applied

sciences
Article
Theoretical Assessment of DC/DC Power Converters’
Basic Topologies. A Common Static Model
Juan Manuel Enrique Gómez, Antonio Javier Barragán Piña ID
, Eladio Durán Aranda ID
and
José Manuel Andújar Márquez * ID
Departamento de Ingeniería Electrónica, de Sistemas Informáticos y Automática, University of Huelva,
Campus “La Rábida”, 21819 – La Rábida, Huelva Spain; juanm.enrique@diesia.uhu.es (J.M.E.);
antonio.barragan@diesia.uhu.es (A.J.B.); aranda@diesia.uhu.es (E.D.)
* Correspondence: andujar@uhu.es; Tel.: +34-619175693

Received: 19 November 2017; Accepted: 18 December 2017; Published: 23 December 2017

Featured Application: DC/DC converters design and teaching.

Abstract: By the application of well-known circuit analysis techniques, this paper develops an
intuitive approach to model the steady state regime of the three DC/DC power converters’ basic
topologies (buck, boost and buck-boost). The developed approach can be considered new, realistic,
accurate, general and practical. The approach is new because it is not present in the literature;
realistic because it considers the main non-idealities of the different passive and active components
that make up the converters; accurate because its theoretical results fit properly to those obtained
in actual converters; general because it is valid for the three basic topologies; and practical
because its applicability is easy and immediate from the data sheets of the converters’ components
(no measurements are needed). The developed model transforms a complex system with strong
non-idealities in the form of distributed parameters, in a simple and intuitive scheme of concentrated
parameters (just three), which accurately reflects the actual behavior of the three basic converters’
topologies. The characteristic parameters of the model and its main relationships are determined
analytically. The quality of the developed approach has been tested in the paper and can be
considered excellent.

Keywords: DC-DC power conversion; modeling; power converter; buck converter; boost converter;
buck-boost converter

1. Introduction
The simplified study of allegedly ideal (no losses) DC/DC converters is enough for multiple
applications. However, the current need for greater efficiency in generators and power conditioners
demands precise models that take non-idealities and, therefore, efficiency losses into account. Bearing
this aim in mind, the present work is focused on the search for a general static model of DC/DC power
converters (applicable to the three basic configurations: buck, boost and buck-boost). This model is to
be analytic (demanding no measurements), intuitive, easy-to-use and realistic, so that the theoretical
and experimental results match.
The popularity of DC/DC power converters is growing quickly. One of the causes behind this
growth may be that these converters are an essential part of renewable energy-based electric generator
systems, which are a topical issue [1–5]. For instance, photovoltaic generators and fuel cells generate
unregulated electric power at its output. However, they must be connected to loads with strict voltage
requirements or be part of hybrid systems that share buses with necessarily-regulated voltages [6–9].
DC/DC converters are the power conditioners that enable the aforementioned generators and
others to provide regulated power output. Therefore, in most facilities, DC/DC converters are a

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 19; doi:10.3390/app8010019 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 19 2 of 28

