Cyber Mindz Reviewer 2017

Introduction
to Computer
COMPUTING DEPARTMENT
1 Contents
Contents
Contents ........................................................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 2
Computer - Overview ........................................................................................................................................ 2
Computer – Applications ................................................................................................................................... 5
Computer – History Timeline ............................................................................................................................. 9
Computer – Generations ................................................................................................................................. 14
Computer – Types .......................................................................................................................................... 18
Computer – Components ................................................................................................................................ 22
Computer – CPU ............................................................................................................................................ 23
Computer - Input Devices................................................................................................................................ 24
Computer - Output Devices ............................................................................................................................. 28
Computer – Memory ....................................................................................................................................... 33
Computer – Memory Characteristics ............................................................................................................... 37
Computer – RAM ............................................................................................................................................ 38
Computer – ROM ............................................................................................................................................ 39
Computer – Motherboard ................................................................................................................................ 40
Computer - Memory Units ............................................................................................................................... 41
Computer – Ports ............................................................................................................................................ 42
Computer – Hardware ..................................................................................................................................... 44
Computer – Software ...................................................................................................................................... 45
Computer - Number System ............................................................................................................................ 52
Computer - Number Conversion ...................................................................................................................... 54
Binary Math .................................................................................................................................................... 60
Computer - Data & information ........................................................................................................................ 62
Computer Security Issues ............................................................................................................................... 62
Computer – Networking .................................................................................................................................. 63
Computer - Internet & Intranet ......................................................................................................................... 65
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2 Introduction
Introduction
Today’s world is an information-rich world and it has become a necessity for everyone to know about computers.
Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as an input from the user and processes it under the
control of a set of instructions (called program), produces a result (output), and saves it for future use. This information
explains the foundational concepts of computer hardware, software, operating systems, peripherals, etc. along with how to
get the most value and impact from computer technology.
The purpose of this book is to introduce you to Computers and its fundamentals.
Computer - Overview
Functionalities of a computer
Any digital computer carries out five functions in gross terms:
 Takes data as input.

 Stores the data/instructions in its memory and can use them when required.
 Process the data and convert it into useful information.
 Output the information.
 Control all the above four steps.
Definition
Computer System is an electronic data processing device which does the following:
 Accept and store an input data.

 Process the data input.
 And output the processed data in required format.
Advantages
Following list demonstrates the advantages of Computers in today's arena.
HIGH SPEED
 Computer is a very fast device.

 It is capable of performing addition of very big data.
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3 Computer - Overview
 The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond and even the picosecond.
o Milliseconds - one thousandth of a second (0.0001 sec)
o Microseconds - one millionth of a second (0.0000001 sec)
o Nanoseconds - one billionth of a second (0.0000000001 sec)
o Picoseconds - one trillionth of a second (0.0000000000001 sec)
 It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who can spend many months for
doing the same task.
ACCURACY
 In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.

 The computer has performed calculations 100% error free.
 Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy.
STORAGE CAPABILITY
 Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.

 The computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.
 It can store large amount of data.
 It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio and any other type.
DILIGENCE
 Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness and lack of concentration.
 It can work continuously without creating any error and boredom.
 It can do repeated work with same speed and accuracy.
VERSATILITY
 A computer is a very versatile machine.

 A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
 This machine can be used to solve the problems relating to various different fields.
 At one instant, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next moment it may be playing a card
game.
RELIABILITY
 A computer is a reliable machine.

 Modern electronic components have failure free long lives.
 Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.
AUTOMATION
 Computer is an automatic machine.

 Automation means ability to perform the task automatically.
 Once a program is given to computer i.e stored in computer memory, the program and instruction can control the
program execution without human interaction.
REDUCTION IN PAPER WORK
 The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in paper work and speeds up the
process.
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4 Computer - Overview
 As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of maintenance of large number of
files gets reduced.
REDUCTION IN COST
 Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high but it substantially reduces the cost of each of its
transaction.
Disadvantages
Following list demonstrates the disadvantages of Computers in today's arena.
NO I.Q
 A computer is a machine and has no intelligence of its own to perform any task.
 Each and every instruction has to be given to computer.
 A computer cannot take any decision on its own.
DEPENDENCY
 It can perform function as instructed by user. So it is fully dependent on human being.
ENVIRONMENT
 The operating environment of computer should be dust free and suitable to it.
NO FEELING
 Computer has no feeling or emotions.

 It cannot make Judgment based on feeling, taste, experience and knowledge unlike a human being.
Data Processing Cycle

Data processing is the re-structuring or re-ordering of data by people or machine to increase their usefulness & add values
for particular purpose.
Data processing consists of basic steps input, processing and output. These three steps constitute the data processing
cycle.
 Input - In this step the input data are prepared in some convenient form
for processing. The form will depend on the processing machine. For
example, when electronic computers are used, the input data could be
recorded on any one of several types of input medium, such as magnetic
disks, tapes and so on.
 Processing - In this step input data are changed to produce data in a
more useful form. For example, pay-checks may be calculated from the
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5 Computer – Applications
time cards, or a summary of sales for the month may be calculated from the sales orders.
 Output -Here the result of the proceeding processing step are collected. The particular form of the output data
depends on the use of the data. For example, output data may be pay-checks for employees.
Computer – Applications
Following list demonstrates the various applications of Computers in today's arena.
Business
The computer's characteristic as high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility has made it an
integrated part in all business organizations.
Computer used in business organization for:
 Payroll Calculations
 Budgeting
 Sales Analysis
 Financial forecasting
 Managing employees database
 Maintenance of stocks etc.
Banking
Today Banking is almost totally dependent on computer.
Banks provide following facilities:
 Banks on-line accounting facility, which include current balances,

deposits, overdrafts, interest charges, shares and trustee records.
 ATM machines are making it even easier for customers to deal with
banks.
Insurance
Insurance companies are keeping all records up to date with the help of computer. The Insurance Companies, Finance
houses and Stock broking firms are widely using computers for their concerns.
Insurance Companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information

showing
 how to continue with policies

 starting date of the policies
 next due installment of a policy
 maturity date
 interests due
 survival benefits
 bonus
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Education
The computer has provided a lot of facilities in the Education System.
 The uses of computer provide a tool in the Education

system is known as CBE (Computer Based Education).
 CBE involves Control, Delivery and Evaluation of learning.
 The computer education is very familiar and rapidly
increasing the graph of computer students.
 There are number of methods in which educational
institutions can use computer to educate the students.
 It is used for prepare a database about student performance
and analysis are carried out.
Marketing
In Marketing uses of computer are following:
 Advertising: With computers, advertising professionals create art and

graphics, write and revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal of
selling more products.
 At Home Shopping: At home shopping has been made possible
through use of computerized catalogues that provide access to product
information and permit direct entry of orders to be filled by the customers.
Health Care
Computers have become important part in all Medical
Systems.
The computers are being used in hospitals to keep the record

of patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning and
diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG, Ultrasounds and
CT Scans etc. are also done by computerized machines.
Some of major fields of health care in which computer are

used:
 Diagnostic System: Computers are used to collect

data and identify cause of illness.
 Lab-diagnostic System: All tests can be done and reports are prepared by computer.
 Patient Monitoring System: These are used to check patient's signs for abnormality such as in Cardiac Arrest,
ECG etc.
 Parma Information System: Computer checks Drug-Labels, Expiry dates, harmful drug side effects etc.
 Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.
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Engineering Design
Computers are widely used in engineering purposes.
One of major areas is CAD (Computer aided design).CAD provides

creation, edition, and modification of image. Some fields are:
 Structural Engineering: Requires stress and strain

analysis required for design of Ships, Buildings, Budgets,
and Airplanes etc.
 Industrial Engineering: Computers deals with design,
implementation and improvement of integrated systems of
people, materials and equipment.
 Architectural Engineering: Computers help in planning towns, designing buildings, determining a range of
buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings.
Military
Computers are largely used in defence. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons etc. Employ
computerized control systems. Some military areas where a computer has been used
are:
 Missile Control
 Military Communication
 Military operation and planning
 Smart Weapons
Communication
Communication means to convey a message, an idea, a picture or
speech that is received and understood clearly and correctly by
the person for whom it is meant. Some main areas in this category
are:
 E-mail
 Chatting
 Usenet
 FTP
 Telnet
 Video-conferencing
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Government Applications
Computers play an important role in government applications. Some
major fields in this category are:
 Budgets
 Sales tax department
 Income tax department
 Male/Female ratio
 Computerization of voters lists
 Computerization of Driving Licensing system
 Computerization of PAN card
 Weather Forecasting.
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9 Computer – History Timeline
Computer – History Timeline

2000 The Abacus is first used for computations. Some claim it originated with the Chinese,
B.C. but most scholars argue that it was invented by the Babylonians
1600s John Napier creates Napiers Bones (multiplication tables on wood or paper) and
logarithms.
1621 William Oughtred invents the slide rule, an early analog computer
1642 Blaise Pascal creates a mechanical adding machine for tax computations (Pascal’s
Calculator/ Pascaline Calculator). It is unreliable.
1670 Gottfried von Liebniz creates a more reliable adding machine that adds, subtracts, multiplies, divides, and
calculates square roots. He also invented the Binary Arithmetic that became the basis of virtually all modern
computers.
Step Reckoner (1671), featured a stepped drum which

found use in numerous subsequent computers.
1842 Charles Babbage (Father of modern computer)

designs an analytical engine to perform general
calculations automatically.
The Difference Engine, designed by the English

mathematician and inventor Charles Babbage, was
intended to automatically compute mathematical tables
which, until that time, had been tediously calculated by
hand and were prone to error. Difference Engine was
to be steam-powered and as large as a locomotive.
Augusta Ada (a.k.a. Lady Lovelace) is known as "the

first programmer" because she suggested that a binary
system should be used for storage rather than a
decimal system for Babbage's designs
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The Analytical Engine was a proposed mechanical general-purpose computer designed by English
mathematician Charles Babbage. It was first described in 1837 as the successor to Babbage's Difference engine,
a design for a mechanical computer. The Analytical Engine incorporated an arithmetic logic unit, control flow in
the form of conditional branching and loops, and integrated memory, making it the first design for a general-
purpose computer that could be described in modern terms as Turing-complete.
1850s George Boole developed Boolean Logic which would later become significant to the design of computer circuitry
and as a method for refining the searching of information
1890
Herman Hollerith designs a system to record census data (Hollerith’s Tabulating Machine). He was an
American statistician and inventor who developed a mechanical tabulator based on punched cards to
rapidly tabulate statistics from millions of pieces of data. The information is stored as holes in cards, which
are interpreted by machines with electrical sensors. Hollerith starts a company that will eventually become IBM
(International Business Machine).
1939 John Atanasoff, with graduate student Clifford Berry, designs and builds the first electronic digital computer.
His project was funded by a grant for 650$.
1942 ABC (Astanasoff Berry Corporation) was invented by John Astanasoff and Berry Corporation of IOWA state
university. It is the first model of an electronic digital computer. It used vacuum tubes instead of electrical relays
in carrying out computations
1944 Mark 1 was by Howard Aiken with support of IBM. It is the first large scale electromechanical digital computer. It
used electrical relays instead of mechanical gears
The first Colossus is operational at Bletchley Park. Designed by

