~her
pupils assembled and plugged theIr CIrCUIts lllto
r
I
88 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms 3. Electricity and Magnetism 89
mains, yet none of these operated. They soon Since a rectifier only passes current in one di-
found out that electricity had stopped. Suddenly rection, Le. 50 % of total time, the voltmeter
a current appeared, but the voltage was some- readings should, as it would seem, be half as
what higher than normal. Attempts to detect the much. In fact, the voltmeter gave a reading of
cause of the distortion led to an unexpected "dis- 175 V! How can this be explained?
covery": it turned out that the mains voltage ap-
peared whenever an electric stove in the room next
door was plugged into the mains. Once it was 3.27. Six Hectowatts "Are Equal
switched off, the current disappeared. The pupil to" Sixty Kilowatts!
who was operating the stove noted that it was We know that 2 hW = 200 Wand 3 hW = 300 W.
not heated as much as it should. By multiplying both equations we obtain
Can you help the pupils fmd the cause of these
phenomena? 6 hW = 60,000 W or 6 hW = 60 kW!?
to a situation in which the upper part of a con- al,,:ays in the. same direction, the jar always be-
ductor (see Fig. 3.13) contains more electrons than ing charged m the same way.
the lower one. Here the question is electron den- The first exhaustive explanation of the p~e
sity fluctuations. These fluctuations will result nomenon was provided by the German phYSICISt
in a potential difference across the conductor ends Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894).
How could he do it?
Fig. 3.13
Optics and Atomic Structure Doesn't it seem to you that our century, when
man controls atomic energy and subjugates outer
space, is the right time to consider sending an
expedition into the remote past?
It remains only to regret that this "time ma-
4.1. A Simple Method chine" would not, as Herbert Wells's one could,
of Travelling into the Past show us the future!
In a science fiction story by the French astronomer
Camille Flamm arion (1842-1925) the following 4.2. The Overalls of a Metallurgist
met~od of looking into the past was proposed.
LIght rays transport visual images of the world
though very quickly but not instantaneously as Steel workers labour under hard conditions, deal-
was once believed. Suppose an observer m;ves ing with molten metal which with the hot breath
away ~rom the Ear~h. So long as his velocity is could burn man to a cinder. It would seem that
low, h?"ht waves wI.ll catch up with the ex peri- to protect a steel worker at blast furnaces, open-
mentahst and he wIll see images of events that hearth furnaces his overalls should be made of
occurred on the Earth after his departure. However, a material with low thermal conductivity. How-
once he starts moving fast enough he will begin ever, these overalls are often covered with a thin
~o overtake the light waves. He will pick up layer of a metal which is an excellent heat con-
Image that overtook him and then images of events ductor.
that occurred before he left. The events will thus What is the reason for this?
evolve before him in reverse order, i.e. he will
observe his departure from the Earth, will be
"present" at his own hirth, will be able to observe 4.3. Where to Place a Mirror?
the events from the distant past, and will see
great personalities long since dead. The closer to window we stand, the more we see
It is not difficult to imagine what an invaluable of the street. It would be natural to assume the
aid this might be to scholars studying the dis- same situation happens when using a mirror.
tant past, historians, paleontologists archeolo- Actually, this is not the case.
gists, i.e. the people who now stud; the past We look in a mirror vertically hanging on the
from . book~ and relics of bygone days. wall and only see down to knees. All our attempts
ThIs proJect would, of course, require a power- to see more by approaching the mirror or moving
ful telescope and powerful engines to accelerate away from it fail.
the rocket to the velocities needed. What is the difference between these two cases?
94 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms T 4. Optics and Atomic Structure 95
4.10. Why Do Wheels Rotate in the star is practically zero. Therefore even using
"Wrong" Direction? the most powerful telescope you can only observe
We often see in the cinema an amusing thing: stars as luminous infinitesimal points (however
the wheels of a moving carriage rotate in the many times zero is magnified, it finally remains
zero ).
wrong direction.
How can this paradox be explained? Does this suggest that telescopes are only use-
ful when observing comparatively near objects
like the planets, while stars can be observed with
4.11. How Does a Refracting Telescope Work? the naked eye?
When constructing a refracting telescope, a long-
focus lens is used as the objective, while a short- 4.13. What Aperture Setting Should Be Used?
focus lens serves as the ocular. Since the objects In order to increase the sharpness of an image on
observed in the telescope are very distant, their a photographic fIlm the lens is stopped down, Le.
images are actually obtained in the objective's a diaphragm between the camera lens and the
focal plane. fIlm is contracted. However, if the aperture is
The image due to the objective lens is the ob- too small the image again begins to be blurred
ject for the ocular lens, which is positioned so (this is why modern cameras have a minimum
that its front focal point matches the objective's aperture setting of 1 : 22 instead of 1 : 36 as
back focal point. old cameras used to have).
Since the object is in the ocular's focal plane, Why, notwithstanding the production of very
its image cannot be formed from the rays that sensitive photographic emulsions which could be
leave the ocular in parallel (to be more exact, used with very small aperture settings, do we
these rays form an image at infinity). still not use apertures less than 1: 22 in practice?
So how do astronomers make their observations?
4.14. Is the Construction
4.12. Do Astronomers Need Telescopes? of Hyperboloid Realizable?
A telescope magnifIcation is the ratio of the angle Peter Garin, the main character in Aleksei Tol-
subtended by the object in the telescope to the stoy's novel Engineer Garin's Hyperboloid, was
angle at which it is subtended at the naked eye. explaining his invention to Zoe Montrose. He
In view of the remoteness of stars (recall that said: "It is as plain as a pikestaff. The secret is
even light from the nearest star which travels hidden in the hyperbolic mirror A resembling
at 300,000 km/s takes about four years to reach in shape the mirror of a conventional searchlight,
us) the angle subtended at the naked eye by a and the piece of chamoni te B, which is made in
7*
r
I
100 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms 4. Optics and Atomic Structure 101
102
Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms 4. Optics and Atomic Structure 103
concentration in the light flux emerging from Does this mean that a diver underwater will
the cone.
see the light coming from a red lantern as blue?
more sound waves per unit time and so the whis- to return to the Sun? Tacking like yachtsmen on
tle sounds higher. An analogous phenomenon is water do would be fruitless because interplanetary
observed for light, too. If a light source ap- space is practically devoid of substance. However,
proaches you or you approach it, then its colour it appears that a system can be designed that
changes for you because its colour shifts to the blue effected by light rays will be ~ttra~ted to the
end of the spectrum. I was driving rather fast source of the light. Try to Imagllle such a
and so the red traffic light appeared to be green!" system.
We do not know how the conversation ended
(it is said that the policeman eventually fined 4.20. Why Do Identically Heated Bodies
Wood for driving too fast). However, we are in- Glow Differently?
terested in another aspect: could R. Wood le-
gitimately refer to Doppler effect? How do you explain the following paradox: a
piece of iron heated to 800a e glows very brigh~,
while a piece of quartz (a less successful experI-
4.19. Negative Light Pressure ment can be performed with glass) heated to the
Both the electromagnetic theory of light devel- same temperature barely glows?
oped in 1860-1870 by Maxwell and the quantum
theory, whose foundations were laid in 1900 4.21. The Paradox of Rulers
by Max Planck (1858-1947) and which was suc- Place two rulers to make an acute angle a (see
cessfully applied in 1905 to light by A. Einstein Fig. 4.5). Suppose one ruler begins to move rel-
(1879-1955), predict that light has a pressure.
The phenomenon was first experimentally detect-
ed by Pyotr Lebedev (1866-1912) in solids and
then in gases, thus having a universal character.
Light pressure is significant in nature. For exam-
ple, it prevents the gravitational collapse of stars,
plays the decisive role in forming comet tails, A
and reduces the lifetime of artiftcial Earth sat- . ""
!//'/
ellites. -'?-'
Science ftction writers long ago dreamed about Vo -"/' A'
-"/'
inte.rplanetary ships driven by light pressure, ~
hOplllg that advances in chemistry would provide
a light strong plastic for the sails of a space yacht. Fig. 4.5
Yet light pressure only acts "downstream" of a ative to another translationally with a velocity
source. What is to be done, if the astronaut wants v Q in the direction
• . indicated in the figure.
• Then
106 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms
b
i--
108 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms I 4. Optics and Atomic Structure 109
~orld possess much more. However, for simplic- How can this be reconciled with the fact that
Ity we. shall use this quantity. the mass of the whole Earth is now "only" about
Radmm's halflife is 1620 years. This means 6 X 10 24 kg?!
1620 yea~s ago t~ere was twice as much radium
as there IS now, I.e. 2 kg; 3240 years ago there
was 4 kg, etc. We can compile a table and obtain 4.24. How Do Cosmic Rays Originate?
the mass of radium on Earth, taking its age to At the beginning of this century the Austrian
be 1010 year~, this being in accordance with the physicist Victor Hess (1883-1964) was one of
latest geological and astronomical data. many researchers to show that Earth's surface
is continuously being irradiated by a flux of
Number of years to Number of
cosmic rays, i.e. fast protons and a-particles
the present haltlives Mass of radium, kg originating from outer space. Their energy is
colossal (certainly, for particle physics) with a
0 0 1=2 0 magnitude of 1019 eV. The largest accelerators
1620 1 2=2 1 now can only generate charged particles to ener-
3240 2 4=2 2 gies of about 1 X 1012 eV. The Italian physicist
4860 3 8=2 3 Enrico Fermi (1901-1951) advanced the follow-
6480 4 16=2 4 ing hypothesis concerning the origin and genesis
......... of cosmic rays which is at present accepted as
10 10 10
10 /1620
10 the most probable.
210 /1620
Astrophysicists have observed moving clouds
of interstellar gas and the aecompanying magnetic
The tabulation indicates the amount of radium fIelds due to the motion of charged particles in-
on Earth 10 10 years ago was side these clouds. Fermi's hypothesis holds that
10
cosmic particles encounter these randomly wan-
m= 2 10 /1620 kg = 26.17XI06 kg. dering magnetic fields and are accelerated by
them .
. Taking logarithms of both sides of the equation However, we know that the force acting nor-
Yields mal to the magnetic field on a moving charged
log m = 6.17 X 10 6 X log 2 = 1,857,000. particle (Lorentz's force) is directed perpendicu-
lar to the velocity of the particle. I t can only
. Whence the mass of radium on the Earth when change the direction of the velocity, not its mag-
1t coalesced was nitude.
m = 10 1 ,857,000 kg! How does Fermi's hypothesis explain the nec-
essary acceleration?
110 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms 4. Optics and Atomic Structure 111
4.25. Nuclear Reactions and the Law composed of protons and neutrons generic.ally
of Mass Conservation called nucleons.
If the atomic number of an element and its
The neutron was discovered in 1932 by Sir James
mass number (the atomic mass rounded-off to an
Chadwick and is unstable. In due course it de- integer) are Z and A respectively then the num-
cays into a proton, an electron, and an antineu-
ber of protons in a nucleus is Z, while the num-
trino. The decay equation can be written down as ber of neutrons is A - Z. There are no other par-
1
on ~
I
IP +. _Ie0 +o~
oV' ticles in nucleus.