post-generator mandatory stage. The foregoing means that the overall efficiency of the system up to
the regulated-voltage output is the product of the generator and converter efficiencies [10–12]. Thus,
it is of great interest to know the DC/DC converter losses and, from them, its efficiency. Moreover,
new power system topologies to improve the energy efficiency are being developed [13–15].
DC/DC modeling methods have been traditionally divided into two main groups [16]: analytical
and numerical. The former are a consequence of the application of physic-mathematical relationships
to circuits. They are usually easy to interpret; however, they often lead to such mathematical complexity
that renders them impractical. This is the reason for their usual simplification, which makes them
inaccurate for many applications. Numerical methods, mainly based on measurements, provide
precision; however they may require long running time and provide poor physical interpretation, thus
hindering designers’ work.
The low frequency characterization of DC/DC converters was carried out in 1972. The works [17,18]
can be considered the earliest references to DC/DC converter modeling by means of average
continuous time analytical techniques. The result was an equivalent circuit obtained by two circuits
averaging in each commutation interval. In this decade, some other works studied the modeling of
DC/DC converters from an analytic viewpoint, yet now from a discrete perspective [19,20]. DC/DC
converters modeling in discontinuous conduction mode also arises in the 1970s [21].
In the 1980s, with the aim of increasing commutation frequency, the topologies of resonant and
quasi-resonant converters, as well as their models, became relevant [22,23].
It is in the 1990s when the search for a circuit-oriented modeling methodology led to the suggestion
of the use of PWM-Switch [24], a three-terminal structure that contains the active and passive switch
(diode) of most converters. However, this methodology has no detection criteria in the model regarding
its change of conduction, which makes it difficult to use. Later, a general average state model based
on state-variable representation by means of Fourier series was proposed [25]. This method enables
natural inclusion of resonant converters. Reference [26] proposes the application of this method to
both resonant and PWM converters, substituting switches by dependent sources. Although a generic
method, it is not applicable to the converter discontinuous conduction mode, as they include no
conduction-mode detection mechanism.
At the beginning of the 21st century, a systematic method (applicable to all conduction modes) to
obtain circuit-oriented average models for multiple-output DC/DC converters is presented [27]. From
here, it seems to be noted that there are no recent major developments over basic DC/DC converter
modeling, probably because the current modeling approaches have been very well complemented with
accurate simulations. Actually at the present time, it seems that interest is mostly focused on frequency
analysis [28], and in the control-oriented models [29,30], with emphasis on stability analysis [31–33]
In any case and from our view, it is suitable and formal (for analytical studies and demonstrations
and of course in higher education, where students learn DC/DC converter theory from the three basic
topologies) to have accurate analytical models that match the DC/DC converters’ actual behavior.
With this aim, the authors of the present work have tried to develop a new realistic static model
of concentrated parameters, which it is aimed to be intuitive and useful, and faithfully reflecting the
actual operation of the three basic DC/DC converters.
In order to contribute in this field, this work presents a new model of DC/DC converter, where
losses are shaped as electrical components (they are the model parameters), which allows, based on the
usual circuit theory, the obtaining of useful and easy-to-use mathematical relationships. The developed
model allows accuracy in theoretical calculations and reliable simulations, as well as previous steps to
successful experimental implementations, as their final results may be guaranteed in advance. Even
more, the developed model is the result of an intuitive approach and very easy to understand and
interpret, which can facilitate its use and understanding DC/DC converters’ actual operation.
The proposed model is based on the well-known transformer theory. Just as a transformer can
be used for coupling impedances in AC (by controlling the ratio between the number of turns in its
primary and secondary), a DC/DC converter can be used to match resistances in DC (controlling its
 δ  control  is  made  adaptive  (under  generator  and/or  load  demand),  then  the  resistance  of  the 
generator  and  the  load  can  be  matched  so  that  the  DC/DC  converter  allows  maximum  power 
transfer  from  generator  to  load.  Moreover,  in  the  case  of  renewable  power  sources,  which  are 
subjected  to  constant  fluctuations  as  a  result  of  environmental  changes,  the  DC/DC  converter 
Appl. Sci. 2018,
enables  8, 19
the  generator  to  work  at  maximum  power.  Ideally  speaking,  the  relationships  that  3allow  of 28