British engineer Tommy Flowers, the Colossus was designed to
break the complex Lorenz ciphers used by the Nazis during WWII. A
total of ten Colossi were delivered to Bletchley, each using 1,500
vacuum tubes and a series of pulleys transported continuous rolls of
punched paper tape containing possible solutions to a particular
code. Colossus reduced the time to break Lorenz messages from
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weeks to hours.
1946 The giant ENIAC (Electrical Numerical Integrator and Calculator) machine was developed by John W.
Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert, Jr. at the University of Pennsylvania. It used 18,000 vacuum tubes, punch-card
input, weighed thirty tons and occupied a thirty-by-fifty-foot space and cost $500,000 to build. It was only
programmable by changing the wiring, not through software changes, but was productive from 1946 to 1955 and
was used to compute artillery firing tables.
John von Neumann proposes that a program be stored in a computer in the same way that data are stored. His
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proposal, called the "von Neumann architecture," is the basis for modern computers.
1947 William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain of Bell Labs invented the transistor. In the next decade,
vacuum tubes will be replaced by transistors for which they will receive the Nobel Prize in physics in 1956.
1949
EDSAC (Electronic Delayed Storage Automatic Computer) was
an early British computer. The machine was constructed by Maurice
Wilkes and his team at the University of Cambridge Mathematical
Laboratory in England. EDSAC was the second usefully operational
electronic digital stored-program computer.
1951
J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly build the first general-purpose

commercial computer, the UNIVAC (UNIVersal Automatic Computer).
It is the first computer designed and sold commercially, specifically
for business data-processing applications.
1952 EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Calculator) was one of the earliest electronic computers. Unlike
its predecessor the ENIAC, it was binary rather than decimal, and was a stored program computer. It was a
binary serial computer with automatic addition, subtraction, multiplication, programmed division and automatic
checking with an ultrasonic serial memory capacity of 1,000 44-bit words (later set to 1,024 words, thus giving a
memory, in modern terms, of 5.5 kilobytes). The EDVAC was built for the U.S. Army's Ballistics Research
Laboratory at the Aberdeen Proving Ground by the University of Pennsylvania's Moore School of Electrical
Engineering.
1957 An IBM team, led by John Backus, designs the first successful high-level programming language, FORTRAN
(FORmula TRANslator), for solving engineering and science problems.
1958 The first computer to use the transistor as a switching device, the IBM 7090, is introduced.
Jack St. Clair Kilby and Robert Noycefirst of Texas Instruments manufactured the first integrated circuit, or
chip, which is made up of six components, a feat for which they eventually win a Nobel Prize for physics in the
year 2000. This led to hundreds of tiny transistors that fit on a chip of silicon, then thousands, then millions over
the next decade.
1964 The first computer to use integrated circuits, the IBM 360, is announced.
BASIC (Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) is a group of generic, high level programming
languages designed for ease of use. Designed by John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz in 1964, the language was
developed to help students in fields other than Math and Science to code.
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The first prototype of computer mouse was made to use with a Graphical User
Interface (GUI) window by Douglas Engelbart with the assistance of his lead
engineer Bill English at Stanford Research Institute. This mouse uses two
perpendicular wheels attached to analog potentiometers to track movement. The
first mouse has only one button.
1965 The CTSS (Compatible Time-Sharing System) operating system is introduced. It allows several users
simultaneously to use, or share, a single computer.
1968 Intel was founded on July 18, 1968 by Gordon Moore and Robert Noyce. In 2011, Intel had 79.3% market
share of the overall worldwide PC microprocessor market and 84.4% of the mobile PC microprocessor market.
1970 A first version of the UNIX operating system is running on the DEC PDP-7.
1971 Nicklaus Wirth designs the Pascal programming language as a language for teaching structured
programming concepts. It was named after a famous French mathematician Blaise Pascal
1972 Dennis Ritchie of Bell Laboratories in New Jersey develops the language C.
1973 Part of the UNIX operating system is implemented in C.
1974
Researchers at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center designed the Xerox
Alto Computer — the first work station with a built-in mouse for input. The
Alto stored several files simultaneously in windows, offered menus and
icons, and could link to a local area network.
1975
The first microcomputer, the Altair, is introduced.
The first supercomputer, the Cray-1, is announced.
Microsoft was founded on April 4, 1975 by Bill Gates and Paul Allen
1976 Digital Equipment Corporation introduces its popular minicomputer, the DEC VAX 11/780.
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1977 On April 1, 1977, Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs found Apple Computer.
1978 Dan Bricklin and Bob Frankston develop the first electronic spreadsheet, called VisiCalc, for the Apple
computer.
1979 Bjarne Stroustrup of Bell Laboratories in New Jersey introduces "C with Classes
1981 IBM introduced its PC (IBM PC), igniting a fast growth of the personal computer market. The first PC ran on a
4.77 MHz Intel 8088 microprocessor and used Microsoft´s MS-DOS operating system.
1983 C with Classes is redesigned and reimplemented as C++.
1984
Apple introduces the Macintosh, the first widely available

computer with a "user-friendly" graphical interface using icons,
windows, and a mouse device.
1988 Work on standardization of C++ begins.
1989 Microsoft Corporation introduces Windows for IBM computers.
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) publishes the first standard for the C programming
language.
1990 Microsoft launched the ―Microsoft Office for Windows‖ on November 10, 1990, comprising of Word 1.1, Excel
2.0 and PowerPoint 2.0
1998 Google was founded on September 4, 1998 at Menlo Park, California by Larry Page and Sergey Brin
2001 Windows XP is a personal computer operating system produced by Microsoft as part of the Windows NT family
of operating systems. The operating system was generally released for retail sale on October 25, 2001.
2007 Apple released the first generation iPhone on June 29, 2007.
2009 Windows 7 is a personal computer operating system, a version of Windows NT. Windows 7 was and became
generally available on October 22, 2009
2010 iPad is a line of tablet computers designed and marketed by Apple Inc., which runs Apple's iOS. The first iPad
was released on April 3, 2010.
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14 Computer – Generations
Computer – Generations
Computer Generations
Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being used. Initially, the generation term
was used to distinguish between varying hardware technologies. But nowadays, generation includes both hardware and
software, which together make up an entire computer system.
There are totally five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been discussed in detail along with their
time period, characteristics. We've used approximate dates against each generation which are normally accepted.
Following are the main five generations of computers
S.N. Generation & Description
First Generation
1
The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube based.
Second Generation
2
The period of second generation: 1959-1965. Transistor based.
Third Generation
3
The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit based.
Fourth Generation
4
The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLSI microprocessor based.
Fifth Generation
5
The period of fifth generation : 1980-onwards.ULSI microprocessor based
First Generation
The period of first generation was 1946-1959.
First generation of computer started with using vacuum tubes as the basic
components for memory and circuitry for CPU (Central Processing Unit).
These tubes like electric bulbs produced a lot of heat and were prone to
frequent fusing of the installations, therefore, were very expensive and could
be afforded only by very large organizations.
In this generation mainly batch processing operating system were used. In

this generation Punched cards, Paper tape, Magnetic tape Input & Output
device were used.
There were Machine code and electric wired board languages used.
The main features of First Generation are:
 Vacuum tube technology

 Unreliable
 Supported Machine language only
 Very costly
 Generate lot of heat
 Slow Input/output device
 Huge size
 Need of A.C.
 Non portable
 Consumed lot of electricity Vacuum Tubes
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Some computers of this generation were:
 ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer)

 EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)
 UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer)
 IBM-701 (International Business Machine)
 IBM-650
Second Generation
The period of second generation was 1959-1965.
The second generation computers emerged with development

of Transistors. The transistor was invented in 1947 by three
scientists John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William
Shockley at Bell Labs. A transistor is a small device made up of
semiconductor material like germanium and silicon. Even
though the Transistor were developed in 1947 but was not
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widely used until the end of 50s.
These generations using the transistor were cheaper,

consumed less power, more compact in size, more reliable and
faster than the first generation machines made of vaccum tubes.
In this generation, magnetic cores were used as primary
memory and magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary
storage devices.
In this generation assembly language and high level programming language like FORTRAN, COBOL was used.
There was Batch processing and Multiprogramming Operating system used.
The main features of Second Generation are:
 Use of transistors
 Reliable as compared to First generation computers
 Smaller size as compared to First generation computers
 Generate less heat as compared to First generation computers
 Consumed less electricity as compared to First generation computers
 Faster than first generation computers
 Still very costly
 A.C. needed Transistors
 Support machine and assembly languages
 IBM 1620
 IBM 7094
 CDC 1604
 CDC 3600
 UNIVAC 1108
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Third Generation
The period of third generation was 1965-1971.
The third generation of computer is marked by the use of Integrated Circuits

(IC's) in place of transistors. A single I.C has many transistors, resistors and
capacitors along with the associated circuitry. The I.C was invented by Jack
Kilby. This development made computers smaller in size, reliable and
efficient.
In this generation Remote processing, Time-sharing, Real-time, Multi-

programming Operating System were used.
High level language (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC,

ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation.
The main features of Third Generation are:
 IC used
 More reliable
 Smaller size
 Generate less heat
 Faster
 Lesser maintenance
 Still costly
Integrated Circuits
 A.C needed
 Consumed lesser electricity
 Support high level language
 IBM-360 series
 Honeywell-6000 series
 PDP(Personal Data Processor)
 IBM-370/168
 TDC-316
Fourth Generation
The period of Fourth Generation was 1971-1980.
The fourth generation of computers is marked by the use of Very Large Scale
Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and other
circuit elements and their associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to
have microcomputers of fourth generation. Fourth Generation computers became
more powerful, compact, reliable, and affordable. As a result, it gave rise to
personal computer (PC) revolution.
In this generation Time sharing, Real time, Networks, Distributed Operating System
were used.
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All the Higher level languages like C and C++, DBASE etc. were used in this generation.
The main features of Fourth Generation are:
 VLSI technology used

 Microprocessor-based systems.
 Very cheap
 Portable and reliable
 Use of PC's
 Very small size
 Pipeline processing
VLSI
 No A.C. needed
 Concept of internet was introduced
 Great developments in the fields of networks
 Computers became easily available
 Networking between the systems was developed
 DEC 10
 STAR 1000
 PDP 11
 CRAY-1(Super Computer)
 CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)
Fifth Generation
The period of Fifth Generation is 1980-till date.
In the fifth generation, the VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale
Integration) technology, resulting in the production of microprocessor chips
having ten million electronic components.
This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial

Intelligence) software.
AI is an emerging branch in computer science, which interprets means and

method of making computers think like human beings.
All the Higher level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc. are used in this
generation.
AI includes:
 Robotics
 Neural networks
 Game Playing
 Development of expert systems to make decisions in real life situations.
 Natural language understanding and generation.
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18 Computer – Types
The main features of Fifth Generation are:
 ULSI technology
 Development of true artificial intelligence
 Development of Natural language processing
 Advancement in Parallel Processing
 Advancement in Superconductor technology
 More user friendly interfaces with multimedia features
 Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates
 They will be able to use more than one CPU for faster processing speed.
Some computer types of this generation are:
 Desktop
 Laptop
 Notebook
 Ultra Book
 Chrome Book
Computer – Types
Computer can be broadly classified by their speed and computing power.
Sr. No. Type Specifications
 Single user computer system.

