Carbohydrate:

 Hydrates of carbon
 For each carbon, one H2O; so if 6 carbons = 12 hydrogens
 Carbs are classified according to number of units
 Simple: 1 or 2 units of C + H2O
 Complex: usually >20 units, oligosaccharides is 3-20

 Sources: plants (grains, legumes, fruit, vegetable, milk, glycogen in muscles

(stored form of glucose in muscle or liver) but not in foods we eat

Hexoses: 6 carbon monosaccharide

 Glucose:
o Major sugar, circulates in blood, dextrose in labels
 Fructose: sweet, in fruits
 Galactose: milk

Disaccharides:
 Sucrose: table sugar: FRUCTOSE + GLUCOSE alpha bond
 Lactose: in milk -GALACTOSE + GLUCOSE beta bond
 Maltose: beer, malted milk, milkshakes - GLUCOSE + GLUCOSE
Oligosaccharides: between simple and complex carbohydrates; because of their
bond we don’t digest them well but the bacteria in our gut does (gas, bloating)
 Foods: beans, legumes, asparagus, Jerusalem artichokes, hickory root, halo
top
Polysaccharides:
 Complex carbs; can have alpha and beta bonds; all glucose; we can digest
alpha but not beta
 Starch: thickening ability
 Cellulose: modify texture
 Gums and pectins: thickening

 Polysaccharide examples:
o DEXTRIN: “in between” when starches are broken down – starch to
dextrin to dextrose (glucose)
 Formed when you brown flour, toast bread
 Not sweet, length varies

o STARCHES:
 Starches are big molecules of glucose. There are two:
 Amylose: smaller, straight chaiN is a little bit soluble
 Amlyopectin: bigger, branched, not soluble
-Branched: amylopectin, unbranched: amylose

• GLYCOGEN:
• Glucose stored in muscles and liver
• It is converted to lactic acid in slaughter – so in foods only trace
amounts that contribute to mallard reaction but not taste
 •

• CELULLOSE: fiber

•
• To help identify the structure: glucoses together with beta bond
• Humans can’t digest it, (1,4 Beta)
• Found in plants
• Added to foods such as cheese to prevent spoilage / mold

• GUMS: fiber
• Used as stabilizers, fat replacers, gluten-free foods

 PECTIN: the bond between them is not glucosidic; pectic substances can
form gels, therefore added to yogurt,
To explore / think:
 What is the difference between starch and fiber?
 For starch, describe the structural differences between amylose and
amylopectin
 Describe the difference between starch and glycogen from a food
perspective
Recording 3/26 1’40’’

BAKING PRINCIPLES
Leavening agents
Leavening: what you use to make something rise, lift
 Ways to make it happen: physical, chemical, biological
 Too much  course texture – small and big holes, flat, sour
 Too little  uneven, sour, flat

 Physical:
o Air: trapped within mixture when ingredients are blended
 Ex.: egg whites, egg foams – increase air – leavening agent
o Steam: heated air + water in form of gas – gases expand when they
are heated – steam, moisture
 Ex.: popovers, crepes, piecrusts

 Biological:
o When you use some kind of a microorganism to make CO2
o Yeast is most common
 Yeast + little sugar + warmth +water +time => CO2 + ethyl
alcohol (C2(OH)2)
 Observation: bread sticks, pizza, no sugar but not as puffy
 Chemical: using chemical agents that will produce CO2
o ACID + BASE => CO2
o Baking soda: has the base: sodium bicarbonate (alkaline) needs acid
 Ex.: when cooking pancakes or other batter, you can use
buttermilk, sour cream, brown sugar, cocoa, molasses
 Baking powder: has base (sodium bicarbonate) and the acid
(cream of tartar); moisture in air can react if not covered.