load adaptation by DC/DC converters according to their δ are well‐known [34, 35]. The problem lies 
in  the 
duty fact δ,that 
cycle these 
i.e., the expressions 
relationship are  approximate 
between and  in 
the time interval many its
in which operating 
switch isconditions  undergo 
on, TON , regarding
deviations that can make them practically inapplicable, since DC/DC power converters are strongly 
the switching period T). This means that for the coupling DC generator → DC/DC converter →
non‐ideal systems. Therefore, the theoretical results expected as a consequence of the application of 
load, if δ control is made adaptive (under generator and/or load demand), then the resistance of
the expressions commonly found in literature are usually very far from experimental reality. This 
the generator and the load can be matched so that the DC/DC converter allows maximum power
requires that reliable experimental implementation demands a previous step: careful and exhaustive 
transfer from generator to load. Moreover, in the case of renewable power sources, which are subjected
simulations. 
to constant fluctuations as a result of environmental changes, the DC/DC converter enables the
From to here 
generator work at arises 
maximum the  power.
challenge  in  speaking,
Ideally finding  a thetruly  useful  that
relationships model, 
allowwhich  provides 
load adaptation
close‐to‐experimentation results. It should also be simple, intuitive, easy to use and really general 
by DC/DC converters according to their δ are well-known [34,35]. The problem lies in the fact that
(i.e.,  valid 
these for  the are
expressions three  basic  converter 
approximate and intypes: 
many boost,  buck 
operating and  buck‐boost). 
conditions undergo Figure 
deviations1  shows  the 
that can
proposed model, which is remarkably simple, as it comprises an ideal DC/DC converter formed by 
make them practically inapplicable, since DC/DC power converters are strongly non-ideal systems.
two voltage gain (A
Therefore, the theoreticalVi)‐dependent sources: a current source in its input and a voltage source in its 
results expected as a consequence of the application of the expressions
output. At the ideal converter input is connected an equivalent circuit consisting of the generator (V
commonly found in literature are usually very far from experimental reality. This requires that reliableg) 
and  a  series  implementation
experimental resistor  (RX),  which  is  aimed 
demands at  concentrating 
a previous all 
step: careful andthe exhaustive
losses  of  interest  in  the  actual 
simulations.
converter originated by the parasitic resistances of its components (active and passive). Of course, R
From here arises the challenge in finding a truly useful model, which providesX 
can be added to the generator internal resistance. 
close-to-experimentation results. It should also be simple, intuitive, easy to use and really general
At  the 
(i.e., valid forideal  converter 
the three output,  a 
basic converter source 
types: (VX) buck
boost, and and
the buck-boost).
load  are  connected.  VX  concentrates 
Figure 1 shows the proposedthe 
losses in the actual converter due to the threshold voltage of its diode. Currents and voltages in the 
model, which is remarkably simple, as it comprises an ideal DC/DC converter formed by two voltage
model are given by their mean values. 
gain (AVi )-dependent sources: a current source in its input and a voltage source in its output. At the
ideal In this paper, and according to the model shown in Figure 1, the values of R
converter input is connected an equivalent circuit consisting of the generator (V X, VX and AVi are 
g ) and a series
calculated  for  each  basic  topology  (i.e.,  boost,  buck  and  buck‐boost).  From 
resistor (RX ), which is aimed at concentrating all the losses of interest in the actual converter here,  input  originated
resistance, 
voltage gain and actual efficiency for each of these three topologies are found. Finally, model quality 
by the parasitic resistances of its components (active and passive). Of course, RX can be added to the
is assessed. 
generator internal resistance.

 
Figure 1. Common static model for DC/DC power converters basic topologies.
Figure 1. Common static model for DC/DC power converters basic topologies. 

At the ideal converter output, a source (VX ) and the load are connected. VX concentrates the
The present paper is structured as follows: Section 2 is devoted to setting the conditions for the 
losses in the actual converter due to the threshold voltage of its diode. Currents and voltages in the
developed model and its parameters. The parameter values for each basic topology are calculated in 
model are given by their mean values.
Sections 3, 4 and 5: boost, buck and buck‐boost respectively. Section 6 is devoted to comparing the 
In this paper, and according to the model shown in Figure 1, the values of RX , VX and AVi are
results of the developed model regarding actual converters. In Section 7 the results are discussed, the 
calculated for each basic topology (i.e., boost, buck and buck-boost). From here, input resistance,
voltage gain and actual efficiency for each of these three topologies are found. Finally, model quality
is assessed.
The present paper is structured as follows: Section 2 is devoted to setting the conditions for the
developed model and its parameters. The parameter values for each basic topology are calculated in
Sections 3–5: boost, buck and buck-boost respectively. Section 6 is devoted to comparing the results
of the developed model regarding actual converters. In Section 7 the results are discussed, the fruit
of which becomes clear with the excellent behavior of the model, practically like an actual converter.
Finally, the paper ends with some conclusions.
fruit  of  which  becomes  clear  with  the  excellent  behavior  of  the  model,  practically  like  an  actual 
converter. Finally, the paper ends with some conclusions. 