The validity of the proton-neutron model of
when n, p, e and:; are the symbols for the neutron, the nucleus is not doubted.
proton, electron, and antineutrino, respectively. On the other hand, one type of radioactive
The superscript is the mass of the particle and transformations, i.e. ~-decay, is the decay of an
the subscript is its charge (both in atomic units). atomic nucleus with the ejection of a ~-particle,
A process has been discovered in which a pro- i.e. a common electron.
ton is transformed into a neutron, a positron, Where did the electron come from?
and a neutrino. The equation for the "nuclear
reaction" is
I
IP ~ I +0+le +0ov.
on
Thus, as a result of these two reactions follow-
ing one another, a neutron is "reborn" but, in
addition, four new particles, an electron, a posi-
tron, a neutrino, and an antineulrino, are pro-
duced.
How can this be reconciled with the law of
energy conservation?
_______________1 _
Solutions
r
I
Solutions 113
)/1
t:----7&=d1
- - --- -----
Fig. S.1.3
1.4. The velocity at which the load is raised ed along the rope, it must make right angle
will not, naturally, he changed if both ropes are with the first component.
passed over a block and pulled with the same ve- Then from the velocity triangle aBC it follows
locity as before. It is only necessary to put guides that
K Land M N to lift the load P along the same Ivl
path as before (see Fig. 8.1.4). The new forces IU\=cosa·
(the friction between the load and the guides)
should not disturb us since the problem is purely 1.5. The average velocity of the motor-cyclist
kinematic. is rigorously zero according to the formula
Its solution will not change either if both V av = sit,
ropes are substituted by a single rope, since the
second one becomes useless. Thus, this problem since he finally returned back to point A (i.e.
is analogous to the preceding one, which becomes the displacement s = 0).
evident if we rotate Fig. 8.1.4 by 90 clockwise 0 . However, in everyday life the average speed
and compare the result with Fig. 1.1 or 8.1.2. IS the average of the magnitude of the velocity,
b
r
!
118 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms Solutions 119
which can be found by dividing the distance cov-
OA I = a and OA 2 = b on the x-axis. Th~n let
ered by the time taken. Let us consider the speed.
us draw from points Al and A 2 normals wlth re-
An intuitive and usual answer of 50 km/h spect to the x-axis, to intersect with the hyper-
is wrong. Let the distance between points A
bola. So we find points B 1 and B z . We then find
and B be 1. Then the time spent by the motor-
cyclist travelling from A to B will be
t 1 = lIv1 •
The return run requires
t z = lIv z·
the function y = _1_. Let us plot the segments One can show that the harmonic mean h of
x two numbers a and b, their geometric mean g =
120 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms Solutions 121
tion and his (her) body is thrown forwards, in together, as is done in the sophism. Headley,
accordance with the law of inertia. who constructed in 1813 his steam engine "Puf-
1.8. It was once believed that a steam locomo- fmg Billy", was the first engineer to demonstrate
tive could not start a train moving if its weight this fact experimentally. However, the fJrst true
exceeds that of the locomotive. Therefore the steam engine was built somewhat later by George
fIrst designers provided their locomotives with Stephenson (1781-1848).
legs to push against the ground (Brunton's steam 1.9. Of course, the friction force does not de-
engine, 1813) or proposed geared drive wheels crease due to the measures suggested in the ques-
and rails (Blackinson's steam engine, 1811). tion. However, rotation is affected not so much
The error of these inventors as well as that in by the force itself but its moment. I t can be shown
the sophism in the text is that the friction coef- that the moment of braking friction force and
ficients between the carriage's wheels and the hence the losses due to the work against the
rails and between the locomotive's driving forces of friction decrease with the radius of the
wheels and the rails were unjustly assumed to friction part.
be equal. 1.10. At the right and left dead centres of the
The fact is that the points of contact between cylinder in the figure the piston of an operating
the locomotive's and the carriage's wheels and engine stops for a short time to reverse the di-
rails are stationary. This means that in both rection of motion. At these moments the lubri-
cases we are dealing with static rather than dy- cating oil is squeezed out from the space between
namic friction, the coefficient of static friction is the piston and cylinder walls and in the moment
not a constant but changes from zero to a thresh- after this event the piston runs along dry surface
old value after which the locomotive breaks until it comes in contact with a lubricated sur-
away and motion is possible. Since the wheels face. Naturally, dry surfaces wear faster than
rotate without skidding (i.e. the wheels are not lubricated ones.
blocked and can freely rotate), the friction coef- 1.11. The part of the problem related to the
ficients for the wheels of the locomotive and the bar is correct. The second part would also be
carriage are lower than the maximum, but not true if we were able to make a perfectly hard
the same: the friction coeffIcient for the locomo- ball and a similar surface. However, all real bodies
tive's driving wheels is higher. The weight (more are somewhat deformed due to loading (includ-
exactly, the coupling weight) of a locomotive ing the ball's own weight) and as a result the
multiplied by the high friction coeffIcient ob- ball and the plane contact over some finite sur-
served under uniform motion is equal to the face rather than at a point. Within the limits of
product of the weight of the train and the low the surface the reaction at support can be slight-
friction coefficient. These coefficients, k1 and k 2 , ly shifted and compensate for the moment of
may substantially differ and cannot be equated a couple of the force applied and the force
124 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms
Solutions 125
friction. However, the deformations are usually
not very pronounced and the support reaction for example, with respect to the axis passing
cannot produce a noticeable moment. As a re- through the centre of gravity of the table, then
sult, a ball can be set in motion more easily than the sum of the moments of the force of gravity P,
a bar. the friction forces F 1 and F 2 acting on the table
~egs, and the support reaction forces R 1 and R 2
1.12. An experiment can be performed to sort
out the faulty and the true arguments. To do IS zero (the forces are all labelled in Fig. S.1. 7).
this a model table should be placed on two dy- By taking clockwise moments around the axis
namometers (it is convenient to use "clock- passing through the centre of gravity of the ta-
dial" type) so that table legs are at different ble C to be positive, and anticlockwise moments
heights. The readings on the dynamometers will be negative, we arrive at the following relation
different-the. higher reading for the lower legs. I F1 I h + I F 2 I h + I R1 I l - I R2 I l
If the model IS set up so that the perpendicular
dropped from the centre of gravity onto hori- + I P 10 = 0.
zontal plane passes through the table legs at Whence
point B (see Fig. 1.7), then the left-hand dyna-
mometer readings will vanish at all. I R 2 Il -I RIll = 1F 1 I h + I F2 I h
The conclusion that the pressure should be or
different can be drawn from the following simple
argument.
. The table will rest on an inclined surface only
IR 21-I R t! =
i.e.
(!Ft! + !F21) +> 0,
b
126 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms Solutions 127
section point C for forces F 2 and F 3' as shown in After reducing to a common denominator and
Fig. S.1.8. some other transformations the last equation
can be rewritten as:
Fig. S.1.8
b
r
b
132 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms
____________L _
136 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms Solutions 137
arate parts of the ball and the torus will yield Since in both cases R «d, we have
a zero resultant.
To conclude, let us indicate the slip in the text d '" yM ·2Rd = 2R yM
a", d2d2 d3
of the problem: that two bodies are in contact
does not mean the distance between their centres This difference based on the "normal" gravi-
of mass is zero. Thus, as we have seen for touch- tational acceleration g will be
ing balls we have R = R 1 + R 2 • '
1.23. The magnitude of the high and low tides !1a __
g --
2R yM -=-- yME
d3' R2
= 2 ~
ME
(!l.)3
d '
is not so much determined by the gravity force
where ME is the Earth's mass.
For the Moon
d-R
M 1 R 1
ME =81 and a=60
d Whence for the relative reduction in accelera-
tion (and, consequently, for the relative reduction
Fig. S.1.11 in the force of gravity on the side facing the Moon)
we get
of the Sun or Moon, as by the difference between !1a!1P 2 1
the gravity forces of the Sun, etc. and a body at g ----p- 81 X 60 3 9 X 10 6
the Earth's centre and at its surface. If they were
equal, these forces would impart the same ac- For the Sun
celeration to the Earth and the ocean so that both M R 1
would move as a single whole and there would ME = 332,400 and d 23,500
be no tides.
However, the centre of the Earth is farther Whence we get
from the Moon (or the Sun) than the water in the !1a!1P 1
ocean on the ~ide facing the Moon (or the Sun). g =-p~ 19xf06
Therefore theIr accelerations will differ by
Thus, solar tides must really be half as strong
d yM _ yM _ d 2 -(d-R)2 as lunar ones.
a = (d-R)2 d2 - yM d2 (d-R)2
1.24. Formula (1) expresses the fact that, for
~here M is the mass of the Moon (Sun), d is the the same distance covered, the work done will
dIstance between its centre and the centre of be larger, the larger the force performing the
the Earth, R is the radius of the Earth and y work. Similarly, expression (2) implies that for
is the gravitational constant (Fig. S.1.11). the same force, the work increases with the dis-
b
138 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms Solutions 139
tance covered. (The work can only be doubled 1.25. No violation of the law of energy con-
by doubling the force if the distance remains the servation is possible. It is valid in all known pro-
same; or the work is proportional to the distance cesses. We needed only take into account that
if the force remains unchanged.) Thus, the con- the collision between the projectile and the hand-
stant term in formula (1) is a variable in formu- cart is inelastic, i:e. part of the projectile's
la (2) and vice versa. energy, namely, one half, is spent overcoming
Hence, equations (4) and (5) derived from (1) the force resisting its motion inside the hand-
and (2) by term-by-term multiplication and di- cart and fmally it is transformed into heat, while
vision must take both k l and k 2 as variables. the truck is set in motion with the remaining
Whence it follows that k 3 and k 4 are not con- energy.
stants. Indeed, from the meaning of k l and k 2 1.26. If coal is burnt on the third floor height,
we can deduce that the potential energy of the combustion products
k3 = Y- F
Fs and k,~ "-=-
s'
(water, ashes, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
and unburnt coal particles) will increase exactly
as much as the coal potential energy.
By putting k 3 and k 4 into (4) and (5), respec- 1.27. The fuel contained in the tank of a flying
tively, we obtain the tautologous expressions rocket possesses kinetic energy due to the speed
A= V Fs· -y-
Fs=Fs F
and F=-s=F.
resulting from burning fuel. Therefore the ener-
s gy possessed by each kilogram of unburnt fuel
This sophism is not only related to the formula will be produced from both the heat of combus-
for work but, of course, to all formulas ex- tion independent of the rocket's velocity and
pressed analytically by monomials. an ever increasing kinetic energy. At a velocity
For example, in the case of uniform motion of about 3 km/s the kinetic energy of a kilogram
the distance covered is proportional to both ve- of fuel is comparable to its heat of combustion,
locity and time. By writing this as two formulas i.e. the store of chemical energy; by the time it
s = k1v and s = k 2 t reaches the orbital velocity the kinetic energy
we get of the fuel is three times that of the heat of com-
bustion. It is this fact that explains the paradox.
s=k3 yvt, 1.28. A gas balloon displaces a greater mass
where of air than the mass of the balloon, since the
k 3 =Vk 1 k 2 =Vvt or v=k,t, latter is filled with a gas whose density is lower
than air's. At a height H the balloon's potential
where energy is increased by VD gH, where V is the
k ~_ k 2 _ v volume of the balloon, D its average density and
4- r;--T' If is free fall accl;lleration.