 Moderately powerful microprocessor.
PC (Personal Computer)
1  Commonly used to run applications such as word processing,
or Desktop Computer
spreadsheets and networked applications such as email and web
browsing.
 Single user computer system.

 Similar to Personal Computer or Desktop but have more powerful
microprocessor.
2 WorkStation
 High-powered business computers.
 They are designed for specialized, high-end applications like engineering
programs such as CAD (Computer Aided Design).
 Servers are high performance computers used in businesses and other

organizations.
 Servers provide services to many end users or clients.
 Server hardware is optimized for quick response time to multiple network
3 Server
requests.
 Servers have multiple Central Processing Units (CPUs), large amounts of
Random Access Memory (RAM) and multiple high capacity disk drives
that provide very fast information retrieval.
 Multi-user computer system. Capable of supporting hundreds of users

simultaneously.
4 Main Frame
 Large and powerful computer shared by dozens or even hundreds of
concurrent users connected to the machine over network.
5 Supercomputer
 An extremely fast computer which can perform hundreds of millions of
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instructions per second.
PC (Personal Computer) or Desktop

A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an
individual user. PCs are based on the microprocessor technology that enables
manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal
computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for running
spreadsheet and database management applications. At home, the most popular
use for personal computers is for playing games and surfing the Internet.
Although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, these

systems are normally linked together to form a network. In terms of power, now-
a-days High-end models of the Macintosh and PC offer the same computing
power and graphics capability as low-end workstations by Sun Microsystems,
Hewlett-Packard, and DELL.
WorkStation
Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM),
desktop publishing, software development, and other such types of
applications which require a moderate amount of computing power and
relatively high quality graphics capabilities.
Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics

screen, large amount of RAM, inbuilt network support, and a graphical
user interface. Most workstations also have a mass storage device such
as a disk drive, but a special type of workstation, called a diskless
workstation, comes without a disk drive.
Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like PC, Workstations are also single-user
computers. However, workstations are typically linked together to form a local-area network, although they can also be
used as stand-alone systems.
Mainframe
Mainframe is a very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of
supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of users simultaneously. Mainframe
executes many programs concurrently. Mainframes support many simultaneous
programs execution.
Supercomputer
Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available.
Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized applications
that require immense amounts of mathematical calculations (number crunching). For
example, weather forecasting , scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid
dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of
geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting).
19
2017 TOP 10 SUPERCOMPUTERS

Rank System Cores Rmax Rpeak Power
(TFlop/s) (TFlop/s) (kW)
1 Sunway TaihuLight - Sunway MPP, Sunway 10,649,600 93,014.6 125,435.9 15,371

SW26010 260C 1.45GHz, Sunway , NRCPC
National Supercomputing Center in Wuxi
China
2 Tianhe-2 (MilkyWay-2) - TH-IVB-FEP 3,120,000 33,862.7 54,902.4 17,808

Cluster, Intel Xeon E5-2692 12C 2.200GHz,
TH Express-2, Intel Xeon Phi 31S1P , NUDT
National Super Computer Center in
Guangzhou
China
3 Piz Daint - Cray XC50, Xeon E5-2690v3 12C 361,760 19,590.0 25,326.3 2,272
2.6GHz, Aries interconnect , NVIDIA Tesla
P100 , Cray Inc.
Swiss National Supercomputing Centre
(CSCS)
Switzerland
4 Titan - Cray XK7, Opteron 6274 16C 560,640 17,590.0 27,112.5 8,209
2.200GHz, Cray Gemini interconnect, NVIDIA
K20x , Cray Inc.
DOE/SC/Oak Ridge National Laboratory
United States
5 Sequoia - BlueGene/Q, Power BQC 16C 1,572,864 17,173.2 20,132.7 7,890

1.60 GHz, Custom , IBM
DOE/NNSA/LLNL
United States
6 Cori - Cray XC40, Intel Xeon Phi 7250 68C 622,336 14,014.7 27,880.7 3,939
1.4GHz, Aries interconnect , Cray Inc.
DOE/SC/LBNL/NERSC
United States
20
Rank System Cores Rmax Rpeak Power

(TFlop/s) (TFlop/s) (kW)
7 Oakforest-PACS - PRIMERGY CX1640 M1, 556,104 13,554.6 24,913.5 2,719

Intel Xeon Phi 7250 68C 1.4GHz, Intel Omni-
Path , Fujitsu
Joint Center for Advanced High Performance
Computing
Japan
8 K computer, SPARC64 VIIIfx 2.0GHz, Tofu 705,024 10,510.0 11,280.4 12,660

interconnect , Fujitsu
RIKEN Advanced Institute for Computational
Science (AICS)
Japan
9 Mira - BlueGene/Q, Power BQC 16C 786,432 8,586.6 10,066.3 3,945

1.60GHz, Custom , IBM
DOE/SC/Argonne National Laboratory
United States
10 Trinity - Cray XC40, Xeon E5-2698v3 16C 301,056 8,100.9 11,078.9 4,233
2.3GHz, Aries interconnect , Cray Inc.
DOE/NNSA/LANL/SNL
United States
21
22 Computer – Components
Computer – Components
All types of computer follows a same basic logical structure and perform the following five basic operations for converting
raw input data into information useful to their users
Sr. No. Operation Description
1 Take Input The process of entering data and instructions into the computer system.
Saving data and instructions so that they are available for processing as and when
2 Store Data
required.
Performing arithmetic, logical operations on data in order to convert them into

3 Processing Data
useful information.
The process of producing useful information or results for the user, such as a
4 Output Information
printed report or visual display.
Direct the manner and sequence in which all of the above operations are
5 Control the workflow
performed.
Input Unit
This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into computer. This unit makes link between user and
computer.
The input devices translate the human being information into the form understandable by computer.
CPU (Central Processing Unit)

CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data processing operations. It stores data,
intermediate results and instructions (program).It controls the operation of all parts of computer.
CPU itself has following three components
 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

 Memory Unit
 Control Unit
22
23 Computer – CPU
Output Unit
Output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information from computer. This unit is a link between
computer and users.
Output devices translate the computer's output into the form understandable by users.
Computer – CPU
 CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.
 CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
 It stores data, intermediate result and instructions (program).
 It controls the operation of all parts of computer.
CPU itself has following three components.
 Memory Or Storage Unit:

 Control Unit
 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
Memory or Storage Unit:

This unit can store instruction, data and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to the other units of the
computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or main memory or primary storage or Random access
memory (RAM).
Its size affects speed, power and capability. There are primary memory and secondary memory two types of memories in
the computer. Functions of Memory Unit are:
 It stores all the data to be processed and the instructions required for processing.
 It stores intermediate results of processing.
 It stores final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through main memory.
23
24 Computer - Input Devices
Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of computer. It does not carry out any actual data processing operations.
Functions of this unit are
 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them and directs the operation of the computer.
 It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
 It does not process or store data.
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely
 Arithmetic section
 Logic Section
ARITHMETIC SECTION
Function of Arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. All
complex operations are done by making repetitive use of above operations.
LOGIC SECTION
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching and merging of data.
Computer - Input Devices

Following are few of the important input devices which are used in Computer Systems
Keyboard
Most common and very popular input device is keyboard. The
keyboard helps in inputting the data to the computer. The layout
of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there
are some additional keys provided for performing some additional
functions.
Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now 104
keys or 108 keys keyboard is also available for Windows and
Internet.
24
The keys are following
http://windows.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/using-keyboard#using-keyboard=windows-7
Sr. No. Keys Description
These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digits keys (0-9) which are generally give same
1 Typing Keys
layout as that of typewriters.
Numeric It is used to enter numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of a set of 17 keys
2
Keypad that are laid out in the same configuration used by most adding machine and calculators.
The twelve functions keys are present on the keyboard. These are arranged in a row along the
3 Function Keys top of the keyboard. Each function key has unique meaning and is used for some specific
purpose.
Navigation These keys provides cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow key. Control
4
keys keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down
Special Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock,
5
Purpose Keys Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.
These keys are used alone or in combination with other keys to perform certain actions. The
6 Control Keys most frequently used control keys are Control (Ctrl), Alternate (Alt), Escape(Esc). And the
Windows logo key .
Mouse
Mouse is most popular Pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device. It
is a small palm size box with a ground ball at its base which senses the movement
of mouse and sends corresponding signals to CPU on pressing the buttons.
Generally it has two buttons called left and right button and scroll bar is present at
the mid. Mouse can be used to control the position of cursor on screen, but it
cannot be used to enter text into the computer.
25
ADVANTAGES
 Easy to use
 Not very expensive
 Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of keyboard.
Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor position on a monitor
screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The
lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The Joystick can be moved in all four
directions.
The function of joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer

Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.
Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a
displayed menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a
photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube.
When light pen's tip is moved over the monitor screen and pen button is pressed,
its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the
corresponding signal to the CPU.
Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer,
instead of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on
ball, pointer can be moved.
Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a
mouse. A track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button and a square.
Scanner
Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used
when some information is available on a paper and it is to be transferred to the hard
disc of the computer for further manipulation.
Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into the digital
form that can be stored on the disc. These images can be edited before they are
printed.
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Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into a digital form.
Digitizer can convert a signal from the television camera into a series of
numbers that could be stored in a computer. They can be used by the computer
to create a picture of whatever the camera had been pointed at.
Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet because it converts

graphics and pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used
for doing fine works of drawing and images manipulation applications.
Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in digital form. The
microphone is used for various applications like adding sound to a multimedia presentation
or for mixing music.
Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks because of a large number of cheese to be
processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the
cheques with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are
machine readable.
This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main
advantages of MICR are that it is fast and less error prone.
Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans text optically character by
character, converts them into a machine readable code and stores the text on the system
memory.
Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form of
light and dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labeling goods,
numbering the books etc. It may be a hand held scanner or may be embedded
in a stationary scanner.
Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric
value which is then fed to the computer to which bar code reader is connected.
27
28 Computer - Output Devices
Fingerprint Scanner / Sensor

An electronic device used to capture a digital image of the fingerprint pattern. The captured
image is called a live scan. This live scan is digitally processed to create a biometric template
iii
(a collection of extracted features) which is stored and used for matching.
Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or pencil. It is used where one
out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked. It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations
having multiple choice questions.
Computer - Output Devices

Following are few of the important output devices which are used in Computer Systems
 Monitors
 Printer
Monitors
Monitor commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU) is the main output device of a computer. It forms images from tiny
dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of the
pixels.
There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.
 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

