Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel through the Earth's layers, and are a result of earthquakes,

volcanic eruptions, magma movement, large landslides and large man-made explosions that give out
low-frequency acoustic energy. Many other natural and anthropogenic sources create low-amplitude
waves commonly referred to as ambient vibrations. Seismic waves are studied by geophysicists called
seismologists. Seismic wave fields are recorded by a seismometer, hydrophone (in water), or
accelerometer.

The propagation velocity of the waves depends on density and elasticity of the medium. Velocity tends
to increase with depth and ranges from approximately 2 to 8 km/s in the Earth's crust, up to 13 km/s in
the deep mantle.[2]

Earthquakes create distinct types of waves with different velocities; when reaching seismic
observatories, their different travel times help scientists to locate the source of the hypocenter. In
geophysics the refraction or reflection of seismic waves is used for research into the structure of the
Earth's interior, and man-made vibrations are often generated to investigate shallow, subsurface
structures.

Body waves

Body waves travel in three dimensions and can move through the interior of the Earth.

P-waves

The first type of body wave is called the primary wave or pressure wave, and is commonly referred to as
P-waves. This type of seismic body wave travels at the greatest velocity through the ground. As a
longitudinal compressional waveform, P-waves move in the same way as sound waves. As they spread
out, they alternately push (compress) and pull (expand) the ground as they move through it.

P-waves are able to travel through both solid rock and liquid material, such as volcanic magma or oceans.
They travel at velocities ranging from 1,600–8,000 m/s, depending on the material they’re moving
through. Because of their speed, they are the first type of wave to be felt and to register on a
seismograph during an earthquake.

P-waves.

P-waves are the fastest travelling waves and are usually felt first.
S-waves

The second type of body wave is called the secondary wave, shear wave or shaking wave, and is
commonly referred to as S-waves. S-waves are a transverse waveform that shears the ground sideways at
right angles to the direction of travel.

S-waves have different effects on the ground surface depending on their polarisation and direction of
travel. Horizontally polarised S-waves will move the ground from side to side (left and right) relative to
the direction they’re moving. Vertically polarised S-waves will move the ground up and down relative to
the direction of travel. It is not possible to shear or twist a liquid, so S-waves cannot propagate through
bodies of water, such as oceans and lakes.

S-waves are typically 40 percent slower than P-waves in any given material and have velocities ranging
from approximately 900–4,500 m/s. These waves are the second to register on a seismograph during an
earthquake. Despite their slower speed, S-waves are often more destructive than P-waves because they
can have larger amplitudes and can cause greater levels of ground shaking.

S-waves.

S-waves travel more slowly than P-waves so are usually felt later, but they can be more destructive.

Wave propagation

The actual speed of P-waves and S-waves depends on the density and elastic properties of the rocks and
soil materials through which they pass. As P-waves and S-waves move through layers of rock in the
Earth’s crust, they are also reflected or refracted at the interfaces between different types of material.
When this occurs, some of the energy of one wave type is converted into waves of the other type.

For example, when a P-wave travels upwards and strikes the underside of a layer of alluvium-type soil,
part of its energy will continue upwards through the material as a P-wave. Part will convert into S-waves
that also begin to propagate upwards through the alluvium. Some energy is also reflected back
downwards in the form of P-waves and S-waves.

Surface wave
A diving grebe creates surface waves.

In physics, a surface wave is a 90 degree wave that propagates along the interface between differing
media. A common example is gravity waves along the surface of liquids, such as ocean waves. Gravity
waves can also occur within liquids, at the interface between two fluids with different densities. Elastic
surface waves can travel along the surface of solids, such as Rayleigh or Love waves. Electromagnetic
waves can also propagate as "surface waves" in that they can be guided along a refractive index gradient
or along an interface between two media having different dielectric constants. In radio transmission, a
ground wave is a guided wave that propagates close to the surface of the Earth

The amplitude of a periodic variable is a measure of its change over a single period (such as time or
spatial period). There are various definitions of amplitude (see below), which are all functions of the
magnitude of the difference between the variable's extreme values. In older texts the phase is
sometimes called the amplitude

Crest and trough

A crest is the point on a wave with the maximum value of upward displacement within a cycle. A crest is
a point on a surface wave where the displacement of the medium is at a maximum. A trough is the
opposite of a crest, so the minimum or lowest point in a cycle.