140 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms
Solutions 141
~t the same time the volume the balloon oc-
cupI~d now co~tains air that was pushed down ity with which the centre itself moves relative
and Its p~tentIal.energy is reduced by VD'gH, to Earth's surface. Let us choose a point B on
where D IS the aIr density. the hoop which at a given instant is in contact
As a res~lt, the potential energy of the at- with ground and therefore stationary with re-
mosphere-aIr balloon system is lowered by spect to it. If the hoop's centre possesses a velocity
VgH (D' ~D) > O.
I t is this energy loss that lifts the balloon. Thus,
the sam~ reason that forces wood and gas bubbles
to float. In water is evident, i.e. the system tries
to attaIn the state of minimum potential energy.
We. assumed for simplicity the densities of
the aIr .and the !5~s in t~e balloon were constant.
In realIty the aIr s densIty decreases with height
and so does that of gas filling the balloon since
the b.all?on expands in order to keep the pres- Fig. S.1.12
sure InsIde the balloon and in the atmosphere
the sa~e. ~owever, the gas's density cannot de-
crease In~mte~y because of the shell. Therefore v relative to the Earth, then it will possess the
at a certaIn heIght the air density becomes equal same velocity relative to the point B. Yet if the
to the average density of the balloon and the centre A moves relative to the point B with a
further ascent is stopped. velocity v, then the point B must do so relative
1.29. When rolling down a hill, the hoop to the point A 3). Every point on the hoop is equiv-
~oves along the ground and it also rotates about alent and if one moves relative to hoop's centre
ItS centre. with a velocity v, then the others have to do so
. Therefore the right-hand side of the equation too. We can conclude that the following equation
In the problem for the law of energy conservation is valid:
must be supplemented by an additional term for trans _ wk
rot
the kinetic energy of rotation, w~ot: W k - ·
For n points along the x-axis the centre of mass wall can overhang the lower one must satisfy
will be at the condition
mIxI+m2 X2+ ... +mnx n
Xo = mI+m2+ ... +m n
zo= m....;I~z~I..:.+-:-m~2z.:..2.,.:-
_
+:...;'.~....,;+~m~n2zn~
mI+m2+ ... +m n
150 Solutions
Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms 151
However, you cannot infer that the sine of the Since the angle ex is small its cosine can be ap-
angle sought for must remain nonzero. In other proximated to unity and then we get
~ords, by ~limin~ting sin ex we eliminate a pos-
sIble soh,-rtlOn (VIZ., ex = 0), which corresponds w< Vi I~I .
to a vertIcal thread. Meanwhile, it can be easily
S~lOW~ t~at at low angular velocities this posi- But if the angular velocity of the machine is
tIon IS mdeed possible.
Suppose the thread with the ball was pushed such that w >VI~I, then the vertical position
by ch~nce through a small angle ex from vertical. of the thread is unstable, i.e. a deviation due
Then m. the reference frame related to the disk to a random cause will grow up to a certain angle
there wIll be an extra force, acting on the ball, ex that can be found by the method described in
ot!t er than gravity, P = mg, namely, the cen- the problem, since now sin ex will be nonzero and
tnf~ga~ force of inertia, viz. I Fin I = mw 2 R = dividing both sides of the equation by it is ad-
mw.I:sm ex. T~e thread will return to the initial missible.
posI~lOn provIded the moment of the force of Eventually, the problem has two solutions
graVIty about A (see Fig. 1.14), which tends to depending on the angular velocity
move the ball towards the vertical, exceeds the
moment of the centrifugal force relative to the
same axis, which tends to move the ball away
(1) ex = 0 for w < V T'
from the vertical,. i.e. (2) ex = arccos ~~; r w > l / I~I.
,P ,R > , Fin I I cos ex To summarize, it is of interest to note that for
or w= V I~I
m ,g II sin ex > 2
mw I sin ex I cos ex. the period of the cone pendulum
_ . . . ._ _. . . . . . . . . .iiiiiiiiII
l _
152 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms Solutions 153
disk rotates rapidly oscillations are transformed out of phase. Therefore, as the fork is brought
into the rotation of the ball in a horizontal circle. close to ear the waves dampen one another and
1.36. Often, when discussing waves, we imply we discern ~ fall in the sound. The few centime-
the propagation of elastic oscillations which in tres that separate the prongs are insignificant,
liquids at low frequencies can indeed only be since the path difference produced is substan-
longitudinal. However, oscillations are not al- tially smaller than a wavelength.
ways due to elastic forces. In the given case the When the prongs are in a plane parallel to ear,
transversal waves on the pond surface are due we hear a louder sound, since the prongs act as
to the force of gravity: the water pushed downward a single acoustic source: when the prongs move
by the stone is then pushed upward by the weight together air is pushed out of the space between
of adjoining water layers. Once induced, the os- them and a compression wave comes to ear. When
cillation persists until the energy imparted by the prongs move apart a rarefaction wave beg.ins.
the stone is dissipated both to overcome liquid The alternating compressions and rarefactIOns
fr.iction and to set in motion larger areas of liq- are perceived as sound.
Uld surface. Transverse oscillations maintained 1.38. The sound produced by a tuning fork is
by the force of gravity can thus only exist at an gradually weakening, as the. energy of its oscilla-
interface between liquid and gas or between two tions is released into the enVIronment. The energy
liquids of different density. The source for the is dissipated faster if the tuning fork is fas~ened.
waves in a liquid bordering on a gas can be cap- to a resonator or is simply in contact wIth a
illary forces which induce waves of a very short table, since the energy is released both from the
wavelength, i.e. ripples.
tuning fork itself and from the surface of the
I t should be noted that at high frequencies resonator or the table. To summarize, though in
liquids show elasticity of shear, i.e. elastic trans- the latter case the sound is louder it lasts for
versal waves are thus possible. a shorter period, while the energy released will
1.37. A sound is softer when both prongs of be the same in both cases.
the tuning fork are aligned along a single straight 1.39. The impossibility of realizing perpetual
line to the ear. This can only be explained motion machine is due to the law of the conser-
by the difference in the distances travelled by vation of energy. This sophism intentionally
the sound waves if they emerge from the sound avoids the fact that the force due to pressure,
sources in phase or, more exactly, with a phase like pressure itself, is normal to the surfa.ce.
difference that is multiple of 2Jt. In fact the prongs Therefore along any direction in which ~otIOn
oscillate out of phase: when one prong is trans- is feasible, i.e. horizontally, only the hOrIzontal
mitting a compression wave, the other is sending component and not the whole force of pressure
a rarefaction wave. As a result, when the prongs acts.
are aligned with ear, the sound waves are already Let the left-hand wall area be S and the av-
154 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms
For an arbitrary gas Eq. (1) can be rewritten as 1 45. Braking against banks, the botto.m, and
I Fg I = IFH2/ D a _ I FH21 Dg=A-B.DIi!.. '. d'" the surface results 1Il that
Da-DH2 D a - DH 2 .
the au a JOllllng . h .ddle of
water in a river moves fastest 1Il t e ml . 0
Hence, we readily see that a balloon's lift force the river, just under its surfa.ce. The velOCIty
linearly diminishes with an increase in the den- distribution in depth is approxImately as shown
si ty of the gas filling the balloon. The force in Fig. 5.1.17.
vanishes when the density cf the gas equals the
density of the surrounding air. On the other - - ___0- ~, 0_
hand, if the gas density were zero, we see that
even then the balloon's lift wculd be only 1.06
times higher than that of the hydrogen-filled ---- -
one 5 ). ..-
..
----
1.44. The pressure in a wind flow blcwing
over a roof is lower than that in stationary air.
Therefore, if a garret has no windows, a lift
--
force emerges that tends to pull off the roof or Fig. S.1.17
its tiles. Yet if there are windows, the air under
the roof will be set in motion, the difference
between the pressures over the roof and under Therefore, as the loading on the raft increases,
it decreases and becomes too small to damage so does its draught, and thus the bottom of the
the building. raft is submerged down into faster layers and so
The paradox can be formulated in another way: the raft starts to move faster.
why during hurricanes are roofs not crushed by B the by this was one of the reasons for the
the wind pressure, but are instead thrown up- acci~ent which nearly killed t~e~~y Watzinger,
wards? Or why do blast waves flow over con- a crew member on the Kon-Tlkl .
tinuous fences but leave thin poles intact? Re-
member also that one has to open his (her) mouth
during gunshots in order to ensure the same pres- eh. 2. Heat and Molecular Physics
sure on both sides of ear-drum (from the side of
the helix and from the side of Eustachian tube). 2 1 The compressibility of liquids is negligible:
f~r .water the decrease in volume amounts to
5) Vacuum has zero density. It is of interest that as
about 0.00005 of the initial value per atmosphere
early as 1670 the Italian priest Francesco Lana (1631- of pressure applied.
1687) proposed employing thin-walled evacuated spheres
for lifting in air.
6) T. Heyerdahl, Kon-Tiki, Across the Pacific by Raft.
b
160 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms Solutions 161
We can easily calculate that water has the molecules have velocities corresponding to tem-
same density as steel at a pressure of 50,000 atm peratures of several thousands of degrees Centi-
(and this will only be true if water's compres- grade". .
sibility remains constant with pressure). Such 2.3. Let us pour off half the cold water lI~to
a pressure would exist at a depth of 500 km. If vessel D and insert it into the vessel filled With
iron's compressibility is taken into account, the hot water. I t can be easily estimated that in the
required depth would increase even more. Mean- absence of thermal losses the temperature in
while, the deepest point in the ocean only corre- vessels A and D will settle at 60°C. Then let us
sponds to about 11 km. pour the warmed up water from vessel D into
Note, by the way, that water is appreciably the empty vessel C and repeat the procedu~e
compressed by its own weight. Were it relieved with the remaining cold water. When put III
from compression forces, the water level in the contact using vessels A and D, the water tem-
oceans would rise up by 35 m and a vast area perature in both will settle at. about 47°C. If
(about 5,000,000 km 2 ) of the lowland regions of we now pour the water from D mto C, th~ tem-
the Earth would be submerged. perature of the mixture in the latter Will be
2.2. High above the Earth's atmosphere the about 53°C. Thus the problem is solved, since the
air is very rarefied and the number of molecules cold water has been heated to 53°C by cooling
per unit volume is small. Therefore, although the hot water to 47°C, without mixing the water.
each molecule possesses a no ticeable kinetic If the water is not divided into two each time
energy, the number of particles is too small to but into a larger number of portions, the differ-
transfer much energy in collisions with a satellite. ence in the final temperatures would be even
By contrast, when the satellite is not illuminated more sizeable; at the limit of infinitesimal por-
by the Sun, it gives up via radiation much more tions of water the final temperatures in A and C
energy into outer space than it receives from will be:
the striking molecules and it could be cooled
very severely if not suitably protected. TA=T 2 + T-1 -T 2
-, T c= T 1 -
T 1-
-T-2
e e
The heating of the satellite in the denser layers
of the atmosphere when landing is entirely due where T 1 and T 2 are the initial temperatures of
to different reasons. It is due to the friction of the hot and cold water, respectively, and e is
the satellite's surface against the air. the base of natural logarithm.