 Flat- Panel Display
CATHODE-RAY TUBE (CRT) MONITOR
In the CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels for short. The
smaller the pixels, the better the image clarity, or resolution. It takes more than one
illuminated pixel to form whole character, such as the letter e in the word help.
A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be
divided into a series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard
character can be placed.
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The most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically. There are some
disadvantages of CRT
 Large in Size
 High Power consumption
FLAT-PANEL DISPLAY MONITOR
The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume,
weight and power requirement compare to the CRT. You can hang them on walls
or wear them on your wrists. Current uses for flat-panel displays include
calculators, videogames, monitors, laptop computer, graphics display.
The flat-panel display are divided into two categories
 Emissive Displays - The emissive displays are devices that convert

electrical energy into light. Examples are plasma panel and LED (Light-
Emitting Diodes).
 Non-Emissive Displays - The Non-emissive displays use optical effects
to convert sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns. Example is LCD(Liquid-Crystal Device)
Printers
Printer is the most important output device, which is used to print information on paper.
There are two types of printers
 Impact Printers
 Non-Impact Printers
IMPACT PRINTERS
The printers that print the characters by striking against the ribbon and onto the paper are called impact printers.
Characteristics of Impact Printers are following
 Very low consumable costs

 Impact printers are very noisy
 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image
 These printers are of two types
 Character printers
 Line printers
CHARACTER PRINTERS:
Character Printers are printers which print one character at a time.
These are of further two types
 Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)

 Daisy Wheel
29
DOT MATRIX PRINTER
In the market one of the most popular printer is Dot Matrix Printer because of their
ease of printing features and economical price. Each character printed is in form
of pattern of Dot's and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size(5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or
9*9) which comes out to form a character that is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.
Advantages
 Inexpensive
 Widely Used
 Other language characters can be printed
Disadvantages
 Slow Speed
 Poor Quality
DAISY WHEEL
Head is lying on a wheel and Pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy
(flower name) that is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally
used for word-processing in offices which require a few letters to be sent here and there
with very nice quality representation.
Advantages
 More reliable than DMP's

 Better quality
 The fonts of character can be easily changed.
Disadvantages
 Slower than DMP's

 Noisy
 More expensive than DMP's
LINE PRINTERS
Line printers are printers which print one line at a time.
These are of further two types
 Drum Printer
 Chain Printer
30
DRUM PRINTER
This printer is like a drum in shape so it called drum printer. The surface of drum is
divided into number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to size of paper i.e for a paper
width of 132 characters, Drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on
track. The different characters sets are available in market 48 character set, 64 and
96 characters set. One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum Printers are fast in
speed and speed in between 300 to 2000 lines per minute.
Advantages
 Very high speed
Disadvantages
 Very expensive
 Characters fonts cannot be changed
Non-impact Printers
The printers that print the characters without striking against the ribbon and onto the paper are called Non-impact Printers.
These printers print a complete page at a time, also called as Page Printers.
These printers are of two types
 Laser Printers
 Inkjet Printers
Characteristics of Non-impact Printers
 Faster than impact printers.

 They are not noisy.
 High quality.
 Support many fonts and different character size.
LASER PRINTERS
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produces the dots needed to form the characters to be
printed on a page.
Advantages
 Very high speed.

 Very high quality output.
 Give good graphics quality.
 Support many fonts and different character size.
Disadvantage
 Expensive.
 Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing.
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Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new
technology. They print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet
printers produce high quality output with presentable features.
They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles
of printing modes available. Color printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet
printers can produce multiple copies of printing also.
Advantages
 High quality printing

 More reliable
Disadvantages
 Expensive as cost per page is high

 Slow as compare to laser printer
3D Printers
3D printers use a variety of very different types of additive manufacturing
technologies, but they all share one core thing in common: they create a three
dimensional object by building it layer by successive layer, until the entire
object is complete
Advantages
 Reduce Development Costs

 Quick production
 Tool-less
 Less waste
Disadvantages
 The machine is expensive (for now)

 Counterfeiting
 Size limitations
 Manufacture of dangerous items
 Raw material limitations
 Energy hogs
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33 Computer – Memory
Computer – Memory
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instruction. Computer memory is the storage space in
computer where data is to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored.
Alternatively referred to as storage, storage media, or storage medium, a storage device is a hardware device capable of
holding information.
The memory is divided into large number of small parts. Each part is called Cell. Each location or cell has a unique
address which varies from zero to memory size minus one.
For example if computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024=65536 memory location. The address of
these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of three types
 Cache Memory
 Primary Memory/Main Memory
 Secondary Memory
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed
up CPU. It acts as a buffer between the CPU and main memory.
It is used to hold those parts of data and program which are most frequently
used by CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from disk to
cache memory by operating system, from where CPU can access them.
ADVANTAGE
 Cache memory is faster than main memory.

 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.
DISADVANTAGE:
 Cache memory has limited capacity.

 It is very expensive.
Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is
currently working. It has limited capacity and data get lost when power is switched off.
It is generally made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as

registers. The data and instruction required to be processed earlier reside in main
memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.
33
Characteristic of Main Memory
 These are semiconductor memories.

 It known as main memory.
 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switch off.
 It is working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without primary memory.
Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower
than main memory. These are used for storing Data/Information permanently.
CPU directly does not access these memories instead they are accessed via input-
output routines. Contents of secondary memories are first transferred to main
memory, and then CPU can access it. For example: disk, CD-ROM, DVD etc.
Characteristic of Secondary Memory
 These are magnetic and optical memories.

 It is known as backup memory.
 It is non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
 It is used for storage of the data in the computer.
 Computer may run without secondary memory.
 Slower than primary memories.
 The secondary memory could be a removable, internal, or external storage.
REMOVABLE DISK
Alternatively referred to as removable storage and removable media, a removable disk is a media that enables a user to
move data between computers without having to open their computer. Below is a listing of the removable disks you're
likely to use with your computer.
 Floppy diskettes
 CD disc, DVD disc, Blu-ray disc
 Tape drive cartridges
 Thumb drives. Flash drives
Although hard drives that connect to a computers USB port do allow you to move data between computers without
opening the computer these drives are referred to as an external drive and not a removable disk drive.
INTERNAL
Internal is a term used to describe a device that is installed within the computer. For example, a video card is an internal
device and a printer is an external device. When referring to a drive an internal drive such as an internal hard drive is any
drive that is inside the computer.
EXTERNAL
External describes a hardware device that is installed outside of the computer.

34
Types of Secondary Storage Devices (rank by capacity)

RANK DEVICE CAPACITY
1 Floppy Disk 1.44MB to 4MB
2 Zip Drive Disks 100MB, 250MB and 750MB
3 Compact Disc (CD) 650MB to 700MB (74-80 minutes)

DVD-5 4.7GB (2 hours)
DVD-10 9.4GB (4.5 hours)
4 Digital Versatile Disc (DVD)
Blu-Ray DVD 25-50GB
HD-DVD 15-30GB
6 Secure Digital (SD) Card 2GB – 128GB
7 Flash Drive 1GB to 32 GB
8 Solid State Drive (SDD) 500GB
9 Hard Disk Drive (HDD) 1GB to 4TB

Table 1: Rank of Storage Devices by Capacity
FLOPPY DISK
A floppy disk, or diskette, is a disk storage medium composed of a disk of thin and
flexible magnetic storage medium, sealed in a rectangular plastic carrier lined with
fabric that removes dust particles. They are read and written by a floppy disk drive
(FDD).
Floppy disks, initially as 8-inch (200 mm) media and later in 5.25-inch (133 mm) and
3.5-inch (90 mm) sizes, were a ubiquitous form of data storage and exchange from
the mid-1970s well into the first decade of the 21st century.[1]
Today, because of the limited capacity and reliability of floppy diskettes many
computers no longer come equipped with floppy disk drives and are being replaced with CD-R, other writable discs, and
flash drives.
COMPACT DISK
Abbreviated as CD, a compact disc is a flat, round storage medium that is read by a laser in a
CD-ROM drive that was invented by James Russell and first created at a Philips factory in
Germany on August 17, 1982. The standard CD is capable of holding 72 minutes of music or
650 MB of data. 80 minute CDs are also commonly used to store data and are capable of
containing 700 MB of data. In the picture to the right, is an example of what the standard
compact disc looks like.
DVD
DVD is a digital optical disc storage format, invented and developed by Philips,
Sony, Toshiba, and Panasonic in 1995. DVDs offer higher storage capacity
than compact discs while having the same dimensions.
35
FLASH DRIVE
Alternatively referred to as a USB drive, data stick, pen drive, keychain drive and thumb
drive, a jump drive is a portable drive that is often the size of your thumb that connects
to the computer USB port. Today, flash drives are available in sizes such as 256MB,
512MB, 1GB, 5GB, 8GB, 16GB, 32GB and are an easy way to transfer and store
information.
Unlike a hard drive the flash drive only contains an integrated circuit memory board
capable of storing information and has no movable parts.
SOLID STATE DRIVE (SSD)
Also known as Solid-State Disk, SSD is a drive that uses non-volatile memory as a
means of storing and accessing data, much like computer RAM. Unlike other storage
devices such as hard drives, an SSD has no moving parts, which gives it advantages
such as accessing stored information faster, produces no noise, often more reliable, and
consume much less power than the traditional hard drive found in computers.
HARD DISK DRIVE (HDD)
Alternatively referred to as a hard disk drive and abbreviated as HD

or HDD, the hard drive is the computer's main storage media device
that permanently stores all data on the computer. The hard drive
was first introduced on September 13, 1956 and consists of one or
more hard drive platters inside of air sealed casing. Most computer
hard drives are in an internal drive bay at the front of the computer
and connect to the motherboard using either ATA, SCSI, or a SATA
cable and power cable. Below is a picture of what the inside of a
hard drive looks like for a desktop and laptop hard drive.
SD (SECURE DIGITAL) CARDiv
Secure Digital (SD) is a nonvolatile memory card used extensively in portable devices,
such as mobile phones, digital cameras, GPS navigation devices, handheld consoles, and
tablet computers.
In 1999, SanDisk, Matsushita, and Toshiba agreed to develop and market the Secure
Digital (SD) Memory Card. It was designed to compete with the Memory Stick, a product
that Sony had released the year before. The SD standard was introduced in August 1999
as an evolutionary improvement over MultiMediaCards (MMC).
Part of the reason the cards are called "Secure Digital" cards is because the cards have a
copyright protection feature built in. The security feature, called "key revocation" means
protected data on the card can only be read by specific devices. The cards can have both
v
secured and unsecured areas on them for copyrighted and non-copyrighted data.
The SD format is governed by the SD Association (SDA) - a global consortium of

vi
manufacturers.
SD cards come in three compatible sizes, as follows:
 MicroSD (15 mm × 11 mm)

 MiniSD (21.5 mm × 20 mm)
 SD (32 mm × 24 mm)
36
37 Computer – Memory Characteristics
Computer – Memory Characteristics