Flour

 Husk: husk /chaff, protection – not found in flours, no nutrients – just fiber,
found in fiber supplements
 Bran: B-vitamins, minerals, FIBER – Whole grain fibers
  Germ: contains PUFAs – so a little more fat than refined grains; therefore
can go rancid (spoil), vitamin E, a little fiber, some proteins – Whole grains
 Endosperm: CHO, protein, main part, 83%, basis for all flours, REFINED AND
WHOLE GRAINS

Grains
 Calories: 80-90 kcal per ½ cup cooked / 1 oz dry
 CHO:
o 15 g per ½ cup
o Fiber: refined: < 1 g per serving; whole: 3+ g
o Recommendation: half of grains should be whole
 Protein: 3g per serving
 Lipids: low in fat, mainly PUFA, no cholesterol
 Vitamins and minerals:
o Whole (natural) vs. refined (enriched)
o When you mill you lose vitamins and minerals; there is a law in the
U.S. to prevent deficiency, enrichment gets what was taken out and
puts it back in
o REPLACES IN ENRICHMENT: Thiamin, Riboflavin, niacin, folate, iron
but not vitamin E

Wheat Flours:
 There are different kinds of wheat flour and different percentage of protein
content
 WHITE: endosperm only: Sequence from most protein to least:
 HARD WHOLE WHEAT > GLUTEN > DURUM > BREAD > ALL-
PURPOSE > PASTRY > CAKE
 Whole wheat: bran cuts gluten strands

 Additives:
 Benzol peroxide used to bleach flours, doesn’t affect quality
  Preservatives
HEALTH BENEFITS OF WHOLE GRAINS:
 Components: fibers, vitamins, minerals, phytochemicals
 Lowers risk of CVD, cancer, diabetes, total risk of death
 Recommendation: half of all servings – 3 servings a day – benefits seen with
just one serving

Gluten Formation
 Gliadin + glutenin
 Formed when flour is manipulated in the presence of water /
aqueous liquid PROTEIN PARTS + H2O + MANIPULATION
 Hard wheat bind more than soft wheat flours because they have
higher protein content
STEPS:
1. Hydration
 Water draws glutenin and gliadin from crushed endosperm, start to
form gluten
 Higher protein = more water absorbed
2. Kneading
 Compresses and stretches  ↑ gluten strength
 Distributes yeast
 Redistributes air bubbles
 Warms dough
3. Gluten net forms
Notes:
 Higher temp of dough; faster hydration of proteins; faster gluten formation
 Sugar and fat retard gluten development
GRAIN TYPES:
Gluten:
Wheat - Barley – Rye – Triticale
Gluten free:
Rice – Corn - Millet - Oats – gluten free but often contaminated – Millet –
Sorghum – Quinoa – Buckwheat
Celiac Disease: immune reaction to gluten, it damages the small intestine
QUICK BREADS
Quick breads:
o INGREDIENTS: fat, flour, liquid, leavening agent, salt, and
occasionally sugar and eggs
o Leavening during baking (air, steam, CO2)
o Make immediately, quickly, after mixing
o Preparation: don’t want gluten development, mix just until moist
o Readiness: toothpick test


Muffin Method:
o Dry ingredients mixed separately from moist ingredients
o Make a well in dry ingredients
o Stir together just until moist – avoids over mixing - minimal
gluten formation
 Biscuit Method:
o Cut solid fat into the dry ingredients
o Low gluten formation
o Flaky layers from solid fat
 Conventional:
o Sift dry ingredients
o Cream fat and sugar together
o Beat eggs into sugar and fat
o Alternate dry and liquid ingredients
BATTERS:
Pour Batters
 Flour to liquid ratio: 1 : 2/3 – 1 cup
 Example: Pancakes, made using muffin method, leavening: baking
powder

Pour Batters
 Flour to liquid ratio: 1 : ½ - ¾ cup
 Example: Muffins (1: ½ flour:liquid), leavening agent: baking powder

DOUGHS (not yeast breads, briefly kneaded):

SOFT DOUGHS
 Flour to liquid ratio: 1 : 1/3 cup
 Examples: scones, biscuits (short kneading), leavening agent: baking
powder
FIRM DOUGHS
 Flour to liquid ratio: 1 : 1/8 cup
 Examples: tortillas, leavening agent: steam

YEAST BREADS
Yeast Breads:
 Ingredients: Flour, liquid, salt, leavening, small amount of sugar,
occasionally fat, eggs)
 Additives: in commercial breads to prevent spoilage, etc.