Moreover, the notion of temperature is inap- I t is possible to construct a setup in which t~e
plicable to a single molecule. Temperature is a temperatures are practically exchanged. ThiS
statistical quantity and is only applicable when is done in industrial heat exchangers, where the
there is a large enough number of particles. This hot and cold counterflows are passed through
was why the problem was formulated thus "... air coaxial tubes. In long tubes the temperature
I 11-01216
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiliiilllllliiiiiiiiiiii&lli~ .....l _
162 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms Solutions 163
exchange is practically complete, as is shown amount of heat needed to heat the body can be
in Fig. 8.2.1. If the two flows were passed in the made using either formula. However, the numeri-
same direction, the temperatures would at best cal values of the quantities whose definition
only equalize. contains the notion of temperature will be quite
We want to stress that no violation of the different. For example, the numerical value of
second law of thermodynamics (see Problems the heat capacity of water in the Celsius scale
2.25-2.27) occurs here since at every stage the will be 1.25 times larger than that in the Reaumur
temperature of the flow of liquid, to which heat scale, i.e. it will change from 4.19 kJ/(kg.°C) to
is transferred, is lower than that of the flow do- 5.23 kJ/(kg.oR). However, since according to
nating the heat. This effect can be clearly seen Reaumur's scale water boils at 80o R, the heat
needed to heat 0.1 kg of water from the melting
T
;9 8
point of ice to the boiling point of water will
be the same and equal to 41.9 kJ.
2.6. This sophism only contains a seeming
I
I contradiction since in both cases the work done
I against external forces must come from some
I energy source. In the first case the energy is
I delivered to the system from without, i.e. from
I a heater, and in the second case the work is
I produced due to a loss of the internal energy of
I the body.
The internal energy depends on the velocities
and arrangement of the molecules which corre-
Fig. 8.2.1 spond to the molecular kinetic and molecular
potential components of internal energy. The
from Fig. 8.2.1, where the lower curve represents solidification of a liquid is accompanied by a
the temperature of the receiving liquid. substantial change in the pattern of motion and
2.4 .. Adding a layer of thermal insulation arrangement of the molecules, while their veloc-
doubled the area of the heat radiating surface. ities remain practically unchanged. The mole-
Thus if the thermal conductivity of the insulation cules in the crystal lattice of a solid are strictly
material is not too small, the losses may indeed I ordered to match to a minimum molecular poten-
increase. I tial component. The excess energy is dissipated.
2.5. To measure temperature any scale can be I This is called the heat of solidification (or melt-
used. The laws of physics do not change from I ing). It is this heat that breaks a hermetically
one scale to another, so the calculation of the sealed iron shell when water inside it is frozen.
I
l__.*
l1
_ _ _ _iiiiiiii _
164 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms 165
Solutions
Let us consider another example. When steam precise measurements would demonstrate that
from a boiler is supplied into the cylinder of a dissolving the bent strip res~lts i~ a higher
steam engine, the work done to displace the temperature of the acid than dissolvmg the ~n
piston is performed due to the energy fed with bent strip. Though, the temperature elev.atIOn
the steam. However, when the cylinder is iso- is so small that it cannot be detected by simple
lated from the boiler, the steam displaces the means and a conventional thermometer would
piston due to a loss of its internal energy, namely,
be inadequate.
its molecular kinetic component. The steam is Note though that an unbent strip dissolves
thus cooled. This mode of operation was first
more quickly.
employed in 1776 by James Watt (1736-1819) 2.9. Work is a process resulting in an energy
and enables using the steam's energy more effec- transfer from one body to another. The amount
tively.
of energy transferred c~n be. de~ned. as fo:ce
2.7. Since the forces of interaction between multiplied by distance (If t.he~r dI!ectIOns co.m-
air molecules are practically vanishing, the cide otherwise a third multiplIer, l.e. the COSI?e
energy of compressed gas is the kinetic energy of the angle between the directions of the dIS-
of its molecules. The work done to compress the placement and the force, is required).
gas increases the kinetic energy of its molecules Work is a possible yet not the only method of
which manifests itself in a rise in its temper- energy transfer. In everyday life we no less
ature. When the air expands it performs work often encounter a second method of energy trans-
due to a loss of its internal energy, i.e. due to fer between bodies, that of heat transfer. .
a fall in the kinetic energy of the molecules. If A rocket "hovers" immobile e~en tho?gh ItS
external energy is not supplied from without, engines are running. Since th~re IS no dIsplace-
a gas's temperature when expanding falls. How- ment there is no work. ThIS does not at all
ever, in practice it is quickly raised due to the mean' that the energy of burnt fuel disappears,
heat exchange with the environment. Thus, the gases ejected from the rocket nozzles are
compressed air performs work due to the inter- at high temperature and take away the energy
nal energy of the environment. Though, it is previously contained in the fuel tan~s.
to be noted that the same amount of energy is 2.10. As was indicated in the solutIOn ~f the
given up to the environment by the air heated previous problem, there are only two :adically
during the compression stage. differing forms of energy exchange, VIZ. work
2.8. Like the sophism concerning the disap- (the ordered transfer of energy from one body
pearance of the potential energy of coal (see to another, i.e. energy transfer at the macro-
Problem 1.26), this problem does not take much scopic level) and heat transfer (a disordered form,
trouble: energy cannot disappear, it is only i.e. energy transfer at the micro~copic .level).
transformed from one kind to another. In fact, NQtwithstandin~ their qualitatIve diffefence,
166 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms
V 2 =V 1
v-V -r;
r;-=1m 3
a·v 273 K
274K=0.99m
3
•
~eached by another method, namely, by supply- To sum up, it is worth noting that the equival-
mg energy not via heat transfer, but via gas ence between heat transfer and work (heating
com pression . bodies withQut supplying heat to them) was
.A process occurring without any heat exchange unconsciously used even in ancient times when
wIth the surroundings is called adiabatic. For they produced fire by friction. It was only in
the process to be adiabatic the air must be con- '1795 that Sir Humphrey Davy (1778-1829) and
tained in a non-heat-conducting shell. A good Benjamin Thompson (Count R'umford) (1753-
approximation to this ideal is a system in which 1814) in more detail in 1798 embarked on exper-
the gas is contained inside a glass vessel with imental research of this phenomenon the physics
double silvered walls and a vacuum in the space of which was fully understood after works by
between the walls (a Dewar flask). Julius Mayer (1814-1878), Ludwig Co'lding (1815-
~ ery fast processes are also practically adia- 1888), James Joule (1818-1889) and Hermann
patte. For example, when the gas is rapidly com- Helmholtz (1821-1894).
168 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms Solutions 169
2.11. When using a soldering iron it is not the excess force will result in an accelerated
the internal energy of the iron that is important motion and in an increase in the weight's kinetic
(especially, if the soldering iron is electric), but energy. The sum of the potential and kinetic
rather the rate at which it is released. Since the energies at the height of 1 m will be equal to the
heat conductivity of copper is six times that of work performed by the man's arm during this
iron, heat is released much faster if the soldering displacement.
iron is made of copper. Of vital importance in The problem also deals with the force perform-
choosing material for a soldering iron is the ing work, that of atmospheric pressure, the force
better, as compared to iron, chemical resistance against which work is performed, that of gravity
of copper. on the mercury column in the tube.
2.12. Even if we take a substance with a high The work of the first force is the same for
coefficient of thermal expansion, the value of both tubes and can be calculated from the formula
-Va is much less than -273°C, i.e. absolute
zero. Thus, for lead a = 3 X 10-5 °C-l and A at = Pat· V,
-Va = -3 X 10 6 °C. Such temperatures are be- where Pa t is the atmospheric pressure and V is
yond reach (to state it better, they are nonexis- the internal volume of each tube, the bulge in-
tent). cluded.
In analyzing the sophism it is important to As to the second force, the work it performs
keep in mind the dependence of the coefficient can in principle be calculated from the same
of thermal expansion on temperature, too. formula. However, in practice this is not easy,
2.13. We must always distinguish between a since the pressure in the mercury column is con-
force to perform a work and a force against which stantly changing as the tube is filled. Immediately
a work is performed. Sometimes the magnitudes after the taps are opened the pressure is zero,
of these forces do not match; therefore, with the as there is no mercury in the tubes. Then the
same displacements, the works performed by pressure forces grow as the column rises. The
these forces may not only differ in sign (this is growth is slower in the right-hand tube, where
always so), but in magnitude, too. the bulge is lower, and until it is filled with
For example, when lifting a balance weight mercury the pressure only changes slightly.
of 1 kg at a height of 1 m, we perform work A = Therefore the mean pressure turns out to be
mgH = 1 kg X 9.8 m/s 2 X 1 m = 9.8 J only higher in the left-hand tube, since here the mer-
when the force applied to the weight is 9.8 N. cury column rises fast. Hence, the work done
The energy expended is then transformed to the against pressure forces will be larger.
weight's potential energy. Thus, the work done by the atmospheric pres-
Yet it is possible, when lifting a balance weight, sure forces is the same in both cases, yet it is
to apply a force exceeding 9.8 N. In this Case performed not only to increase the potential
______________________.L _
170 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms Solutions 171
energy of the mercury, but to accelerate it and follow the interface with pure water retreating
to overcome friction. 'When mercury stops rising, to the rim of the plate.
its kinetic energy transforms to heat. The same 2.16. The answer will be assisted by an un-
heating accompanies the friction of mercury sophistieated experiment. Take some steel or
against tube walls. copper wire 1-2 mm in diameter and heat it in
In both cases the sum of the energies spent a flame. When it has cooled slowly the wire is
heating the mercury and increasing its potential flexible, it can be easily bent into circles. How-
energy equals the work of the atmospheric ever, when bent from side to side a few times,
pressure forces, but the second term is larger for the wire gradually becomes more and more rigid.
the left-hand tube. This hardening due to loading is called cold-work
2.14. A liquid rises in a capillary tube when hardening. It can be explained by the mutual
the force of attraction between the molecules of compensation of the different defects in crystal
the liquid and those of tube exceed the cohesive lattice. The theory is rather involved and cannot
forces between the molecules of the liquid. Thus, be presented here in a rigorous way 7).
the work done to raise the liquid is performed Drawing results in a cold-hardening which
at the expense of the fall in potential energy of hardens the wire passing through dye hole (draw-
the liquid-tube system configuration. (Analogous- ing eye). With repeated drawing it is preceded
ly, a permanent magnet attracts an iron piece every time with annealing of the wire to facili-
due to the aeeompanying decrease in the potential tate the process.
energy of the magnet-iron piece system.) 2.17. The error in the solution in the text is
Yet if the cohesive forces between the molec- the wrong assumption that after the addition
ules of the liquid exceed the forces of attraction of boiling water all the ice will melt. Actually,
between these molecules and those of the tube there is too little hot water and some ice will
material, the potential energy of the system survive, while the temperature will not rise
decreases with the liquid falling in the tube. above O°C. Therefore, to draw up the heat balance
2.15. A sugar solution in water has a larger equation we must account for the amount of heat
coefficient of surface tension (larger specific supplied by the boiling water
surface energy) than does water. This is why
the surface occupied by the sugar solution tends 1 kg X 4.19 kJ/(kg X 0c) X WO°C
to shrink and carries with it the matches to the and that expended in melting the ice
lump of sugar.