Storage technologies at all levels of the storage hierarchy can be differentiated by evaluating certain core characteristics
as well as measuring characteristics specific to a particular implementation. These core characteristics are volatility,
mutability and accessibility.
For any particular implementation of any storage technology, the characteristics worth measuring are capacity and
performance.
Volatility
NON-VOLATILE MEMORY
A memory (data storage) can retain the stored information even if it is not constantly supplied with electric power. It is
suitable for long-term storage of information.
VOLATILE MEMORY
A memory requires constant power to maintain the stored information. The fastest memory technologies of today are
volatile ones (not a universal rule). Since primary storage is required to be very fast, it predominantly uses volatile
memory.
An Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) can be used to give a computer a brief window of time to move information from
primary volatile storage into non-volatile storage before the batteries are exhausted. Some systems have integrated
batteries that maintain volatile storage for several hours.
Mutability
READ/WRITE STORAGE OR MUTABLE STORAGE
It allows information to be overwritten at any time. A computer without some amount of read/write storage for primary
storage purposes would be useless for many tasks. Modern computers typically use read/write storage also for secondary
storage.
READ ONLY STORAGE
Retains the information stored at the time of manufacture, and write once storage (Write Once Read Many) allows the
information to be written only once at some point after manufacture. These are called Immutable Storage. Immutable
storage is used for tertiary and off-line storage. Examples include CD-ROM, CD-R and DVD-R.
SLOW WRITE, FAST READ STORAGE
Read/write storage which allows information to be overwritten multiple times, but with the write operation being much
slower than the read operation. Examples include CD-RW, DVD-RW and flash memory.
Accessibility
RANDOM ACCESS
Any location in storage can be accessed at any moment in approximately the same amount of time. Such characteristic is
well suited for primary and secondary storage. Most semiconductor memories and disk drives provide random access.
SEQUENTIAL ACCESS
The accessing of pieces of information will be in a serial order, one after the other; therefore the time to access a particular
piece of information depends upon which piece of information was last accessed. Such characteristic is typical of off-line
storage.
37
38 Computer – RAM
Capacity
RAW CAPACITY
It is the total amount of stored information that a storage device or medium can hold. It is expressed as a quantity of bits or
bytes (e.g. 10.4 megabytes).
Computer – RAM
A RAM constitutes the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program and
program result. It is read/write memory. It is called random access memory (RAM).
Since access time in RAM is independent of the address to the word that is, each
storage location inside the memory is as easy to reach as other location & takes the
same amount of time. We can reach into the memory at random & extremely fast but
can also be quite expensive.
RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there
is a power failure. Hence a backup uninterruptible power system (UPS) is often used
with computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of
data it can hold.
RAM is of two types
 Static RAM (SRAM)

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power remains applied. However, data is lost
when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors
do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not have to be refreshed on a regular basis.
Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same amount of storage space, thus
making the manufacturing costs higher.
Static RAM is used as cache memory needs to be very fast and small.
Characteristic of the Static RAM
 It has long data lifetime

 There is no need to refresh
 Faster
 Used as cache memory
 Large size
 Expensive
 High power consumption
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order for it to maintain the data. This is done by placing the
memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per second. DRAM is used for most system
38
39 Computer – ROM
memory because it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of memory cells. These cells are composed of one
capacitor and one transistor.
Characteristic of the Dynamic RAM
 It has short data lifetime

 Need to refresh continuously
 Slower as compared to SRAM
 Used as RAM
 lesser in size
 Less expensive
 Less power consumption
Computer – ROM
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only
read but cannot write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The
information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture.
A ROM, stores such instruction as are required to start computer when

electricity is first turned on, this operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM
chip are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items
like washing machine and microwave oven.
FOLLOWING ARE THE VARIOUS TYPES OF ROM
MROM (MASKED ROM)
The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or instructions. These kinds of
ROMs are known as masked ROMs. It is inexpensive ROM.
PROM (PROGRAMMABLE READ ONLY MEMORY)
PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM and enters the d
esired contents using a PROM programmer. Inside the PROM chip there are small fuses which are burnt open during
programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.
EPROM (ERASABLE AND PROGRAMMABLE READ ONLY MEMORY)
The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for duration of up to 40 minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser
achieves this function. During programming an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is
retained for more than ten years because the charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is
passed through a quartz crystal window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use
the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.
39
40 Computer – Motherboard
EEPROM (ELECTRICALLY ERASABLE AND PROGRAMMABLE READ ONLY MEMORY)
The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and

reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take
about 4 to 10 ms (milli second). In EEPROM, any location can be selectively
erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than
erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of re-programming is flexible but slow.
Advantages of ROM
 Non-volatile in nature
 These cannot be accidentally changed
 Cheaper than RAMs
 Easy to test
 More Reliable than RAMs
 These are static and do not require refreshing
 Its contents are always known and can be verified
Computer – Motherboard
The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a computer
together. A motherboard connects CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video
card, sound card and other ports and expansion cards directly or via cables. It can be
considered as the backbone of a computer.
Features
 Motherboard varies greatly in supporting various types of components.
 Normally a motherboard supports a single type of CPU and few types of memories.
 Video Cards, Hard disks, Sound Cards have to compatible with motherboard to function properly.
 Motherboards, cases and power supplies must be compatible to work properly together.
Popular Manufacturers
 Intel
 ASUS
 AOpen
40
41 Computer - Memory Units
 ABIT
 Biostar
 Gigabyte
 MSI
Description:
The motherboard is mounted inside the case and is securely attached via small screws through pre-drilled holes.
Motherboard contains ports to connect all of the internal components. It provides a single socket for CPU. For memory,
normally one or more slots are available. Motherboards provide ports to attach floppy drive, hard drive and optical drives
via ribbon cables. Mother board carries fans and a special port designed for power supply.
There a peripheral card slots on front of the motherboard using which video cards, sound cards and other expansion cards
can be connected to motherboard.
On left side, motherboard carries a number of ports. These ports connect monitor, printer, mouse, keyboard, speaker,
network cables and all to the motherboard. Motherboards also provide USB ports which allow compatible devices to be
connected in plug-in/plug-out fashion. For example, pen drives digital cameras etc.
Computer - Memory Units

 It is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit.
 The storage capacities are expressed in terms of Bytes.
Following are the main memory storage units:
No. Unit Description
Bit (Binary A binary digit is logical 0 & 1 representing a passive or an active state of a
1
Digit) component in an electric circuit.
2 Nibble A group of 4 bits is called nibble.
A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the smallest unit which can
3 Byte
represent a data item or a character.
A computer word like a byte is a group of fixed number of bits processed as

a unit which varies from computer but is fixed for each computer.
4 Word The length of a computer word is called word-size or word length and it may
be as small as 8 bits or may be as long as 96 bits.
A computer stores the information in the form of the computer words.
Few higher storage units are following
No. Unit Description Exact Number of Bytes

10
1 Kilobyte (KB) 1 KB = 1024 Bytes 2 = 1,024
20
1 Megabyte (MB) 1 MB = 1024 KB 2 = 1,048,576
30
1 GigaByte (GB) 1 GB = 1024 MB 2 = 1,073,741,824
40
1 TeraByte (TB 1 TB = 1024 GB 2 = 1,099,511,627,776
50
1 PetaByte (PB) 1 PB = 1024 TB 2 = 1,125,899,906,842,624
41
42 Computer – Ports
Computer – Ports
What is a Port?
 A computer port is a physical docking point using which an external device can be connected to the computer.
 A computer port can also be programmatic docking point through which information flows from a program to
computer or over the internet.
Characteristics
 External devices are connected to a computer using cables and ports.
 Ports are slots on the motherboard into which a cable of external device is plugged in.
 Examples of external devices attached via ports are mouse, keyboard, monitor, microphone, speakers etc.
Following are few important types of ports
Serial Port
 Used for external modems and older computer mouse.
 Two versions: 9 pin, 25 pin models.
 Data travels at 115 kilobits per second.
Parallel Port
 Used for scanners and printers
 Also called printer port.
 25 pin model.
 Also known as IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port.
Game Port
 Connect a PC to a joystick
 Now replaced by USB.
PS/2 Port
 Used for old computer keyboard and mouse
 Also called mouse port.
 Most of the old computers provide two PS/2 port, each for mouse and
keyboard.
 This standard was introduced in 1987 by IBM with main purpose of
replacing the serial keyboard and mouse.
Universal Serial Bus (USB) Port
42
43 Computer – Ports
 Can connect all kind of external USB devices such as external hard disk,
printer, scanner, mouse, keyboard etc.
 Introduced in 1997.
 Most of the computers provide two USB port as minimum.
 Data travels at 12 megabits per seconds
 USB compliant devices can get power from a USB port
VGA Port
 Connects monitor to a computer's video card.
 Have 15 holes.
 Similar to serial port connector but serial port connector has pins, it has
holes.
HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia

Interface)
 A compact audio/video interface for transferring uncompressed video data
and compressed or uncompressed digital audio data from an HDMI-
compliant source device, such as a display controller, to a compatible
computer monitor, video projector, digital television, or digital audio device.
 A digital interface for audio and video that provides a single-cable solution
for home theater and consumer electronics equipment such as TVs, Blu-
ray players and set-top boxes. Introduced in 2002, one HDMI cable
replaced up to six analog audio cables and three analog video cables.
 HDMI is a digital replacement for existing analog video standards.
Power Connector
 Three-pronged plug
 Connects to the computer's power cable that plugs into a power bar or wall
socket.
Firewire Port
 Transfer large amounts of data at very fast speed.
 Connects camcorders and video equipment to the computer
 Data travels at 400 to 800 megabits per seconds
 Invented by Apple
 Three variants: 4-Pin FireWire 400 connector, 6-Pin FireWire 400
connector and 9-Pin FireWire 800 connector
43
44 Computer – Hardware
Modem / RJ11
 RJ or Registered Jack
 Connects a PC's modem to the telephone network.
Ethernet Port / RJ45

 Connects to a network and high speed Internet
 Connect network cable to a computer.
 This port resides on an Ethernet Card.
 Data travels at 10 megabits to 1000 megabits per seconds depending
upon the network bandwidth.
Digital Video Interface, DVI port

 Connect a Flat panel LCD monitors to the computer's high end video
graphic cards.
 Very popular among video card manufacturers.
Sockets (Multimedia Ports)

 Connect microphone, speakers to sound card of the computer
Computer – Hardware
Hardware represents the physical and tangible components of the computer i.e. the components that can be seen and
touched.
Examples of Hardware are following.
 Input devices -- keyboard, mouse etc.