METHODS:
  Straight Dough Method:
o MIX AND KNEAD
o Can do water/sugar/yeast
o Used for most standard breads
o Result is uniform crumb; strong gluten

 Batter Method:
o No kneading required; ingredients mixed until sticky
o Some gluten, irregular crumb, delicate texture
o Ex.: rolls, buns, artisan bread

STEPS for yeast dough formation:

 Mixing and Kneading – develops gluten, smooth, fast nonstick surface
 Fermentation: yeas makes CO2 leavening happens during fermentation
o Optimal conditions: covered, warm, moist, time (until its 2x as big)
o Changes in dough:
o CO2 and water = carbonic acid = acidic dough
o Too long: collapsed dough, coarse grain, sour odor

 Dough Preparation: punching down and shaping

 Proofing:
o Final rise in pan
o Properly aerates ~30 min yeast makes CO2
o Important step for making a light and airy product
o Done with loaves, not pretzels
 BAKING
o Oven spring: 400 – 425 first for 10-15 min = fast expansion of gas
o Ten turn it to 350
 o Over 425: not enough volume, crust will set before it finishes rising
o Too cool: too much volume, leavening still happening before crust
sets, collapsed structure
o What happens:
 Maillard Reaction: browning (red sugar + protein = brown
color)
 Crumb development: gas from fermentation and air from
kneading
STALING
 Starches undergo changes – when you cook the starches are in a nice
structure but over time they become unorganized – they get a grain
texture
 Putting it in the oven will reverse the staling process
 Storage:
o Fresh: eat within 1-2 days, wrap it
o Refrigerate
o Freeze: maintains texture and flavor of fresh bred

CAKES AND PASTRIES

 INGEDIENTS: FLOUR, SUGAR, MILK, FAT, EGGS, LEAVENING AGENTS

 Flour: provides structure

 Starch: gelatinization
 Protein: denature and coagulate – can be drying with too much flour
 Sugar: structure, volume,
 If too much starch won’t gelatinize
 Hygroscopic – draws water to itself – important for moisture
 Milk:
- Liquid – hydrates dry ingredients
 - Has lactose so contributes to browning (Maillard reaction)
- Sweetness
 Leavening agents: lift, rise
 FAT:
 Tenderizing: because it impedes gluten formation
 Structure: melting of solid fats and make pockets
 EGGS:
 Some liquid contributes to leavening
 Protein = structure strengthen
 Browning
 Emulsifier

CHOCOLATE:
 Unsweetened cocoa powder:
 Natural: acidic, light brown
 Dutch processed: washed with a base (an alkaline product), makes it more
basic, darker color, more of a mellow flavor
 Application: recipe calls for Dutch processed and you only have natural, you
have to make adjustments because you are missing the base … baking soda.
If it calls for natural and you only have Dutch processed – need to add an
acid
 Susceptible to oxidative rancidity

SHORTENED CAKES
 Called shortened because they have shortened, delicate texture
 Leavening: baking powder or soda
 Types: yellow, white, chocolate, pound (air and steam)
 Sugar: influences volume, too much won’t rise because starch will not
gelatinize
 Mixing: similar to conventional method
  Mix dry ing., mix liquid ing., cream fat and sugar, add eggs,
flour, liquid, flour, liquid.

FOAM CAKES
 Unshortened:
o Egg white, little or no fat.
o Light, fluffy, not too tender
o Angel food cake
 Chiffon: shortened, sponge cake ingredients + has fat (lemon and chiffon
cakes)

Observations:
1. Weigh vs measure: to get the right amount of the ingredient. Ex.: too much
flour: dry out (affect dryness), irregular crumb,
2. Parchment paper and flour to prevent from sticking

BAKING:
1. 325 – 350
2. Too cool -> poor volume
3. Too hot -> crust sets interior is liquid
4. Shiny pans absorb heat more slowly

During baking;
1. Volume increases
2. Structure set (protein and starch)
3. Browned crust (Maillard Rxn and caramelization)
From these tables, food science reason that causes; make recommendations on
how to avoid
Yellowing, alkaline… baking sodas enhance maillard reaction
PASTRIES
1. Laminated:
1. -------fat
2. ------dough
2. Ex.: puff pastry, croissant, blitz, Danish, phyllo

3. Non-Laminated:
1. Still has layer of dough and fat but you incorporate fat into dough
2. Ex.: plain pastry (pie, tarts), hot water crust pastry, short or sweet dough,
brioche, choux
3. It is flaky but not laminated
Observations:
1. Laminated you make the dough and a fat layer yourself
2. Non laminated:

PASTRY INGREDIENT:
1. Do the same in pastries as it does in cake
2. Flour, liquid, salt, eggs
3. Cold ingredients and minimal manipulation impede gluten formation
4. Minimal liquid
5. Baking pyrex and hot oven

STARCHES

1. Starch:
 1. Complex vs. Simple – has to do with how many units
2. Whole grain vs Refined: has to do with parts of grain – WW bran,
germ, endosperm; Refined endosperm (starch comes out of the
endosperm of grain)
3. Ex.: tapioca, potato, corn, wheat, rice

2. 2 Kinds:
1. Amylose: linear, shorter, one chain, slightly soluble, forms a gel
2. Amylopectin: branched, bigger, doesn’t form a gel

1. Uses:
1. Thicken sauces, bind fats, edible coats

2. PROPERTIES:
1. Thickening: starch + water + heat
1. Heat breaks H bonds, water enters granule, a little
starch comes out too into H2O. Then it expands
because water is in there
2. The steps above is GELATINIZATION (thickening):
swelling of starch granules and migration of some
amylose into cooking water … making a SOL
3. Sol: colloidal dispersion of a solid dispersed in a
liquid (the gravy)
4. Sugars are hygroscopic (tend to absorb moisture
from the air); sugars compete with starch for
water delayed gelatinization of starches, higher
final temperature for gelatinization
Gelatinization: Starch + water + heat - Water gets in,
swells = thickening (SOL)

2. Gelation: gel formation! – liquid dispersed in oil

1. **thickening is different than gel formation**
2. After gelatinization, as it cools off
 3. Gel: colloidal dispersion of a liquid dispersed in a
solid => thicker
4. Ex.: cooled, day old gravy, sauce on a stir fry
5. Amylopectin does not gel; gel is dependent on
adequate amylose

1. Amylose:
1. Chains of glucose
2. Straight chain
3. Slightly soluble => Forms a gel
2. Amylopectin:
1. Chains of glucose
2. Bigger
3. Branched chain
4. Insoluble
Observations:
1. Egg yolks have to be heated through they have to deactivate alpha amylase
otherwise it will start eating the amylose

Syneresis:
Loss of a liquid from a gel - As a gel ages some amylose molecules draw
together—and some water is squeezed out
Dextrinization: happens when you break it down starch in presence of heat and
no water … you get glucose
Ex.: Toasting bread is sweeter and browns
1. If you see dextrose on a label it is sugar

MODIFIED STARCHES:
 2. Important uses!
3. Pre-gelatization / = pre-thickened (hydrated)
4. You don’t need heat to thicken
5. THEY GELATINIZED IT THEY DEHYDRATE IT AND YOU HYDRATE IT
6. Ex.: Instant pudding, hot pocket, gumdrops
When you buy instant pudding do you have to heat it up to thicken it? NO
Retrogradation: more orderly arrangement of starch molecules with time
RESISTANT STARCH:
1. Resistant to digest, digest more slowly
2. Happens when you cook and store (breads, cereals, pastas, vegetables)
3. Slow digestion and absorption of glucose
4. Health benefits: alters pH of feces and may change the microbes that live in
colon, reduce the risk of colon cancer
Glycemic Index:
5. How much an individual food raises blood sugar
6. No standard
7. Comparison to something that is the standard: white sugar 100, White
bread 100, Glucose 100
8. Glycemic Load: amount of carbohydrate in a serving X GI
1. A donut may have the same glycemic index as a
watermelon but not the same glycemic load
APPLICATION:
THERE WILL BE AN ACTIVITY LIKE THIS ONE IN THE EXAM
3. Hot potatoes: raise in blood pressure
4. Cold pre-cooked potatoes: less
5. Solutions: small measure potato salad; frozen potato products; re-heated
mashed potatoes;
6. Same thing with pasta
 SWEETNERS