When soap is dissolved the water tension de- m X 335 kJ /kg,
creases (by the way, this is the cause of the where m is the mass of melted ice.
washing action of water), the surface occupied 7) Anyone interested in it should turn to a course on
by the soap solution extends and the matches the theory of solids,
___________________l _
172 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms
the above expressions, we find m = 1.25 kg. boils at a lower temperature. Therefo~e in moun-
Hence, the jar will contain 2.25 kg of water
tains, where the atmospheric pressure is lower
and 0.05 kg of ice and their mixture will have than at sea level, water can boil at 80°C or lower
a temperature of O°C. since the drop in the boiling point of wate;
To sum up, the heat balance equation, when
amounts to 3°C per kilometer of altitude above
a substance goes over from one state of aggrega-
sea level. This phenomenon is well known to
tion into another (for example, from solid to
mountaineers who use it sometimes to check
liquid or from liquid to gas) has to be carefully
the height they have reached.
compiled with due account for the possibility
However, it is not the fact of the water boiling
of an incomplete transition 8). itself that is important but the effect of the
2.18. At any temperature a liquid contains
boiling water. Who needs "boiling water" with
both fast and slow molecules. Evaporation pro-
a temperature of, say, 60°C? It cannot soften
ceeds due to the escape from the liquid of fast
meat or fish, nor sterilize medical equipment
molecules which possess energies sufficient to nor even satisfy a tea lover. '
overcome the forces of cohesion with the remain-
A.G. Dralkin, the leader of the Fourth Soviet
ing liquid. After the escape of the fast molecules,
-:,-ntarctic expediti~n, reported that during their
the average velocity of the remaining ones de-
Journey by caterplllar vehicles from Mirny to
creases. The same holds for the average liquid
the South pole and farther to the Vostok station
temperature governed by the average velocity
they were forced to ascend to above 3500 m:
of the molecules. Following this, the temperatures
cease to be equal and heat exchange becomes At these altitudes it was impractical to boil
food because the atmospheric pressure was too
feasible. low and water boiled at between 55 and 60°C.
2.19. Without being embarrassed (one of the
It could take as much as 6 or 7 hours to cook
examiners was the young but already well-known
Enrico Fermi) the student nevertheless under- meat. Later they installed pressure cookers in the
vehicles' galleys. 9)
stood the question and answered correctly: "When
food is fried, it is not the oil that boils but the 2.21. Here as in the previous problem, we need
know that the boiling point of water is pressure-
water in food." dependent. For instance, at 40 atm the boiling
In fact the temperature of the food will not
rise above 100°C until all the water boils away.
9) Bear in mind that atmospheric pressure in the
8) Generally, here we should speak not of the transi-
A.ntarctic is in a.ny case lower than elsewhere. Such re-
tion from one state of aggregation into another, but the gIOns are called III meteorology atmospheric depressions.
phase transition of the first kind,
b
174 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms Solutions 175
point is 249.3°C. At the same time the melting calculations. In each case the saving will total
point of tin at this pressure is practically 232°C, to about 71.1 %.
Le. the temperature tin melts under normal 2.23. The paradox is resolved by the first law
atmospheric pressure. Thus, at 40 atm water of thermodynamics. This can be stated as: the
can indeed melt tin. amount of heat transferred to a system equals
A lump of ice can burn. Gustav Tammann the increase in its internal energy plus the work
(1861-1938) and Percy Williams Bridgman (1882- performed by the system against external forces:
1961) demonstrated in a series of experiments
that the structure of ice is changed at elevated Q =!'!.U + A.
pressures and it turns into new crystal modifi-
cations. Tammann discovered three isotopes of ice Since the initial and final temperatures of both
which are known as ice II, III and IV (the usual balls are equal, the changes in their internal
isotope is ice I). Bridgman discovered two more energies are the same. However, thermal expan-
modifications, Le. ice V and ice VI. At 20,000 sion raises the centre of gravity of the first ball
atm ice VI remains solid even at + 75°C. At even and lowers that of the second ball. Thus, to heat
higher pressures ice VI can exist at even higher the first ball needs additional energy (heat) for
temperatures, and this ice would be able to the positive work against gravity (Le. to increase
burn somebody's hand. the potential energy of the ball). The centre of
2.22. The inventor's calculations were wrong, gravity of the second ball falls and the work
since a 100% saving in fuel would mean a per- against gravity is negative. To sum up, for the
petual motion machine would be possible. same rise in temperature we have Ql > Q2'
The use of all three improvements together Hence, the heat capacity of matter is not a con-
does ensure more savings than when each inven- stant. Depending on the heating conditions it
tion is used separately but they still will be less may take on different values from - 0 0 to +oo!
than 100%. However, for solids we need generally know only
To simplify the calculation we assume that one heat capacity, namely, that under a con-
before the inventions are used the setup consumed stant pressure which is cited in handbooks of
100 kg of fuel per hour. The first invention reduces physical constants. For gases we often need the
the fuel consumption to 70 kg/h. The second heat capacity at a constant volume, too (the
invention provides a further 25% but now the ratio between these two heat capacities appears,
base figure is 70 kg. Thus, putting into practice for example, in the equation for expansion in
the two inventions the fuel rate will be 52.5 kg/h. an adiabatic process (see the solution of Prob-
Finally, the third invention saves a further lem 2.10).
45 % and lowers the consumption to 28.9 kg/h. This first person to draw attention to the fact
The final value is independent of the sequence of that both solids and gases possess different heat
______________________L _
176 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms
and the temperature at the surface is 27°C, then Louis Marcel Brillouin (1854-1948) demonstrated
t~e efficiency is 8.3 %. The temperature that even when there were no losses, say, due
difference could easily be utilized in a ther- to friction, velocity after being sorted by the
moelectric cell. Possibly in the future when device would be just suffIcient to allow it to
their cheaper production is found, the p;werful operate once more. Thus, at best the demon could
ocean-based thermoelectric stations might contrib- only make itself go while to use the whole device
ute to the energy balance of our planet. as an engine is out of question.
2.26. The ratio
Ch. 3. Electricity and Magnetism
3.1. Coulomb's law describes the interaction of
~s the fraction of burnt fuel energy convertible pointlike charges. This means that in practice
mto work by a heat engine when there are no the dimensions of the charged bodies must be
~osses of useful energy (it is the efficiency of an much smaller than the distances between them.
ideal heat engine). The ratio indeed increases If the charged bodies are not too far from each
in winter. However, during winter the oil in other, it is unclear how to measure their sepa-
the motor, gear-box, the differential and bear- ration. In order to calculate the force of close
ings becomes so thick that even if' the winter bodies they must be divided into very small
oils which have lower viscosity are used the ("pointlike") parts and the resultant of all the
friction losses are larger and the overall efficiency forces acting upon all the points of the first body
of the car is lower than it is in summer. Besides by all the points of the second body must be found.
in :vinter we spend petrol to warm· up a cold This resultant ensures that an electric force
engme when starting it. This is why the petrol applied to the first body is dependent on its
consumption in winter is larger than it is in shape and charge distribution over the surface.
summer. Thus, calculating the forces of interaction is a
2.27. Maxwell's paradox has only been solved complicated problem which can sometimes (but
recently. \Ve tacitly assumed that the device not always) be solved by integral calculus.
for sorting molecules by velocity could operate Capacitor plates are not pointlike bodies and
either without spending energy or by only con- the force of interaction between them cannot be
suming it in small amounts. In fact, a demon calculated from the formula
needs energy to operate. In particular, the demon F = QIQ2
must "see" the molecules, Le. they must be illu- 4n8 oR2 ,
minated, which needs an energy.
where R is the distance between the plates.
12*
180 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms Solutions 181
I t is also necessary to note that the field The second case is different. There is a potential
between the plates of a parallel-plate capacitor difference between C and D equal to the electro-
is not, actually, uniform and the deviations from motive force of each cell, since two cells con-
uniformity are larger the farther apart the nected in parallel can be considered to be one
capacitor plates. The field strength and the force cell with electrodes double in area. However,
with which the plates are attracted together until a conductor C3D is connected to the cell
are inversely proportional to the distance between electrodes, the circuit is open and therefore
the plates. When the plates are far apart the no current can flow between C and D. We might
charges on them can be taken to be pointlike say that without the conductor C3D there is
and the force of interaction can be calculated only the internal circuit section, i.e. the battery,
according to Coulomb's law. while the external section is missing.
To conclude, note that Coulomb's law correctly 3.3. This sophism is mathematical rather than
describes the force of interaction between two physical.
spheres which have the charge uniformly dis-
tributed over their surfaces, or balls whose Io = I 1 + I 2•
charge is uniformly distributed over their volumes.
The parameter in the Coulomb equation is Therefore
then the distance between the centres of the I o - I 1 - I 2 = 0,
spheres or balls.
3.2. For a current to be in an electric circuit it but it is well-known cancelling by zero is pro-
must be closed and there must exist some hibited. In the algebra involved in a physical
force to set the current carriers, i.e. electrons problem we cannot therefore ignore mathematical
or other charged particles, in ordered motion. rules.
The most frequent cause is the presence of a 3.4. The accumulator battery is marked with
potential difference between two points in the the maximum current permissible under stan-
circuit 12 ) • dard operational conditions. By overloading it
The absence of any current in subcircuit AlB much higher currents can be obtained; however
suggests that the potentials of A and Bare overloading damages the cell plates and the
equal. The situation is not changed by connect- battery may be put out of operation. Convention-
ing the points to conductor A2B, as no current al lead cells are especially sensitive to overload-
will flow for the same reason. ing. The batteries in cars are specially designed
to allow, in starting the engine, to draw for a
12) Other forces can cause the charges to move. This
short time currents of some hundreds of amperes
will be considered in more detail in the solution of Prob- without damaging the electrode plates. Alkaline
lem 3.17. cells are less susceptible to overloading since
_______________l.... _
182 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms
as is the case here, then the galvanometer oper~ t ,= 35 Ohm X 0.0046° C-l = 2800 C,
ates ~s a vol~meter. To bring down its reading
a reSIstance IS to be connected in series. This i.e. the value very close to the true one.
is what student physicists would have had to do. The change in temperature can be judged from
3.6. Let the resistance of the external sub- the change in a conductor's resistance and this
circuit be R, the electromotive forces of the fact forms the basis for resistance thermometers,
cells be E 1 and E z , while their internal resis- Le. thermoresistors.
184 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms Solutions 185
Note that the electrical conductivity of semi- In our case the extra e.m.f. must be taken
conductors is especially temperature sensitive with the "plus" sign, since the right-hand cell
and th~ir resistance quickly drops with an in- sends current in the same direction as the left-
c~e.ase m te~perature. Therefore, the most sen- hand one. Thus we have
sItIve thermIstors, barretters, which can sense 2E
t~e heat from a lighted match a few kilometres CPA-qJB=JR-( +E) = 2R R-E=E-E =0.
dIst~nt are made of semiconductor materials.
ResIstance is more weakly dependent on tem- It should be remembered that formula (1)
perature in metals and even weaker in metal can be derived from Ohm's law for a complete
alloys. The resistance of constantan composed circuit (see Fig. 8.3.1):
of copper, nickel, and manganese does not prac- E
tically change with temperature and this is J=--,
R+r
essential when constructing very precise elec-
trical devices. where E is the e.mJ., R is the resistance of the
3.8. The potential difference across a subcir- external section, r is the internal resistance of
cuit is only equal to the product of the current the cell, and J the current flowing in the circuit.