 Output devices -- printer, monitor etc.
 Secondary storage devices -- Hard disk, CD, DVD etc.
 Internal components -- CPU, motherboard, RAM etc.
Relationship between Hardware and

Software
 Mutually dependent. Both of them must work together to make
computer produce a useful output.
 Software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.
 Hardware without set of programs to operate upon cannot be utilized and is useless.
44
45 Computer – Software
 To get a particular job done on the computer, relevant software should be loaded into the hardware
 Hardware is a one-time expense.
 Software development is very expensive and is a continuing expense.
 Different software can be loaded on hardware to run different jobs.
 Software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware.
 If hardware is the 'heart' of a computer system, then software is its 'soul’. Both are complimentary to each other.
Computer – Software
Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function. A program is a sequence of
instructions written to solve a particular problem.
There are two types of software
 System Software or Operating System

 Application Software
System Software or Operating System

 An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the software
and the computer hardware.
 It is an integration set of specialized programs that are used to manage overall
resources and operations of the computer.
 It is specialized software that controls and monitors the execution of all other
programs that reside in the computer, including application programs and other
system software.
 The system software is collection of programs designed to operate, control and
extend the processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software are
generally prepared by computer manufactures.
 This software comprise of programs written in low level languages which interact
with the hardware at a very basic level. System software serves as the interface
between hardware and the end users.
 It is essentially the master controller for all the activities that takes place within a
computer. It is referred to as a set of computer programs that controls the
computer hardware and acts as an interface with application programs.
System Software Application

Hardware User
(OS) Software
45
FEATURES OF SYSTEM SOFTWARE ARE THE FOLLOWING
 Close to system.
 Fast in speed.
 Difficult to design.
 Difficult to understand.
 Less interactive.
 Smaller in size.
 Difficult to manipulate.
 Generally written in low level language.
TWO CATEGORIES OF OPERATING SYSTEM
 Desktop Operating System – it is also referred to as a client operating system. It is designed for single-user
microcomputer.
 Server Operating System – sometimes called ―network operating system‖ is designed for computers that
provide centralized storage facilities and communications capabilities and Web Sites.
TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEM
 Real-Time Operating System - is a multitasking operating system that aims at executing real-time applications.
The main object of real-time operating systems is their quick and predictable response to events.
 Multi-user vs. Single-user - A multi-user operating system allows multiple users to access a computer system
concurrently. Single-user operating systems, as opposed to a multi-user operating system, are usable by a single
user at a time.
 Multi-tasking vs. Single-tasking - When a single program is allowed to run at a time, the system is grouped
under a single-tasking system, while in case the operating system allows the execution of multiple tasks at one
time, it is classified as a multi-tasking operating system.
Two types of Multi-tasking
o Pre-emptive - the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates one slot to each of the programs.
o Cooperative - is achieved by relying on each process to give time to the other processes in a defined
manner.
 Distributed - manages a group of independent computers and makes them appear to be a single computer.
 Embedded - Embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are
designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy.
OBJECTIVES OF OPERATING SYSTEM
 Making a computer system convenient to use in an efficient manner

 To hide the details of the hardware resources from the users
 To provide users a convenient interface to use the computer system.
 To act as an intermediary between the hardware and its users and making it easier for the users to access and
use other resources.
 Manage the resources of a computer system.
 Keep track of who is using which resource, granting resource requests, according for resource using and
mediating conflicting requests from different programs and users.
 The efficient and fair sharing of resources among users and programs
46
CHARACTERISTICS OF OPERATING SYSTEM
 Memory Management -- It keeps tracks of primary memory i.e what part of it are in use by whom, what part are
not in use etc. Allocates the memory when the process or program requests it.
 Processor Management -- Allocate the processor (CPU) to a process. Deallocate processor when processor is
no longer required.
 Device Management -- Keep tracks of all devices. This is also called I/O controller. Decides which process gets
the device when and for how much time.
 File Management -- Allocates the resources. De-allocates the resource. Decides who gets the resources.
 Security -- By means of passwords & similar other techniques, preventing unauthorized access to programs &
data.
 Job accounting -- Keeping track of time & resources used by various jobs and/or users.
 Control over system performance -- Recording delays between request for a service & from the system.
 Interaction with the operators -- The interaction may take place via the console of the computer in the form of
instructions. Operating System acknowledges the same, do the corresponding action and inform the operation by
a display screen.
 Error-detecting aids -- Production of dumps, traces, error messages and other debugging and error-detecting
methods.
 Coordination between other software and users -- Coordination and assignment of compilers, interpreters,
assemblers and other software to the various users of the computer systems.
FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEM
 Schedule input and output operations

 Schedule work of jobs according to priority
 Communicate with human operator
 Handle interruptions and monitors system status
 Logs the jobs that are finished and currently being executed
 Control system access and security functions
 Facilitate in locating and debugging errors
 Handle multiprogramming, so that several programs run at the same time.
47
LIST OF OPERATING SYSTEMS
Chrome OS
 Developer: Google
 Google’s Chrome OS is built on the Linux kernel, but it replaces the
desktop and user-level software with a specialized desktop that can only
run the Chrome browser and Chrome apps.
 Chrome OS isn’t really a general-purpose PC operating system — instead,
it’s designed to be preinstalled on specialized laptops, known as
CHROMEBOOKS.
Mac OS
 Developer: Apple Inc.
 Used for: Personal Computers. Macintosh line of computer systems (Mac
Computers).
 User Interface: GUI
 Source Model: Proprietary
 License: Proprietary Software
 Introduction date: 1984
 Latest version: Mac OS 10.10 Yosemite
Windows XP
 Developer: Microsoft
 Used for: Personal Computers
 Source Model: Closed / Shared
 License: Proprietary Commercial Software
Produced by Microsoft as part of the Windows NT family of operating

systems. The operating system was released to manufacturing on August
24, 2001, and generally released for retail sale on October 25, 2001.
Windows 7
 Used for: Personal Computers
Windows 7 is a personal computer operating system, a version of

Windows NT. Development of 7 occurred as early as 2006 under the
codename "Blackcomb." Windows 7 was released to manufacturing on
July 22, 2009, and became generally available on October 22, 2009, less
than three years after the release of its predecessor,
Windows 8
 Used for: Personal Computers , Tablet
 User Interface: GUI, Multi-touch
Developed by Microsoft as part of the Windows NT family of operating

systems. Windows 8 introduced major changes to the operating system's
platform and user interface to improve its user experience on tablets,
where Windows was now competing with mobile operating systems,
including Android and iOS
48
vii
Ubuntu
 A Debian-based Linux operating system

 Unity as its default desktop environment (GNOME was the previous
desktop environment).
 It is based on free software and named after the Southern African
philosophy of ubuntu (literally, "human-ness"), which often is translated as
"humanity towards others" or "the belief in a universal bond of sharing that
connects all humanity"
 According to some metrics, Ubuntu is the most popular desktop Linux
distribution to date.
 Development of Ubuntu is led by Canonical Ltd., a company owned by
South African entrepreneur Mark Shuttleworth.
Android
 Android uses the Linux kernel, but practically everything else on Android is
very different from typical Linux distributions.
 Originally designed for smartphones, you can now get Android laptops and
even desktops.
 It’s not an ideal operating system for your PC — it still doesn’t allow you to
use multiple apps at the same time
iOS
 iOS (previously iPhone OS) is a mobile operating system developed by

Apple Inc. and distributed exclusively for Apple hardware.
 It is the operating system that powers many of the company's iDevices.
 Originally unveiled in 2007 for the iPhone, it has been extended to support
other Apple devices such as the iPod Touch (September 2007), iPad
(January 2010), iPad Mini (November 2012) and second-generation Apple
TV onward (September 2010).
Application Software
Application software is the software that is designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular environment. All software
prepared by us in the computer lab can come under the category of Application software.
Application software may consist of a single program, such as a Microsoft's notepad for writing and editing simple text. It
may also consists of a collection of programs, often called a software package, which work together to accomplish a task,
such as a spreadsheet package.
Examples of Application software are following
 Payroll Software
 Student Record Software
 Inventory Management Software
 Income Tax Software
 Railways Reservation Software
 Microsoft Office Suite Software
 Microsoft Word
 Microsoft Excel
 Microsoft PowerPoint
Features of Application Software are following
 It is close to user.
 It is easy to design.
49
 More interactive.
 Slow in speed.
 Generally written in high level language.
 Easy to understand.
 Easy to manipulate and use.
 Bigger in size and requires large storage space.
50
Programming Language
JAVA
Java is considered as the perfect language for the developers and programmers to learn. Currently it is the top-most
programming language and has grabbed the highest position with Android OS yet again, though it was a bit down a few
years ago. Java can be utilized for mobile-based applications, enterprise level purpose, for creating desktop applications,
and for establishing Android apps on tablets and smartphones.
PHP
The web developers should learn about PHP or Hypertext Preprocessor, a well-known programming language. With the
help of PHP, you can enlarge a web app very quickly and effortlessly. PHP is the actual foundation of many strong content
management systems, for example, WordPress. PHP is really a valuable programming language for the developers and
programmers.
JAVASCRIPT
While you are expanding your site, JavaScript is extremely functional as this language can immensely assist you in
generating communication for your website. You can utilize various in style frameworks in JavaScript for constructing
superb user interface. When you’re into web development, it’s very important to known about JavaScript for making
interactive web pages. JavaScript is applied for including animations on the web pages, loading fresh images, scripts or
objects on web page, and craft hugely responsive user interfaces.
PYTHON
For becoming skilled at all-in-one language, you should begin learning Python language that has the ability to expand web
apps, data analysis, user interfaces, and many more, and frameworks are also available for these tasks. Python is utilized
by bigger companies mostly that can evaluate vast data sets, thus this is a huge chance to learn it and be a Python
programmer.
OBJECTIVE-C
If you are the one who is interested on constructing apps for iOS, then you have to know about Objective-C language
efficiently. The most preferred choice for all the web developers is Objective-C. When you have learnt Objective-C, you
can begin applying XCode that is known to be the authorized software development tool from Apple. Thus you can quickly
produce iOS app that can be noticeable in App Store.
RUBY
Another popular programming language is Ruby and Ruby on Rails. This can be learnt easily, and also very strong and
clear-cut. If you’ve small time in hand and still want to craft any project, then you can surely utilize Ruby language. This
programming language is applied massively for web programming, and hence turned out to be the ideal selection for the
beginner companies.
PERL
Perl is also a well-accepted programming language that offers distinct tools for various obscure setbacks such as system
programming. Though this programming language is a bit puzzling, but it is really a strong one that you can learn for this
year, and renew your knowledge. Perl is mainly used for sites and web app expansion, desktop app development and
system administration, and test automation that can be applied for testing databases, web apps, networking devices, and
many more.
C, C++ AND C#
You can increase your knowledge by learning about C this year that is unique programming language. Being the oldest, it
should be learnt firstly when you start up, and it is mainly applied in forming different softwares.
C++ or C plus plus is a bit more progressive than C, and utilized immensely in forming hardware speeded games. It is an
ideal selection for strong desktop software as well as apps for mobiles and desktop. Known to be the strongest language,
C++ is applied in vital operating systems, such as Windows.
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52 Computer - Number System
After learning these 2, you can go ahead in knowing about C# language. It won’t be difficult for you to get accustomed with
C# after knowing C and C++. C# is actually the prime language for Microsoft applications and services. While executing
with .Net and ASP technologies, you are required to be familiar with the C# accurately.
SQL
When you are executing on databases such as Microsoft SQL server, Oracle, MySQL, etc, you should be aware of SQL
programming language or Standard Query Language. From this language, you can achieve the proficiency of acquiring
the needed data from big and multifaceted databases.
SWIFT
Swift is reflected upon as the trendiest program language for expanding apps for Apple products. This language can be
utilized by you for building up apps for iOS activated devices and Apple’s MAC in quick and simple method. When you are
keen to expand a superb iOS application, then it is better for you to gain knowledge of Swift programming language.
Computer - Number System

When we type some letters or words, the computer translates them in numbers as computers can understand only
numbers.
A computer can understand positional number system where there are only a few symbols called digits and these symbols
represent different values depending on the position they occupy in the number.
A value of each digit in a number can be determined using
 The digit
 The position of the digit in the number
 The base of the number system (where base is defined as the total number of digits available in the number
system).
Decimal Number System

The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal number system. Decimal number system has base 10
as it uses 10 digits from 0 to 9. In decimal number system, the successive positions to the left of the decimal point
represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands and so on.
Each position represents a specific power of the base (10). For example, the decimal number 1234 consists of the digit 4
in the units position, 3 in the tens position, 2 in the hundreds position, and 1 in the thousands position, and its value can be
written as
(1x1000)+ (2x100)+ (3x10)+ (4xl)
3 2 1 0
(1x10 )+ (2x10 ) + (3x10 ) + (4xl0 )
1000 + 200 + 30 + 4
1234
52
53 Computer - Number System
As a computer programmer or an IT professional, you should understand the following number systems which are
frequently used in computers.
S.N. Number System & Description
Binary Number System

1
Base 2. Digits used: 0, 1
Octal Number System

2
Base 8. Digits used: 0 to 7
Hexa Decimal Number System

4
Base 16. Digits used: 0 to 9, Letters used: A- F
Binary Number System

CHARACTERISTICS
 Uses two digits, 0 and 1.