Sugars:
1. Sugar extracted from plants => refined carbs / sugars
2. 4 kcal per gram and 4 grams per teaspoon
3. Recommendation: 6-10 tsp/day
Ex.: Coke:
12 oz can 140 kcal… all of them is sugar 8.5 teaspoons of sugar
SUCROSE (table sugar):
1. Sources: sugar cane, sugar beets
2. Mono: glucose, fructose, galactose
3. GLUCOSE + FRUCTOSE = SUCROSE
4. GLUCOSE + GALACTOSE = LACTOSE
5.
SUGARS:
#1 ~4 4 g / tsp = ~16 kcal / tsp
#2 products (what they are)
#3 key things
1. Raw sugar: minimally processed, prohibited in the US
2. Evaporated cane juice: liquid of sugar cane plant evaporated, term juice
not ok, no law
3. Turbinado sugar: evaporated cane juice + crystals been rinsed – sugar in
the raw – good for vegans
4. White granulated sugar: Liquid sugar of sugar cane plant, centrifuged to
remove molasses, evaporated, bleached, refined in bone char
5. Brown sugar: molasses added to refined granulated sugar
6. Maple sugar: boiled maple sap
7. Coconut palm sugar: Sap extracted from coconut tree, boiled (similar to
maple sugar); slightly lower GI
Calories/CHO from USDA nutrient database unless otherwise indicated
Activity: (1) list what you have heard about the sugar. Is it supposed to be more or
less healthful than table sugar? What do people say about it? (2) Compare g
CHO/teaspoon and kcal/teaspoon, as well as notes. What does this tell you about
healthfulness relative to table sugar?
Will need to be able to address these issues on the exam—DO have to know
~4g/teaspoon, and ~16kcal/teaspoon for all (except powdered and brown sugar)

SYRUP: ~ 20 kcal per tsp ~5g

8. Honey: produced by bees; not to be given to infants; risk of botulism

9. Brown rice syrup: starch in cooked rice broken down; same calories, no
fiber because it is the starch, high levels of arsenic.
10. Agave: isolated sugar from nectar; sweeter than sugar so you can use less
11. Corn syrup: is made industrially by braking down starch in corn, result:
glucose (almost 100% glucose) – What you base with
12. High fructose corn syrup: ENZYME that converts some of the glucose to
fructose. Makes things more sugar, sweeter, cost stable
1. You never know how much is in there if it is listed in the
ingredients… usually 42 % or 55% fructose
2. Some foods can be up to 90% (foods)- rare
3. what percent of sucrose is fructose: 50%, because they are
made of one sucrose and one glucose

Take away: some research shows that fructose may act different than glucose in
our body - Acts different in the liver
13. increase body weight, visceral adipose tissue, muscle fat, and liver fat
SUGAR ALCOHOLS
1. Slow to absorb
2. GI distress: gas, bloating
3. Don’t cause cavities
4. 1.6 -3 kcal/g
5. Ex.: xylitol
NONNUTRITIVE SWEETNERS
Purpose: Provide sweetness w/o calories
1. Saccharin – Sweet’n’low
1. Oldest, sweeter than sucrose, safe, heat stable; bitter to
supertasters
2. Aspartame: Equal
1. 2 amino acids, contains phenylalanine – PKU, NOT OK
2. Safety - long term increased ris of cancer
3. Neurobehavioral effects
1. Ace-K - Sunnet, Sweet one
1. heat stable, assumed safe, ok for baking
2. Sucralose Splenda
1. 600x sweeter than sucrose
2. Heat stable, used in cooking
3. Stevia, Truvia
1. Steviol glycosides –
2. High‐purity (95% minimum purity) components allowed
3. Heat stable
4.
REVIEW OF SUGAR FUCTIONS IN FOODS
1. Sweetness
2. Browning:
1. Reducing sugars + amino group + heat = Maillard reaction
2. Carmelization – just heat, high temp
1. Moisture absorption (hygroscopicity); Draw moisture from air
2. Fermentation: Yeast, mold, or bacteria culture ferment available sugars 
CO2 + alcohol
1. Preservation: inhibit growth of microorganisms (osmotic pressure)
 QUESTION 1
 Use Chapter 17 (7th Edition) or Chapter 14 (8th Edition) to answer this question. Which component of a
grain is described by the following description? Outer layers (fibrous and very high in cellulose)
bran

1 points
QUESTION 2
 Use Chapter 17 (7th Edition) or Chapter 14 (8th Edition) to answer this question. Cake flour is made from
which type of flour?
extra long-patent flour

1 points
QUESTION 4
- Use Chapter 17 (7th Edition) or Chapter 14 (8th Edition) to answer this question. Why is benzoyl peroxide
often added to freshly-milled flours?
To bleach the naturally-present xanthophylls