~owing in the subcircuit and its resistance when E
It does not contain a current source. Otherwise 8 A
the potential difference must be calculated from r---_~I----...,
the formula
CPA -CPB = JR -E, (1)
~n. 'Yhich CPA and CPR are the potentials of the R
Illltlal and final points of the subcircuit res-
pect~vely, R is its resistance, J is the c~rrent
flowmg t~lro~gh it, and E the e.m.f. present in Fig. S.3.1
the subclrcmt. To use this formula correctly
~he. curre~t J must be taken to be positive when Let us rewrite the last equation as
It IS flowmg from A to B, and negative in the JR = E -Jr.
opposite case. In turn, the e.m.f. E must be
positive if it forces positive charges to move In this expression all the quantities and their
from A to B, and negative, if the opposite is products are positive. Therefore, on the basis
true. (In other words, the extra e.m.f. is positive of Ohm's law for the subcircuit BRA, the right-
if it "assists" the current to flow from A to point hand side of the equation has to be equated to
B, and vice versa.) ~ the potential difference cpB -CPA (and not
________________________.J
l _
186 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms Solutions 187
cP A - CPB), since the potential at B is higher tends to zero as the load resistance infinitely
than that at A. Thus, we have decreases.
It can be shown that the maximum power is
CPB -CPA = E -Ir, consumed by the external subcircuit when its
whence resistance is equal to that of current source. Let
us write the conventional expression for this
CPA -CPB = Ir -E, power
which is Ohm's law applied to the ArB subcircuit E2
containing the e.m.f. equal to E. Note that the p= (R+r)2 R,
subcircuit involving an e.m.f. used to be called where notations are as before.
irregular. Let us multiply both the numerator and denomi-
3.9. In.deed, the larger the resistance, the higher nator by 4r, then we get
the effIcIency of electric power utilization. It
reaches unity when the load resistance is infinite p = E 2 4Rr
but this, of course, is unrealizable in practice 4r (R+r)2
although it can be approached. '
By using the identity
However, making the load resistance too large
is impracticable. True, the voltage across the 4Rr = (R + r)2 - (R -r)2,
load increases, but it cannot exceed the current
source's e.m.f., while at the limit of infmite R and transforming the equation we get
the current decreases and tends to zero. Thus, E2 [ (R-r)2 ]
in the formula for the power, p=~ 1- (R+r)2 •
p = I.U
Whence it can be seen that P = 0 at R = 0
the first multiplier will tend to zero, while the and R = 00, while at R = r the power reaches
second does not exceed a certain limit (the a maximum (since both the numerator and
e.m.f.). It can thus be seen that the power con- denominator of the fraction in the brackets are
sumed by the external section from the source positive, and the fraction as a whole is minimum
tends to zero. at zero, when R = r).
The load resistance must not be too low either The proof is even simpler using a numerical
since in the above formula for power the first example.
multiplier. ca~not be higher than E/r (this is Suppose we have a current source with an
the short-cIrcUlt current, when the load resistance e.m.f. of 4 V and an internal resistance of 1 Ohm.
vanishes), while the voltage across the load TheIl for different load resistances we obtain
188 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms Solutions 189
the following values of the power consumed by that each satisfies the requirements given in the
the load: problem.
Given the two currents and the resistance of
Load resistance, Ohm Consumed power, W the series resistor we can find two voltages:
iiiiiiiiiliiiiiililiiiiiliiiiill.....lliiiiiiiiiiiiiliilllllllllllliiiiiliiiiil. . . . . .
l _
190 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _L _
192 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms Solutions 193
is doomed to failure, as all the previous ones be impossible!), recall that the Earth which is
were. a ball is a giant magnet.
When charging capacitor Cl the energy of the In conclusion let us note that the English
electric current is partly expended for heating physicist Paul Dirac (1902-1984) pointed out that
the conductors (Joule heating) and partly radiat- Maxwell's equations which are the basis of electro-
ed into surroundings as electromagnetic waves. dynamics, in principle, permit the existence of
We need only here that at Cl = C2 the energy isolated magnetic poles (i.e. particles having
"losses", independent of the resistance of con- one pole, either south or north). However, attempts
necting conductors, always amount to 50 %. over a long period of time to detect "Dirac mono-
If Cl ~ C2, there is practically no energy poles" have failed and most contemporary phys-
dissipation, while at Cl» C2 it reaches icists think there are none.
100%. 3.16. As the magnet and the piece of iron are
3.14. On the sides of the glass sheet facing brought together, the potential energy of the
the capacitor plates charges are accumulated permanent magnet-iron object system is decreased
due to dielectric polarization. These charges by the amount of the work performed against
have signs opposite to those of the charges on gravity. To restore the potential energy nee~s
the capacitor plates. When the glass sheet is the iron to be removed from the magnet. It 1S
removed the work has to be done against the clear that to do this requires as much work as
forces of Coulomb attraction between unlike was performed by the magnet in lifting the iron.
charges. This work increases the energy of the Thus, the magnet can be compared to a spring
capacitor. that lifts a weight: to do work the spring must
3.15. The system will not possess magnetic first be stretched, thus spending energy.
properties, since its complete symmetry implies 3.17. This sophism is related to the one in
that each point in the reassembled ball and the Problem 3.8. As before, the absurd conclusion is
space around it will be passed through by equal due to the incorrect application of Ohm's law.
numbers of magnetic lines of force of opposite The potential difference across a subcircuit is
sense. To put it another way, the "magnet" will only equal to the product of the resistance of the
instantaneously demagnetize itself. This does subcircuit and the current flowing through it
not mean that a ball-shaped magnet is impos- when the subcircuit has no e.m.f. source. Such
sible, only that unlike poles, even though in subcircuits are called uniform.
unequal numbers, must be found on its surface. In this case each section of the ring is non-
For example, a ball can be magnetized so that uniform, since the induced e.m.f. is uniformly
there will be two north poles and one south pole distributed around the perimeter of the ring.
on its surface. While discussing the subject of According to Ohm's law for a Sllbrircuit
magnetizing a ball (some people assume it to involving an e.m.f. (a nonuniform section) we
13-0121G
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _L _
194 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms Solutions 195
Simultaneously the secondary coil current and to the currents passing in both coils, i.e: to. t~e
the "secondary" magnetic flux increase. The square of the current si~ce in both cOlIs It IS
resultant magnetic flux changes within these the same. In this case If the current changes
limits and, as a result, the AC e.m.f. induced in quickly the pointer moves in proportion to the
the secondary coil does not change. mean square of the measured current.
3.19. ~he ~bsolute value of the voltage across Therefore if both ammeters read the same value
any subcIrcUlt of an AC circuit varies 100 times in a DC ci~cuit, then their readings. will ~iffer
per second from zero to a maximum called the in an AC circuit. It can be proved USIng hIgher
peak voltage. A moving-iron voltmeter Con- mathematics that these readings will differ by
nected in parallel to this section will read an
intermediate value which is called the root-
n/2. d
In fact, the mean value of a pulse current
m~n-square (r.m.s.) or effective voltage and is can be calculated as
V 2 = 1.41 times lower than the peak value.
If the moving-iron voltmeter reads 50 V then T/2
~t some instant of time the voltage is 50 X 1.41 V, ~ 1 0 sin rot dt
o 21 0 21 0 _ 10
i.e. about 70 V, when the DC lamp flashes. There- (I) = .-::----=T,---- =co -ro-T = -2-n - -n- ,
fore, the experiments do not involve any contra-
diction.
where lois the peak value of the pulse~ curre~t,
This simple and easy experiment is a useful (J) is the angular (cyclic) frequency of .IndustrIal
school demonstration as it assists students to AC, and T is the oscillation period. ThIs .expre~
understand the relationship between the root- sion shows that the readings of a movIng-colI
mean-square and peak voltage in an AC circuit. ammeter in an AC circuit with a peak AC ~alue
3.20. To answer the question we must know of I amperes will be n times smaller than If the
how the ammeters of each system are designed. am~eter were connected to a DC circuit with
I.n moving-coil dev~ces a frame coil through a current of 1 0 amperes passing through it.
whIch the current beIng measured is passed is Analogously, the mean square o.f a pulsed
placed. between the poles of a permanent magnet. current with the same peak value IS
The dl~placement of the frame coil is directly
proportIOnal to the current. If the latter rapidly T/2
changes, the pointer will indicate the average r Iij sin 2 rot dt 12 T
J 04' Iij
value of the current flowing through the device. (12)= 0 T =-T-=T'
In electrodynamic devices the current being
measured passes through an immobile coil arid In both cases the upper integration limit is
then through a moving coil placed inside the T /2 since the current only passes through an
first one. Thus, the pointer moves proportionally am~eter for half a period.
I
I6
198 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms Solutions 199
This expression shows that the pointeI' of the Jf one is interested in the thermal effect of
~lectrodynamic device will indicate a value which a pulsed current, the circuit should incorporate
IS smaller by a factor of an electrodynamic ammeter, since both its read-
ings and the amount of the heat released by a
current passing through a wire depend on the
mean square current (the J oule-Lenz law
involves the square of the current).
than the indicated value the ammeter would have 3.21. As a component, the loop B f A1CA2B t
if it were connected to a DC circuit with a current is part of complicated circuit, in which the
of /0 amperes passing through it. However, cathode filament C is heated by current It and
because the ammeter scale is quadratic (i.e. the an anode current I a passes from battery B a • We
pointer deflection is proportional to the square can see that the fraction of I a passes through
of ~he current). the reading is only a factor of ammeter Al in the same direction as I r , while
11 4 = 2 smaller than it would be in a DC circuit. in ammeter A2 the anode current opposes I r•
Thus, the readings of a moving-coil and an If both ammeters pass the same fractions of
electrodynamic ammeters which detect the same the anode current. then
current intensity in a DC circuit will differ II = If +
0.5I a and 1 2 = If -0.5/ a ,
whence it can be seen that II =1= /2'
~ = 1.57 times. 3.22. The cathode filament's temperature is
controlled both by the heat released by the current
But which ammeter reading is true which flowing through it and by the way it is cooled.
a~meter is trustworthy? Obviously the' answer While the switch is off, the filament is sur-
wIll depend on the application of the ammeter rounded by a space charge cloud and the number
and the circuit it is connected to. of electrons emitted from the metal to vacuum
For example, if it is necessary to control the is equal to the number of electrons returning
c~rrent passing through an electroplating bath,
from vacuum to the filament. When the switch
wIth the unsmoothed current from a rectifier, is on, all the electrons (only a fraction at a low
anode voltage) are "sucked out" from the filament
the~ th~ ammeter should be a moving-coil
dev~ce, Slllce the mass of the substance deposited
by the "cathode-anode" field. There remains only
durlllg the electrolysis, like the reading of the a unidirectional flux of electrons from the metal
ammeter, depends on the mean value of the to the vacuum and the loss of heat by the filament
current passing through the bath (since it is the via the heat capacity of its terminals and via
first power of the current intensity in Faraday's radiation is added by the loss of the energy
laws). carried away by fast electrons and partly expended
200 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms r Solutions 201
in their detachment from metal. It is this The small change in the resistance has almost
effect, which leads to the temperature drop no effect on the impedance. Therefore the current
after closing the switch. consumed by the mains and the magnetic field
3.23. Three coils in parallel wound onto a inside the coils do not substantially change
single coil can be considered to be a coil wound either.
by a wire with a cross section three times thicker The extra coils are useful because only a third
than a single coil. When plugged into DC mains, of the current flows through each coil, thns di-
this system will pass three times the current, minishing the heating of each coil.
since the resistance of the coils in parallel will 3.24. The fuse blew in the group fuse box in
be a third of a single coil. Hence in the case of phase 3 to our apartment.
a DC source the magnetic field would be trebled, Then why did the control lamp light?
but not if connected to an AC source. The answer is that when the power was cut.