 Also called base 2 number system
 0
Each position in a binary number represents a 0 power of the base (2). Example 2

x
Last position in a binary number represents an x power of the base (2). Example 2 where x represents the last
position - 1.
EXAMPLE
Binary Number: 101012
Calculating Decimal Equivalent:
Step Binary Number Decimal Number

4 3 2 1 0
Step 1 101012 ((1 x 2 ) + (0 x 2 ) + (1 x 2 ) + (0 x 2 ) + (1 x 2 ))10
Step 2 101012 (16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1)10
Step 3 101012 2110
Note: 101012 are normally written as 10101.
Octal Number System

CHARACTERISTICS
 Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7.

 0
Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the base (8). Example 8
 x
Last position in an octal number represents an x power of the base (8). Example 8 where x represents the last
position - 1.
53
54 Computer - Number Conversion
EXAMPLE
Octal Number: 125708
Step Octal Number Decimal Number

4 3 2 1 0
Step 1 125708 ((1 x 8 ) + (2 x 8 ) + (5 x 8 ) + (7 x 8 ) + (0 x 8 ))10
Step 2 125708 (4096 + 1024 + 320 + 56 + 0)10
Step 3 125708 549610
Note: 125708 is normally written as 12570.
Hexadecimal Number System

CHARACTERISTICS
 Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F.

 Letters represents numbers starting from 10. A = 10. B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14, F = 15.
 0
Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the base (16). Example 16
 x
Last position in a hexadecimal number represents an x power of the base (16). Example 16 where x represents
the last position - 1.
EXAMPLE
Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16

4 3 2 1 0
Step 1 19FDE16 ((1 x 16 ) + (9 x 16 ) + (F x 16 ) + (D x 16 ) + (E x 16 ))10
4 3 2 1 0
Step 2 19FDE16 ((1 x 16 ) + (9 x 16 ) + (15 x 16 ) + (13 x 16 ) + (14 x 16 ))10
Step 3 19FDE16 (65536+ 36864 + 3840 + 208 + 14)10
Step 4 19FDE16 10646210
Note: 19FDE16 is normally written as 19FDE.
Computer - Number Conversion

There are many methods or techniques which can be used to convert numbers from one base to another. We'll
demonstrate here the following
 Decimal to Other Base System

 Other Base System to Decimal
 Other Base System to Non-Decimal
 Shortcut method - Binary to Octal
54
 Shortcut method - Octal to Binary

 Shortcut method - Binary to Hexadecimal
 Shortcut method - Hexadecimal to Binary
Decimal to Other Base System

STEPS
Step 1 - Divide the decimal number to be converted by the value of the new base.
Step 2 - Get the remainder from Step 1 as the rightmost digit (least significant digit) of new base number.
Step 3 - Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the new base.
Step 4 - Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit (to the left) of the new base number.
Repeat Steps 3 and 4, getting remainders from right to left, until the quotient becomes zero in Step 3.
The last remainder thus obtained will be the most significant digit (MSD) of the new base number.
EXAMPLE
Decimal Number: 2910
Calculating Binary Equivalent:
Step Operation Result Remainder
Step 1 29 / 2 14 1
Step 2 14 / 2 7 0
Step 3 7/2 3 1
Step 4 3/2 1 1
Step 5 1/2 0 1
As mentioned in Steps 2 and 4, the remainders have to be arranged in the reverse order so that the first remainder
becomes the least significant digit (LSD) and the last remainder becomes the most significant digit (MSD).
Decimal Number: 2910 = Binary Number: 111012.
Other base system to Decimal System

STEPS
Step 1 - Determine the column (positional) value of each digit (this depends on the position of the digit and the base of the
number system).
Step 2 - Multiply the obtained column values (in Step 1) by the digits in the corresponding columns.
Step 3 - Sum the products calculated in Step 2. The total is the equivalent value in decimal.
55
EXAMPLE
4 3 2 1 0
Step 1 111012 ((1 x 2 ) + (1 x 2 ) + (1 x 2 ) + (0 x 2 ) + (1 x 2 ))10
Step 2 111012 (16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1)10
Step 3 111012 2910
Binary Number: 111012 = Decimal Number: 2910
Other Base System to Non-Decimal System

STEPS
Step 1 - Convert the original number to a decimal number (base 10).
Step 2 - Convert the decimal number so obtained to the new base number.
EXAMPLE
Octal Number: 258
STEP 1: CONVERT TO DECIMAL

Step Octal Number Decimal Number
1 0
Step 1 278 ((2 x 8 ) + (5 x 8 ))10
Step 2 278 (16 + 5 )10
Step 3 278 2110
Octal Number: 258 = Decimal Number: 2110
STEP 2: CONVERT DECIMAL TO BINARY

Step Operation Result Remainder
Step 1 21 / 2 10 1
Step 2 10 / 2 5 0
Step 3 5/2 2 1
56
Step 4 2/2 1 0
Step 5 1/2 0 1
Decimal Number: 2110 = Binary Number: 101012
Octal Number: 258 = Binary Number: 101012
Shortcut method - Binary to Octal

STEPS
Step 1 - Divide the binary digits into groups of three (starting from the right).
Step 2 - Convert each group of three binary digits to one octal digit.
EXAMPLE
Calculating Octal Equivalent:
Step Binary Number Octal Number
Step 1 101012 010 101
Step 2 101012 28 58 38
Step 3 101012 258
Binary Number: 101012 = Octal Number: 258
Shortcut method - Octal to Binary

STEPS
Step 1 - Convert each octal digit to a 3 digit binary number (the octal digits may be treated as decimal for this conversion).
Step 2 - Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 3 digits each) into a single binary number.
EXAMPLE
Octal Number: 258
Step Octal Number Binary Number
Step 1 258 210 510
Step 2 258 0102 1012
57
Step 3 258 0101012
Octal Number: 258 = Binary Number: 101012
Shortcut method - Binary to Hexadecimal

STEPS
Step 1 - Divide the binary digits into groups of four (starting from the right).
Step 2 - Convert each group of four binary digits to one hexadecimal symbol.
EXAMPLE
Calculating hexadecimal Equivalent:
Step Binary Number Hexadecimal Number
Step 1 101012 0001 0101
Step 2 101012 110 510
Step 3 101012 1510
Step 5 101012 F16
Binary Number: 101012 = Hexadecimal Number: F16
Shortcut method - Hexadecimal to Binary

STEPS
Step 1 - Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4 digit binary number (the hexadecimal digits may be treated as decimal for
this conversion).
Step 2 - Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 4 digits each) into a single binary number.
EXAMPLE
Hexadecimal Number: F16
Step Hexadecimal Number Binary Number
Step 1 F16 1510
Step 2 F16 110 510
Step 3 F16 00012 01012
58
Step 4 F16 000101012
Hexadecimal Number: F16 = Binary Number: 101012
59
60 Binary Math
Binary Math
Binary Addition
Let's first take a look at decimal addition. As an example we have 26 plus 36,
26
+36
To add these two numbers, we first consider the "ones" column and calculate 6 plus 6, which results in 12. Since 12 is
greater than 9 (remembering that base 10 operates with digits 0-9), we "carry" the 1 from the "ones" column to the "tens
viii
column" and leave the 2 in the "ones" column.
Considering the "tens" column, we calculate 1 + (2 + 3), which results in 6. Since 6 is less than 9, there is nothing to
"carry" and we leave 6 in the "tens" column.
26
+36
62
Binary addition works in the same way, except that only 0's and 1's can be used, instead of the whole spectrum of 0-9.
This actually makes binary addition much simpler than decimal addition, as we only need to remember the following:
0+0=0
0+1=1
1+0=1
1 + 1 = 10
As an example of binary addition we have,
1 0 1
+ 1 0 1
a) To add these two numbers, we first consider the "ones" column and calculate 1 + 1, which (in binary) results in
10. We "carry" the 1 to the "tens" column, and the leave the 0 in the "ones" column.
b) Moving on to the "tens" column, we calculate 1 + (0 + 0), which gives 1. Nothing "carries" to the "hundreds"
column, and we leave the 1 in the "tens" column.
c) Moving on to the "hundreds" column, we calculate 1 + 1, which gives 10. We "carry" the 1 to the "thousands"
column, leaving the 0 in the "hundreds" column.
carry 1 1
1 0 1
+ 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
Another example of binary addition:
carry 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
+ 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 0
60
61
Note that in the "tens" column, we have 1 + (1 + 1), where the first 1 is "carried" from the "ones" column. Recall that in
binary,
1 + 1 + 1 = 10 + 1
= 11
Binary Subtraction
Binary subtraction is simplified as well, as long as we remember how subtraction and the base 2 number system. Let's first
look at an easy example.
1 1 1
- 1 0
1 0 1
Note that the difference is the same if this was decimal subtraction. Also similar to decimal subtraction is the concept of
"borrowing." Watch as "borrowing" occurs when a larger digit, say 8, is subtracted from a smaller digit, say 5, as shown
below in decimal subtraction.
2 1
3 5
- 8
2 7
For 10 minus 1, 1 is borrowed from the "tens" column for use in the "ones" column, leaving the "tens" column with only 2.
The following examples show "borrowing" in binary subtraction.
0 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
- 1 - 1 0 - 1 1 0
1 1 0 1 0 0
61
62 Computer - Data & information
Computer - Data & information

What is Data?
Data can be defined as a representation of facts, concepts or instruction in a formalized manner which should be suitable
for communication, interpretation or processing by human or electronic machine.
Data is represented with the help of characters like alphabets (A-Z,a-z), digits (0-9) or special characters(+,-,/,*,<,>,= etc).
What is Information?
Information is organized or classified data so that it has some meaningful
values to the receiver.
Information is the processed data on which decisions and actions are

based.
For the decision to be meaningful, the processed data must qualify for the
following characteristics
 Timely - Information should be available when required.