1 points
QUESTION 5
 Use Chapter 17 (7th Edition) or Chapter 14 (8th Edition) to answer this question. Where is most of the lipid
portion of grain found?
Germ

1 points
QUESTION 6
 Use Chapter 17 (7th Edition) or Chapter 14 (8th Edition) to answer this question. Which of these is one of
the protein fractions that makes up gluten?
Gliadin

1 points
QUESTION 7
 Use Chapter 17 (7th Edition) or Chapter 14 (8th Edition) to answer this question. Triticale:
is a cross between wheat and rye

1 points
QUESTION 8
• Use Chapter 17 (7th Edition) or Chapter 14 (8th Edition) to answer this question. Why do doughs with
whole wheat flours need to be mixed less than those with refined flours?
jagged edges of bran cut developing gluten flours

1 points
QUESTION 9
  Use Chapter 17 (7th Edition) or Chapter 14 (8th Edition) to answer this question. Which of these is NOT a
function of sugar in baked foods?
caramelization
tenderizing
provide more structure
sugar-amine (Maillard) reaction

1 points
QUESTION 10
 Use Chapter 17 (7th Edition) or Chapter 14 (8th Edition) to answer this question. Carbon dioxide is
produced by all of the following except:
Yeast
Baking powder + water
Baking soda + water + acid
They all produce carbon dioxide.

1 points
QUESTION 11
 Use the Chapter 17 (7th Edition) or Chapter 14 (8th Edition) to answer this question. What is one of the
functions of cornstarch in baking powder?
Absorbs moisture

1 points
QUESTION 12
1. Use Chapter 18 (7th Edition) or Chapter 15 (8th Edition) to answer this question. Which of these is NOT
one of the three necessary ingredients in quick breads?
Fat

1 points
QUESTION 13
1. Use Chapter 18 (7th Edition) or Chapter 15 (8th Edition) to answer this question. In which of these
methods is liquid poured into a well in the dry ingredients?
Muffin method

1 points
QUESTION 14
1. Use Chapter 18 (7th Edition) or Chapter 15 (8th Edition) to answer this question. What is the main
leavening agent for popovers?
Steam

1 points
QUESTION 15
1. Use Chapter 18 (7th Edition) or Chapter 15 (8th Edition) to answer this question. What is the ratio of
flour:1 milk for muffins?
2:1
 1 points
QUESTION 16
1. Use Chapter 18 (7th Edition) or Chapter 15 (8th Edition) to answer this question. Oven spring:
Is an increase in volume in yeast breads during the early part of baking
Happens in yeast breads
Results from the expansion of carbon dioxide from high oven heat
All of the above

1 points
QUESTION 17
1. Use Chapter 18 (7th Edition) or Chapter 15 (8th Edition) to answer this question. What makes Angel Food
Cake unique among Foam cakes:
It does not contain any egg yolks

1 points
QUESTION 18
1. Use Chapter 18 (7th Edition) or Chapter 15 (8th Edition) to answer this question. Which ingredient delays
gluten formation during mixing?
Sugar

1 points
QUESTION 19
1. Use the “Antioxidant theory” section of the Slavin article to answer this question. Which of these has the highest
antioxidant capacity in one measure of antioxidant activity?

Wholegrain cereals

1 points
QUESTION 21
1. You are making pancakes for a group of family and friends. Your recipe has a yield of 14 4-inch pancakes. You
6
want all 25 attendees to get 3 pancakes each. You will need to make the basic recipe times to
make enough pancakes. Round up to a full recipe. Only write the numbers; do not include the units.
Part of the recipe is below (the recipe also includes salt, baking powder, and eggs). Provide the amounts you
will need to feed all of your friends.
1080
1.5 cups all-purpose flour = grams (use 1 cup flour = 120 g)
225
3 tablespoons sugar = grams (use 1 cup of sugar = 200 grams; round to the nearest gram)
270
3 tablespoons melted butter = ml (use 1 cup = 240 ml)
144o
1 cup milk = ml (use 1 cup = 240 ml)
28.4 g / oz
16 oz / lb
1 gal : 4 qt
1 qt : 2 pints
1 pint = 2 cup
1 cup = 240 ml 8 oz