The impedance of a coil plugged into an AC thB switches and all the lamps inside the apart-
mains is much higher than its resistance in a ment were left on (so that this error would not
DC circuit. For example. the DC resistance of be striking, the switches in Fig. 1.31 are shown
a coil in a knock-down school transformer is about in the "off" position). Therefore, a control lamp
3.3 Ohm, but when plugged into the 50 Hz AC connected between A and B received a voltage
mains the current passing through it corresponds from phase 2 and the neutral Wire, with which
to a resistance of 20 Ohm. the lamp was connected via the apartment wiring.'
The AC impedance of a coil (the sum of its A more attentive and experienced observer
resistance and reactance) depends both on the would, of course, have noticed that using the
resistance calculated by checking technique and a blown fuse in phase 3,
I when the control lamp is connected between A
R=ps and B or A and C, it will light dimly since the
lamps in parallel inside apartment No. 19 will
and on the number of turns in the coil, its size, provide some resistance. Had the fuse been whole
and the AC frequency. If the number of turns the lamps would have been too bright since then
in the coil is large, then even for low resistances the control lamp would receive a voltage 1.73
(the coil is made using very thick copper wire) times larger than the standard one, i.e. 380 V
its impedance can be quite high. instead of 220 V.
By connecting two more coils in parallel, the 3.25. In big buildings the AC power is sup-
technical assistant had in fact slightly reduced plied using the four-wire system. Therefore we
the resistance, while the system's inductance can assume that the power was supplied to lecture-
did not practically change, since the number of halls Nos. 1 and 2 as shown in Fig. 8.3.2.
turns and the coil shape have been left as before. The circuit shows that, if fuse A in the "neutral
r,
202 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms Solutions 203
Ph 1 8 ,---,I
LH NO.1 This phenomenon is well known to electronics
enthusiasts who are aware of the fact that the
voltage is raised by the introduction of a filter.
IL 1 L2, consisting of a choke and a capacitor into a
0 A I I rectifIer.
___J The sophism could have been formulated as
Fig. S.3.2 an experimental problem. It is essential therefore
to take a capacitor with a high capacitance
(some f.1E) and a voltmeter with a high resistance.
It is also understandable why the heater did If the resistance and capacitance are low, the
not heat up fully, while lamps were heated system will have, as the professionals say, a
above normal. For example, if the voltage be- small time constant, i.e. the capacitor will
tween the "neutral wire" and one phase is 127 V, discharge quickly through the voltmeter result-
then the voltage between phases PhI and Ph 2 ing in a potential difference lower than 175 V
will be 1/"3 times higher, i.e. 220 V. According across them. In very unfavourable cases the volt-
to Ohm's law, this voltage is distributed between meter reading may even be less than the effective
the first and second lecture-halls in proportion voltage in the mains, i.e.
to the resistances of the devices switched on
inside. The heater has a comparatively low
resistance, while the seemingly low-power lamps.
.!!..E- = Eeff YZ = 125 V x V'z "" 88 V
2 2 2 "" ,
204 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms Solutions 205
where Eo is the peak voltage value in the AC current are out of phase after passing. throu.gh
mains (d. the solution to Problem 3.20). the windings of the motor. The phase shIft cosme
3.27. Notwithstanding the naivety of the for the normal operation is
sophism, we believe it is useful so as to stress
the need to perform the same operations on unit p \)00 W 082
dimensions, as on the numbers to which they k = IU = 220 V X 5A = . .
relate. The value of cos cp corresponding to optimal
3.28. The current and voltage in a device operation is indicated in the motor's specifi-
plugged into an AC mains can be varied so that
cation.
their maxima and minima will be reached simul- 3.29. First note that the design does not con-
taneously. We then say that the current and tradict the law of the conservation of ~nergy,
voltage are in phase. This occurs if the device since the capacitor would be charged usmg the
only possesses resistance. The power consumed thermal energy of the electrons. Howeve~, t~e
by the device can be calculated from the formula device shown in Fig. 1.33 would contradlct,. If
P = lU, (1) operated, the second law of thermodyna~lcs
(d. Problem 2.25), since the ~~ocess req~1lfe~
where 1 and U are the effective current and the spontaneous initiation of ~ondensatlOn~
voltage, respectively. and "rarefactions" of the electrolllc cloud. T~ls
Examples of devices with resistance only are is as impossible as the spontaneous separatlOn
incandescent lamps and electric heaters. of electrons or molecules into fast and slow ones
However, if a coil or capacitor are plugged (the latter corresponding to. the spontanpolls
into an AC mains, the maxima and minima of initiation of a temperature dIfference).
the current and voltage will occur at different Nevertheless, the second law of thermody-
times. In this case the current and voltage are Ila~ics, as opposite to the first .law, is not absolute
said to be out of phase and the formula for the in that it does not fully forblds the spontaneo.us
power has a third multiplier k called the power separation of molecules int.o fast and s~ow specIes
factor: or the initiation of denSIty fluctuatlOns (local
P = kIU. (2) condensations and rarefactions). It only states
that the events have low probabilities and that
The power factor k is represented as cos cp, where this is lower the larger the fluctuation d~sired.
cp is the phase shift angle between the current Due to the random nature of the motlOn .of
and voltage. electrons, a potential difference may really al'lse
The windings of an electric motor have both I across the ends of a conductor. However, as ~as
resistance and reactance (which together make I been noted, the appearance of a substantlal
up its impedance). As a result the voltage and voltage has a low probability, while at low
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.6i _
206 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms Solutions 207
voltages the capacitor will be discharged through effect may only occur in a scientific fiction noveL
the detector, since at low voltages the current- since it contradicts the second law of thermo-
voltage characteristics of all detectors are linear dynamics.
(d. Fig. S.3.3) and there is no rectifIcation effect. To be more exact, Ariel's flying not only
violates the second law of thermodynamics, it
also defies the law governing the motion of the
system's centre of mass. In fact, internal forces
cannot change both the value and direction of
a centre of mass's velocity, since in the Earth's
gravitational fwld ~t can on,ly move (with~ut
intervention from WIthout) WIth an acceleratIOn
g directed downward. ...
3.30. The discharge of a Leyden Jar IS oscIl-
latory since the helix wound ar~und the .spo~e
and the jar together form an OSCIllatory circUl!.
Fig. 8.3. Since the wire is resistive and the energy IS
released into the environment as electromagnet-
The nonlinearity of rectification explains why ic waves the oscillations gradually damp. The
it only occurs at rather high voltages, the prob- spoke m'aintains the magne~ic ~wld ~irection
ability that it will initiate due to density corresponding to the last oscIllatIOn SWlllg that
fluctuations in electron distribution is practi- was strong enough to break down the spark gap
cally nil.
through which the Leyden jar was discharged.
The proposed method of charging is as impos-
sible as a situation (in principle possible) in
which the chaotic motion of the air molecules Ch. 4. Optics and Atomic Structure
in a sealed can can lift it above the Earth's sur- 4.1. However tempting Flammarion's technique
face. It has been calculated that can will jump for looking in the past of our planet, we have
spontaneously due to fluctuations in the motion to accept that it will never be implemented. T.he
of molecules about once every billion billion special theory of relativity states that no materIal
years.
body can move relative to another o.ne faster
Ariel, the hero in the scientific fiction novel than the velocity of light in a vacuum, l.e. about
hy A.R. Belyaev, could govern the way the
300,000 km/s.
molecules in his body moved by transforming the Moreover, even this velocity is beyond reach
motion from chaotic to directed. This permitted for bodies with nonzero rest masses (e.g. electrons,
him to fly in any direction. Unfortunately, the protons, neutrons, atoms, molecules, as well
iiiiiiiiiiiiliiliiiiiiiiillllliiiiiiiii....
l _
208 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms Solutions 209
as pieces of metals, stones, etc). It turns out ine" particles, they should really be called quasi-
that as its velocity increases the mass of an particles.
accelerated body increases, i.e. 4.2. Heat is mainly transferred from an incan-
descent metal to a man by radiation. Most of the
m = _~;:-==m=o==" radiated energy from a heated metal's surface
2 ' is in the infrared rays which, like electromagnetic
V 1-(+)
r
_______________.l _
210 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms
r Solutions 211
The vector of the velocity of light c can be In three dimensions the vector c is decomposed
decomposed into two components
. v1 1 and v 2 into three components VI' v 2 , and v 3 , which are
norma 1 and tangential, respectively to the first normal to the first, second, and third mirrors,
mirror's surface. When reflected by the first respectively. Then when reflected from each
mirror the V 2 component does not change, while mirror only one component reverses its direction
the normal component changes in sign to V'I' at a time, so after the third reflection all the three
components change their sign and the velocity
vector is rotated to face the opposi te direction.
Triangular prisms made by cutting a glass
cube in half with a plane passing through the
ends of three edges originating from a single
vertex have similar properties. Here the role of
mirrors is played by the side faces.
Both devices are called corner reflectors. French
corner reflectors were installed on Soviet moon
rovers. The time it took light from an Earth-
based laser to travel to the reflector and back
was used to measure the distance between the
Earth and the Moon with very great accuracy.
Corner reflectors find some more mundane
applications. For example, the triangular road
signs with red glass placed near corners are
made by die-stamping triangular pyramidal
projections on the backs of the signs to form
Fig. S.4.2 arrays of corner reflectors. When a passing car's
Since the mirrors are mutually at right angles, headlights illuminate the sign in the dark, the
the V 2 component which is tangential to the reflectors flash attracting the driver's attention
first mirror, is normal to the second one and and warning him. Cyclists must be interested to
therefore when reflected by the second mirror it know that the rear reflector in the metal casing
too changes in sign. By contrast, v' retains on rear wheel splash guard is a corner reflector
its direction. Thus, after two reflecdons both system.
components of the vector C I had changed in sign, To sum up, note that a corner reflector can be
therefore the vector cI is rotated by 180 0 while made of three flat mirrors. Experimenting with
being shifted somewhat in the direction per- them affords much pleasure, it is of interest to
pendicular to itself. observe that, independent of our position, we
h z
212 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms Solutions 213
always see our reflected image (but only "upside 4.7. If a lens is placed in a medium whose re-
down"). fraction index exceeds that of the material
4.5. WB assumed that rain drops are spherical making up the lens, then roles of the lens and
in shape. In fact, if only molecular forces were
involved droplet might be spherical. In this
c
-------
case the energy of surface tension is at a minimum
(see the solution of Problem 2.15): among all --.,..------~=--=':::::::.....------;
A
the bodies of the same volume a ball possesses A'
the least possible volume. Therefore, a droplet ---
--------l"~-----
in a vacuum would be spherical. However, air
drag distorts the sphericity and the droplet
becomes stream-lined like a pear. The reflection
conditions in the different points of the droplets -----..----:=--~:::::- - - - -- - 8'
cease to be identical. There may occur total
reflection at one point and emission of rays at - - - ------="'--='0::::::::---;
another. M
6
214 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms Solutions 215
light is refracted towards the principal optical By combining the three latter relations we
axis, parallel to which it was propagating. have
4.8. The negatives of both photographs will be
equal in density if the exposure is left unchanged. (5)
The exposure is the quantity characterizing the
amount of light energy a photosensitive material However, the areas of the object, 8 2 , and of
receives during photography. The exposure is its image, 8 1 , are related thus
denoted by H and expressed via the product
(6)
H ~ Et, (1)
where E is the illumination intensity on the where a1 is the distance from the objective lens
film, and t is the exposure time. to the photographic film (see Fig. S.4.5b).
