Chemistry Definitions

Fossil Fuels:
Energy rich substances that are made out of hydrocarbons. They take millions of
years to form, however, and as such, are non-renewable.

Ethylene:
Ethylene (ethene) is a substance of formula C2H4 which is significant as it can
easily form polymers.

Double Bonds:
A bond between two atoms in which they share two pairs of electrons.

Monomer:
A unit which can combine with other monomers of the same molecular structure
to form a longer chain substance, called a polymer.

Polymer:
A chain of monomers.

Addition Polymer:
A polymer that is formed by the addition of one monomer unit to another.

Vinyl Chloride:
Also known as chloroethene, it is a substance of structure C2H3Cl, and forms a
polymer called polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or polychloroethene.

Styrene:
A substance which is basically an ethylene monomer, however, one of the
hydrogen atoms has been replaced with a benzene ring.

Biomass:
Organic plant matter.

Condensation Polymer:
A polymer that, when undergoing polymerization, emits a small molecule, often
but not always water.

Cellulose:
A polymer made up of glucose monomer units. This makes up the majority of
biomass, and is seen as a potential replacement for fossil fuels, as it contains the
carbon chain structure necessary to use as a fuel, and replace many
petrochemicals.

Petrochemicals:
Chemicals that are taken from crude oil or fossil fuels.

Ethanol:
A chemical (C2H5OH) that is a two carbon length chain with a hydroxy functional
group. It is used as a solvent due to it being both a polar and non-polar
substance, and is produced by fermentation of glucose. It can also be dehydrated
to form ethylene.

Catalyst:
A substance that speeds up the rate of reaction by reducing the activation energy.
It is included in a reaction, however, it in itself is not used. Rather, it provides a
surface for which the reaction to take place on.

Renewable Resource:
A resource that can be replenished as the rate it is used.

Molar Heat of Combustion:

The heat released by one mole of a substance.

Oxidation:
A loss of electrons.

Reduction:
A gain of electrons

OILRIG:
Oxidation Is Loss Reduction Is Gain

Galvanic Cell:
A cell in which the half equations take place in separate places, meaning that
electricity flows through a wire connecting them. This converts chemical energy
into electrical energy.

Anode:
The electrode at which oxidation occurs (AnOx)

Cathode:
The electrode at which reduction occurs (RedCat)

Electrolyte:
The solution that facilitates the electrochemical reaction. It conducts electricity.

Electrode:
A conducting piece of metal at which either reduction or oxidation occurs.

Isotopes:
An atom which has a different number of neutrons.

Transuranic elements:
An element heavier than Uranium, synthesized by a nuclear reaction.
Indicators:
A substance that changes colour when in a different pH solution. Indicates the pH
of a solution.

Acid:
A substance that acts as a proton donor. It burns, and tastes sour.

Base:
A substance that acts as a proton acceptor. It has a soapy feel, and tastes bitter.

Le Chatelier’s Principle:
A system in equilibrium, when disturbed, shifts so as to minimize the
disturbance.

Reversible Reaction:
A reaction that can proceed in both a forward and backward direction.

Equilibrium:
A state where, in a reversible reaction, the forward reaction is proceeding at the
same rate as the reverse reaction, meaning that concentrations of reactants and
products are maintained.

Acid Rain:
Rain that has reacted with non-metal oxides, which mean that it has formed an
acid, lowering the pH of the rainwater.

pH:
A scale which measures the concentration of hydronium ions in solution. It is a
logarithmic scale, with the pH = log(base10) [H+]

Strong acid:
An acid that completely ionizes. It does not establish an equlibrium.

Weak acid:
An acid that only partially ionizes. It establishes an equilibrium where there are
both hydronium ions and molecules of the acid.

Concentrated acid:
An acid with a high concentraion in molarity. This is separate to strong and
weak, as it does not take into account ionization, but the concentration.

Dilute acid:
An acid that has a low molarity.

Lavoisier Acid:
Lavoisier believed that all acids were acidic because they contained oxygen.

Davy Acid:
Davy Believed acids were substances that had a hydrogen atom.

Arrhenius Acid:
Arrhenius believed acids were neutral substance that, in solution, produced a
positive hydrogen ion and a negative ion. This is incorrect as it does not take into
consideration the role of the solvent.

Bronsted Lowry theory acid:

Both the Dane Bronsted and the Brit Lowry discovered that acids were proton
donors, whilst bases were proton acceptors.

Conjugate base:
A conjugate base is the base that is formed when an acid is ionized. If the acid is
strong, then the conjugate base is weak, and if the acid is weak, then the
conjugate base is strong.

Conjugate acid:
The acid formed when a base ionizes. If the base is strong, the conjugate acid id
weak, and vice-versa.

Amphiprotic substance:
A substance that can act as both a proton acceptor or donor.

Neutralization:
An exothermic reaction between an acid and a base, which yields a salt and
water.

Titration:
A volumetric analysis in which neutralization is used to find the concentration of
an unknown volume of a known acid or base.

Standard Solution:
A solution of which the concentration is known. For a primary standard, the
substance needs to be of known purity, and hence cannot react with the
atmosphere.

Buffers:
A system of weak acids and their conjugate bases that resist pH change when
either an acid or base is introduced. An example of buffers in nature is the human
blood stream, which maintains pH around 7.4.