 Accuracy - Information should be accurate.
 Completeness - Information should be complete.
Computer Security Issues

 Computer Virus
It is a computer program that can copy itself, infect a computer and spread from one computer to another when
its host is taken to target computer. Some computer viruses do nothing beyond reproducing themselves
 Malware
Short for Malicious software and is designed to secretly access a computer system without the owner’s informed
consent. It may be any form of hostile, intrusive, or annoying software or program code.
 Spyware
Is a type of malware that can be installed on a computer to collect information about users without their
knowledge. Its presence is typically hidden from the user and is difficult to detect.
 Adware
Is any software package which automatically plays, displays, or downloads advertisements to a computer usually
in the form of a pop-up in order to generate for its author. Adware by itself is harmless
 Computer Worm (Worm)
62
63 Computer – Networking
Is a self-replicating malware computer program, which uses a computer network to send copies of itself to other
computers on the network without any user intervention due to security shortcomings on the target computer
 Trojan Horse (Trojan)
Derived from the Trojan horse story in Greek Mythology is software that appears to perform a desirable function
to the user prior to run or install but steals information or harm the system.
 Rootkit
Is a software that enables continued privileged access to a computer while actively hiding its presence from
administrators by sabotaging standard operating system functionality or other applications.
 E-mail Spam
Junk e-mail or unsolicited bulk e-mail (UBE), is nearly identical, unsolicited, bulk messages sent to numerous
recipients by e-mail
Computer – Networking
What is a Computer Network?
A computer network is a system in which multiple computers are connected to each other to share information and
resources.
Characteristics
 Share Resources from one computer to another
 Create files and store them in one computer, access
those files from the other computer(s) connected over
the network
 Connect a printer, scanner, or a fax machine to one
computer within the network and let other computers of
the network use the machines available over network.
Following is the list of hardware required to setup a computer

network.
 Network Cables
 Distributors
 Router
 Internal Network Cards
 External Network Cards
Network Cables
 Network cables are used to connect computers. The most commonly used
cable is Category 5 cable RJ-45.
63
64 Computer – Networking
TYPES OF NETWORKING CABLE
COAXIAL CABLE
Coaxial cable is usually constructed of either copper or aluminum, and is used

by cable television companies to provide service. It is also used for connecting
the various components which make up satellite communication systems.
Coaxial was one of the earliest types of network cabling developed
TWISTED PAIR
Twisted Pair (TP) cable is one of the most commonly used cable types in networking.
Wires are grouped in pairs and twisted together to reduce interference. The pairs of
wires are colored so that you can identify the same wire at each end. Typically in each
pair, one of the wires is a solid color and its partner is the same color striped onto a
white background.
FIBER OPTIC
Unlike TP and coax, fiber optic cables transmit data using pulses of light. Although not
normally found in home or small business environments, fiber optic cabling is widely
used in enterprise environments and large data centers. Fiber optic cable is constructed
of either glass or plastic, neither of which conducts electricity. This means that it is
immune to EMI and is suitable for installation in environments where interference is a
problem.
Distributors
 Each and every computer can be connected to another one via a
serial port but if we need to connect many computers to produce a network,
this serial connection will not work. The solution is to use a central body to
which other computers, printers, scanners etc. can be connected and, and
then this body will manage or distribute network traffic.
Router
 A router is a type of device which acts as the central point among
computers and other devices that are part of a network.
 A router is equipped with holes called ports.
 Computers and other devices are connected to a router using network
cables.
 Now-a-days router comes in wireless modes using which computers
can be connected without any physical cable.
64
65 Computer - Internet & Intranet
Network Card
 Network card is a necessary component of a computer without which a computer cannot be connected over a
network.
 Also known as network adapter or Network Interface Card (NIC).
 Most of branded computers have network card pre-installed.
 Network cards are of two types: Internal and External Network Cards
Internal Network Cards

 Motherboard has a slot for internal network card where it is to be
inserted.
 Internal network cards are of two types.
 First type uses Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) connection.
 Second type uses Industry Standard Architecture (ISA).
 Network cables are required to provide network access
External Network Cards

 Comes in two flavors: Wireless and USB based.
 Wireless network card need to inserted into the motherboard but
no network cable is required to connect to network.
 USB card, are easy to use and connect via USB port.
 Computer automatically detects USB card and can install the
drivers required to support the USB network card automatically.
Computer - Internet & Intranet

Internet
 Internet is a world-wide / global system of interconnected
computer networks.
 Internet uses the standard Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
 Every computer in internet is identified by a unique IP address.
 IP Address is a unique set of numbers (such as 110.22.33.114)
which identifies a computer location.
 A special computer DNS (Domain Name Server) is used to give
name to the IP Address so that user can locate a computer by a
name.
 For Example, a DNS server will resolve a
name http://www.tutorialspoint.com to a particular IP address to
unique identify the computer on which this website is hosted.
 Internet is accessible to every user all over the world.
65
Intranet
 Intranet is system in which multiple PCs are networked to be
connected to each other.
 PCs in intranet are not available to the world outside of the intranet.
 Usually each company or organizations have their own Intranet
network and members/employees of that company can access the
computers in their intranet.
 Each computer in Intranet is also identified by an IP Address which
is unique among the computers in that Intranet.
Similarities in Internet & Intranet

 Intranet uses the internet protocols such as TCP/IP and FTP.
 Intranet sites are accessible via web browser in similar way as websites in internet. But only members of Intranet
network can access intranet hosted sites.
 In Intranet, own instant messengers can be used as similar to yahoo messenger/ gtalk over the internet.
Differences in Internet & Intranet

 Internet is general to PCs all over the world where Intranet is specific to few PCs.
 Internet is wider access and provides a better access to websites to large population whereas Intranet is
restricted.
 Internet is not as safe as Intranet as Intranet can be safely privatized as per the need.
Different types of Networkix

LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)
This is one of the original categories of network, and one of the simplest. LAN networks connect computers together over
relatively small distances, such as within a single building or within a small group of buildings.
Homes often have LAN networks too, especially if there is more than one device in the home. Often they do not contain
more than one subnet, if any, and are usually controlled by a single administrator. They do not have to be connected to
the internet to work, although they can be.
WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)
This is another of the original categories of network, and slightly more complex in nature. WAN networks connect
computers together over large physical distances, remotely connecting them over one huge network and allowing them to
communicate even when far apart. The Internet is a WAN, and connects computers all around the world together.
LANs connect to WANs, such as the internet, using routers to transfer data and information quickly and securely. WANs
are usually too large to be controlled by one administrator, and so usually have collective ownership, or in the case of the
internet, is publicly owned.
OTHER TYPES OF NETWORK
Personal Area Network (PAN) – This is a computer network organized around an individual person within a single
building. This could be inside a small office or residence. A typical PAN would include one or more computers, telephones,
peripheral devices, video game consoles and other personal entertainment devices.
66
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) – This is a network which is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN, and
incorporates elements of both. It typically spans a town or city and is owned by a single person or company, such as a
local council or a large company.
Campus Area Network (CAN) – This is a network which is larger than a LAN, but smaller than an MAN. This is typical in
areas such as a university, large school or small business. It is typically spread over a collection of buildings which are
reasonably local to each other. It may have an internal Ethernet as well as capability of connecting to the internet.
Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) – This is a LAN which works using wireless network technology such as Wi-Fi.
This type of network is becoming more popular as wireless technology is further developed and is used more in the home
and by small businesses. It means devices do not need to rely on physical cables and wires as much and can organise
their spaces more effectively.
Storage Area Network (SAN) – This network connects servers directly to devices which store amounts of data without
relying on a LAN or WAN network to do so. This can involve another type of connection known as Fibre Channel, a
system similar to Ethernet which handles high-performance disk storage for applications on a number of professional
networks.
i
http://www.computerhistory.org/timeline/?category=cmptr
ii
http://latesttechnomanias.blogspot.com/2010/06/second-generation-computers.html
iii
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fingerprint_recognition
iv
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Digital
v
http://www.techterms.com/definition/sd
vi
http://www.techopedia.com/definition/2808/secure-digital-card-sd-card
vii
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubuntu_(operating_system)
viii
http://www.binarymath.info/addition-subtraction.php#sthash.0NFoy28h.dpuf
ix
http://www.certiology.com/computing/computer-networking/types-of-networks
x https://www.tutorialspoint.com/computer_fundamentals
67

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Introduction

Computer - Overview ........................................................................................................................................ 2

Computer – Applications ................................................................................................................................... 5

Computer – History Timeline ............................................................................................................................. 9

Computer – Generations ................................................................................................................................. 14

Computer – Types .......................................................................................................................................... 18

Computer – Components ................................................................................................................................ 22

Computer – CPU ............................................................................................................................................ 23

Computer - Input Devices................................................................................................................................ 24

Computer - Output Devices ............................................................................................................................. 28

Computer – Memory ....................................................................................................................................... 33

Computer – Memory Characteristics ............................................................................................................... 37

Computer – RAM ............................................................................................................................................ 38

Computer – ROM ............................................................................................................................................ 39

Computer – Motherboard ................................................................................................................................ 40

Computer - Memory Units ............................................................................................................................... 41

Computer – Ports ............................................................................................................................................ 42

Computer – Hardware ..................................................................................................................................... 44

Computer – Software ...................................................................................................................................... 45

Computer - Number System ............................................................................................................................ 52

Computer - Number Conversion ...................................................................................................................... 54

Binary Math .................................................................................................................................................... 60

Computer - Data & information ........................................................................................................................ 62

Computer Security Issues ............................................................................................................................... 62

Computer – Networking .................................................................................................................................. 63

Computer - Internet & Intranet ......................................................................................................................... 65

 Takes data as input.

 Accept and store an input data.

 Computer is a very fast device.

 In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.

 Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.

 A computer is a very versatile machine.

 A computer is a reliable machine.

 Computer is an automatic machine.

REDUCTION IN PAPER WORK

 It can perform function as instructed by user. So it is fully dependent on human being.

 Computer has no feeling or emotions.

Data Processing Cycle

Computer used in business organization for:

Banks provide following facilities:

 Banks on-line accounting facility, which include current balances,

Insurance Companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information

 how to continue with policies

 The uses of computer provide a tool in the Education

 Advertising: With computers, advertising professionals create art and

The computers are being used in hospitals to keep the record

Some of major fields of health care in which computer are

 Diagnostic System: Computers are used to collect

One of major areas is CAD (Computer aided design).CAD provides

 Structural Engineering: Requires stress and strain

Computer – History Timeline

Step Reckoner (1671), featured a stepped drum which

1842 Charles Babbage (Father of modern computer)

The Difference Engine, designed by the English

Augusta Ada (a.k.a. Lady Lovelace) is known as "the

The first Colossus is operational at Bletchley Park. Designed by

J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly build the first general-purpose

1973 Part of the UNIX operating system is implemented in C.

The first microcomputer, the Altair, is introduced.

The first supercomputer, the Cray-1, is announced.

1983 C with Classes is redesigned and reimplemented as C++.

Apple introduces the Macintosh, the first widely available

1988 Work on standardization of C++ begins.

1989 Microsoft Corporation introduces Windows for IBM computers.