The illumination intensity of an image is
directly proportional to the light flux <D passing
through the objective lens from the object and
inversely proportional to the image's area 8 1 :
(2)
a b
If the object (for example, a button on some-
one's jacket) reflects light uniformly in all direc- Fig. S.4.5
tions, then the light flux passing through the
objective lens is directly proportional to the By substituting the value of a~ from (6) into
solid angle subtended by the object at which (5) we arrive at
the objective lens is seen:
(7)
<D """' e. (3)
Since 8 0 and 8 2 are both constant,
By assuming the area of objective lens is 8 0 , 1 (8)
and the object to be a distance a 2 from the camera E"'2".
a j
_________________L
I _
216 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms Solutions 217
However it follows from the lens formula, that changes in the movie camera the wheel will
the farther the object (i.e. the greater az), the rotate through a substan,tial~y larger ~ngle.
shorter the distance al must be from the camera's The spokes will move to ApB 2 as shown III the
objective lens to the film. figure (bottom, right). Since the ends of both
Hence, the farther an object is the smaller the
exposure must be and vice versa.
mc15
This is only true of a studio camera which has
a large focal distance. For small cameras the
situation is different. As a rule, the distance
from the camera to the objects is many times
longer, than its focal distances. Therefore in 82 8
81 I
all cases al practically coincides with the focal
length (generally, 50 mm) and, hence, by relation
(9), t turns out to be constant.
4.9. If the front (facing the object) surface of
the cornea is flat, the focal length of the eye
is the same in both air and water. As a result
rays coming from distant objects (i.e. parallel
rays) are not refracted by the cornea. Thus, eye
can see distant objects equally well in air and
water.
4.10. In each period of time each frame has
Cl! 81
Fig. 8.4.6
81 2
the image of separate phases in the motion of .spokes are identical, the eye mistakenly ,per-
the body. The human eye is such that if one ceives the rotation through angle A lOA 2 to
frame is quickly changed to another the sepa- have been through angle AIOB~. As a .result, ~he
rate motion phases merge to produce an impres- wheel rotation seems to be moving antldockwlse.
sion of a continuous motion. It can be seen that the paradox arises at
The frames in a motion picture change 24 frequencies such that during a frame change the
times a second. Suppose in a 1I24th of a second spokes rotate through angles larger than half
a carriage wheel, which is shown for convenience the angle between adjacent spokes. Therefore
in Fig. S.4.6 as having only two spokes, OA I for a constant shooting frequency and constant
and OBI' rotates so that the spokes move from carriage velocity wheels with di~ere~t numb~rs
AIOB l to A 20B 2 • The eye will perceive the wheel of spokes will seem to .be rotatIllg l~ oppos~te
to have rotated clockwise through an angle a. directions as can sometImes be seen III the cm-
If the vehicle moves faster between frame ema. Occ~sionally the rear wheels of a carriage
15-01216
218 Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms
Solutions 219
have more spokes than the front wheels and 4.14. Ways of constructing devices that gener-
appear to rotate in the opposite direction. ate energy beams have been thought up by.many
4.11. After passing through the eye's crystal- inventors, but none succeeded. This is not simp~y
line lens a parallel beam of rays leaving a tele- bad luck. The construction of the h~~erbol~id
scope eye-piece converges to form the object's (A. N. Tolstoy should have calle.d G~rill s device
image on the eye's retina.
a paraboloid since the descri ptIO~ ill ~he nov~l
4.12. The argument was correct at all points 'nvolved parabolic not hyperbolic mirrors) is
except for the final conclusion. Telescopes, in
fact, do not enlarge the image of stars, never-
~locked by a number of serious obstacles.
First it is difficult to find an adequate refracto-
theless they do assist astronomical observations. ry material to manufacture the mirrors be~ause
Progress in astronomy accelerated after 1609, a mirror reflecting a powerful beam must itself
when Galileo pointed a telescope at the sky.
be heated up to a high temperature.
The reason for using a telescope to observe stars Second, it is not clear what fuel is used to feed
is not to get an enlarged image, but to increase the hyperboloid, it must hold a col.ossal amount
the light flux incident on the observer's eye of energy in a small volume, otherWise the hyper-
from the object under observation. A tele- boloid would be a harmless toy. Yet the grav~st
scope increases the light flux retina by as much
disadvantage is the difficu.lty of generatl~g
as the area of the telescope's collecting lens is narrow beams of light that Will travel long dis~
larger than the pupil.
tances. This difficulty is due to the wave nature
A giant telescope was recently commissioned of light: the narrower th~ light ~eam, the m~re
in the Soviet Union with a diameter of 6 m. pronounced the diffractIOn which smears it.
The ratio of the areas of its mirror to an open The phenomenon of diffraction prevents the
pupil is about
generation of narrow beams of ligh~ usin~ any
~
Sp
= (~)2
dp
= ( 600 em
1 em
)2 =360000.
'
technique dreamt of by Garin, l.e. mlrr?rs,
diaphragms, lenses or any other geometrical
Thus, the light flux on an observer's eye is optical device. .
Whilst this argument is valid for. the de~ice
360,000 times as much collected by the naked based on the principles of geome~rical. optics.
eye. Therefore a telescope makes objects which However two Soviet scientists Nikolai Basov
are not observable with a naked eye available (b. 1922) and Aleksandr. ~rokhorov (b. 1916)
to observation.
and the American physicist Charles :rown~s
4.13. At very small diameters of the objective (b. 1915) independently in,:ented devices ill
the light is diffracted due to its wave nature. which pre-excited atoms radiate stored energy
This phenomenon results in diffused image bound- practically at once (this is the so-called coherent
aries, thus deteriorating its quality.
radiation). As a result, a very narrow, almost
15*
220 221
Physical Paradoxes and Sophisms Solutions
nondiverging beam of light is produced. The . AN and BM are norma I t o the sides
S m c e . I th n
radiation energy density within the beam is so AO and BO, respective y, e _ 900
high that the beam can easily punch through LBAO = 90° -~l and LMBO - .
wood a few centimeters thick several meters
away from the generator. Now these lasers or The angle at the vertex of the cone AOB = a.
quantum generators have been used to determine Therefore we have
geographic and astronomic distances with breath- ~ -~l -a. h d
taking precision (cf. Problem 4.4), drill holes 2 -
Analogously, we can s
h
reflection the angle ~3 WI
1r that after the t ir
be
Po --
1"3 Po - a = ~l -2a.
1"2
Note that sometimes charged particles behave involve plasma heated to millions of degrees
in magnetic fields like the rays of light trapped Centigrade and isolated from the walls of the
in a mirror cone. containing vessel by magnetic bottles, magnetic
Figure 8.4.8 illustrates a simplified operation
of the so-called "magnetic bottle". The magnetic
field lines approach each other in a cone-shaped
Fig. S.4.9
istic of them. Therefore a beam of light passing 4.19. Consider a collecting lens with a source
through a smoke cloud is dominated by red hues. of light positioned at point A on i~s principal
By contrast, when observing a smoke cloud optical axis (Fig. S.4.10a). On passmg through
from the side of the source or on the side we the lens, the velocity of the light quanta and,
mainly see the short-wave rays and the smoke
seems bluish.
The dependence of the absorption of light
rays on their colour is always taken into account
in practice: accident and hazard-warning lights
have red filters (red traffic lights) and to ensure
black-out (for example, during a war) room illu- 8
mination is done by blue lamps. R
As to the true colour of smoke, this must be the
colour of the microscopic unburnt particles of
carbon which make up the smoke, Le. black.
4.18. As was mentioned in Problem 4.16, the
wavelength corresponding to red is about
0.65 11m. Green has a wavelength of 0.55 11m. d
Thus, the wavelength shift due to the Doppler
effect would be
b
0.55 !tm _ 0 85
0.65!tm - . . Fig. S.4.10
This means that the frequency of electro- consequently, the magnitude of the momentum
magnetic oscillations falling on the driver's vector of the quanta remain the same as before;
eye must have increased 1/0.85 = 1.18 times, only the direction of the momentum vector
Le. by about 20%. Such an increase in frequency changes. If the source of light is at a distance
is only possible at the velocities of about 20% o < d < 2F from the lens then the projection
that of the velocity of light, which of course is of the photon momentum vector onto the optic~l
beyond the reach of any driver. The minimum axis before the light passes through the lens IS
velocity at which the Doppler effect starts to be smaller than that after (this can be easily proved
detectable using very sensitive optical devices using triangles and taking into account that
is 500 mis, this too being far beyond the range d < f). Since the momentum component along
of a normal car. the optical axis has been increased, the lens
b
226 Solutions 227
Fig. 5.4.11
progenitors of the first three families can be found the Earth at a velocity v arrives at an agglomer-
in nature. Their half-lives are ate of interstellar gas carrying a magnetic field
uranium 4 .5X 10 9 years,
thorium 1.4 X 1010 years, v
actinium 7.1 X 10 8 years. ---- ----
However the members of their families can
only be detected in nature due to the con-
tinuous production in the process of radioactive
decay of other elements.
At the moment of the Earth's birth only a
minor amount of neptunium would have been v + 2u
I(
present (though even this is very doubtful from
the viewpoint of nuclear physics), but its half- Fig. S.4.12
life is "only" 2.2 X 106 years and this is too
short for neptunium to have lasted until now. and moving with a velocity u towards the Earth,
4.24. Let us consider a gas contained in a then after being "reflected" by the magnetic
piston-plugged cylinder. As long as the piston field (Fig. 8.4.12) the proton will return to the
is at rest, the average velocity of the gas mole- Earth with a velocity v + 2u. True, the proton
cules v remains constant (if, of course, there is can be trapped by a magnetic field whose velocity
no heat supplied to the gas), since the collisions vector is oriented outward of the Earth and can
between molecules and cylinder walls as well be slowed down, but an exact calculation dem-
as the piston are elastic and the velocity after onstrates that the moving particles meet, per
a collision remains unchanged. unit time, more accelerating than decelerating
However, if the piston is pushed into the fields, so the net effect is acceleration.
cylinder at a certain constant velocity u, then 4.25. Nuclear reactions, like chemical ones,
the molecules striking the piston get a velocity are classed into those that release energy, exo-
v + U relative to it. These molecules are reflected thermic reactions, and those that absorb energy,
with the same velocity relative to the piston. endothermic reactions. The first reaction in the
However, since the piston moves with a velocity problem is exothermic and proceeds spontaneous-
U relative to the cylinder, then after the reflection ly. The second reaction is endothermic and for
the velocity of the molecules relative to the a proton to transform to a neutron, positron,
cylinder is u + (u + v) = v + 2u. i.e. it is and neutrino requires a huge, on a microworld
increased by 2u. scale, amount of energy.
Charged particles are accelerated in space in According to the modern concepts resulting
the same manner. If a proton flying away from from the theory of relativity, an increase in the
I,
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------,,
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SCIENCE
FOREVERYONE
A colledlo" of paradO:UlI and ..,philuall, I.e. 'alae·
but deceplhe lU'llumenb, verylD.g La theme and
difficult,.. tb18 book covers all lbe "bl'l.lleb.. and
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optl......... d atomlo ~ture. All lbe propollitlom
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