Ester:
A substance which is made of an alkanol and an alkanoic acid.

Refluxing:
A process used in esterification in which the volatile reactants are allowed to
become gas, which then condense and take their place in the reaction. It means
that these substances do not combust.
Haber Process:
The process of synthesizing Nitrogen and Hydrogen into Ammonia.

Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS):

A process where a sample is vaporized, then light is passed through the sample.
The metals found in the sample will absorb some light, which is recorded. This
indicates which metals and how much of the metal are present, as each metal
absorbs a unique wavelength of light.

Ozone:
A molecule made up of 3 oxygen atoms, with one double bond and one
coordinate covalent bond.

Free Radical:
An atom that has an unpaired electron in its outer shel, meaning that it is very
reactive.

Chloroflurocarbons (CFC’s):
A family of molecules, which are carbon chains, with chlorine and fluorine atoms
instead of hydrogen atoms. They were used as refrigerants due to their low
reactivity. These often break down into free radicals, which affect the production
of ozone, and break down existing ozone.

Total dissolved solids:

A measure of the solids which are dissolved in a given sample.

Hardness:
A measure of magnesium and calcium ions in water. Hardness means that soap
will not form a lather, rather a magnesium or calcium styrete.

Turbidity:
Is a measure of the clarity of a water sample.

Dissolved Oxygen:
The amount of oxygen in a sample of water.

Biochemical oxygen demand:

The amount of oxygen needed by bacteria in order to break down organic matter
in a water sample.

Ions:
A molecule or atom in which the total electrons does not equal the total amount
of protons, giving it an overall charge.

Leaching:
The process where ions and minerals in the terrestrial environment is dissolved
in rainwater, which then makes its way to the ocean.

Hydrothermal vents:
Vents on the oceans floor which water seeps down to be heated and sent back
into the ocean. This also introduces minerals into the ocean, as the magma is
mineral rich, and the solubility of these minerals increases as the temperature of
the water increases.

Electron Transfer:
The process where a more reactive metal passes its electrons to another, less
reactive metal. Alternatively, if energy is put into the system, a less reactive
metal can donate electrons to a more reactive metal.

Galvani:
An Italian scientist who believed that electrical energy was coming from animals,
which he names animal electricity. The source was actually the electron transfer
between two dissimilar metals, with the frog leg acting as an electrolyte.

Volta:
Volta demonstrates that it was not the animal, but the contact between the two
dissimilar metals that caused the electricity. He did this by placing sheets of
different metals together, separated by a piece of cardboard soaked in brine. The
brine acted as an electrolyte for the electron transfer reaction.

Davy:
Davy recognized that the electricity was from a chemical reaction, and also set up
electrolytic cells, by which he proved water was a compound and obtained pure
sodium and potassium.

Faraday:
Faraday was Davy’s assistant, and furthered his work on electrochemistry.
Faraday demonstrated that their was a relationship between the energy put into
a system and the amount of elements produced. Thus, Faraday made
electrochemistry a quantitative science, and helped deduce the table of reduction
potentials.

Active metals:
Metals that will form a porous oxide layer when reacted with oxygen, allowing
further corrosion to occur.

Passive metals:
Metals that form a non-porous layer when reacted with oxygen, forming an
impervious layer, meaning that they will not corrode any further.

Steel:
An alloy of iron containing small amounts of carbon. The more the carbon
content, the stronger the allow, but it also makes it more brittle. Other metals,
such as chromium can be added, with the alloy taking on many of these
properties

Rust:
Hydrated Iron oxide. It is formed by the oxidation of iron and the reduction of
oxygen in a amrine environment. The Iron ion (2+) reacts with the hydroxide ion
formed by the reduction of oxygen in water to form Iron hydroxide. This is the
iron is then further oxidized to Fe(3+) oxide, which is in hydrate form.

Electrolytic cells:
A cell in which electrical energy is put into an electrolyte. It is used to purify
elements, refine metals or extract metals from their ores.

Corrosion resistant metals:

Metals which do not corrode. These include chromium, and stainless steel.

Surface alloys:
When metal ions are bombarded against a steel surface at great temperature,
which give the steel protection from corrosion.

New Paints:
Paints developed by scientists to protect metal hulls from corroding. One of the
most successful, Rustmaster Pro, contains a pyroaurite, which bonds strongly to
the steel below it, protecting it from corrosion.

Cathodic Protection:
A form of protection from corrosion where an electrochemical reaction is used to
protect a metal. A sacrificial anode is an example of this, where a metal will
preferentially oxidize. Another type is an impressed current, where a current is
passed through a metal object wanting to be preserved, and another metallic
object. In this way, the metal that is to be protected becomes the cathode, with
any oxidation reversed.

Anaerobic bacteria:
Bacteria that does not need oxygen to decompose a substance.

Sulfate reducing bacteria:

Bacteria that corrodes metal at great depths in the ocean. It does not require
oxygen, as most corrosion of metals does, rather, needing sulphate. The
equations for the anaerobic corrosion of iron are:

S042-(aq) + 10H+(aq) + 8e-  H2S(aq) + 4H2O(l)

And

Fe(s) + 2H+(aq)  Fe2+(aq) + H2(g)