2. Operating Modes of a DC/DC Converter. Definition of Parameters 
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 19   4 of 28

Next,  in  order  to  make  the  paper  self‐contained,  the  two  operating  modes  (depending  on 
current i L through its inductor) of every DC/DC converter regardless of its topology are explained 
2. Operating Modes of a DC/DC Converter. Definition of Parameters
briefly. In addition, some parameters of interest will also be defined. The operating modes are: 
Next, in order to make the paper self-contained, the two operating modes (depending on current
Continuous  conduction  mode  (CCM):  current  always  flows  through  the  inductor  (see  Figure 
iL through its inductor) of every DC/DC converter regardless of its topology are explained briefly.
2a). 
In addition, some parameters of interest will also be defined. The operating modes are:
Discontinuous  conduction  mode  (DCM):  current  flows  at  controlled  intervals  through  the 
Continuous conduction mode (CCM): current always flows through the inductor (see Figure 2a).
inductor (see Figure 2b). 

 
Figure 2. Current i
Figure 2. Current iLL through the inductor of the DC/DC converter: (a) CCM and (b) DCM. 
through the inductor of the DC/DC converter: (a) CCM and (b) DCM.

Note  in  Figure  2  that  the  current  through  the  converter  inductor  is  periodical  with  period  T. 
Discontinuous conduction mode (DCM): current flows at controlled intervals through the inductor
This Figure
(see current   
2b).in  turn  depends  on  the  current  supplied  ig   by  the  generator  connected  to  the 
Note in Figure 2 that the current through the converter inductor is periodical with period T. This
converter. The following parameters are defined (see Figures 1–3). 


current in turn depends on the current supplied i g by the generator connected to the converter. The
Switching period:  T .  (1)
following parameters are defined (see Figures 1–3).
Switching frequency:  f  1 T . (2)
Switching period : T. (1)
Duty cycle:    TON T  TON f . (3)
Switching frequency : f = 1/T. (2)
Rise time (iL):  TON   T   f . (4)
Duty cycle : δ = TON /T = TON f . (3)
Fall time:  TX  TON   f T   f f . (5)
Rise time (i L ) : TON = δT = δ/ f . (4)

Fall time : TX − TON = δ f T = δ f / f . (5)

Current rise : ∆I = I2 − I1 . (6)

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 19 5 of 28

Appl. Sci. 2017, 8, 19    Voltage rise : ∆V = Vg − Vo . 5 of 28  (7)

: ∆V ∗ = Vg−
Ideal voltage rise Current rise:  ∗
. g − (V0 + VX ) .
I VIo =I V (6) (8)
2 1

Figure 2 shows that, in CCM, TX = Voltage rise: 

T, so: V  Vg  Vo .  (7)

T − TON
Ideal voltage rise: 

V−
V *  Vg T *
δT
V  (V V ). (8)
δf  = X = o g =0 1 −X δ. (9)
CCM T T
Figure 2 shows that, in CCM, TX = T, so: 
However, in DCM, TX < T, so:
T T T T
 f CCM  X ON   1  . (9)
TX − TON T TX − δT
 T T  
= = = X − δ < 1 − δ. (10)

δf 
However, in DCM, TX < T, so: 
DCM T T T
In the following study, with the aim T of T  currents
 Tmaking T TX and voltages independent from time,
 f DCM  X ON  X    1  . (10)
these will be characterized according to theirT mean Tvalue (indicated
T by  a capital letter). Thus, for Ig
(Figures 1In the following study, with the aim of making currents and voltages independent from time, 
and 2) during a switching period:
these will be characterized according to their mean value (indicated by a capital letter). Thus, for Ig 
ZT T
ZON ZTX ZT
(Figures 1 and 2) during a switching period:
1 1   1 1
Ig = i g dt = i g dt +
TON T
i g dtT + i g dt. (11)
T 1 T 1
T
1TX 1 T
T 0 0 ig dt  T TTON
0 Ig  ig dt 0 ig dt   ig dt. TX (11)
T ON
T TX
Both in CCM and DCM the third summing of (11) is null (Figure 2). Finally, the following
Both  in  CCM  and  DCM  the  third  summing  of  (11)  is  null  (Figure  2).  Finally,  the  following 
hypothesis will be assumed: converters always operate in steady state regime (constant input voltage
hypothesis  will  be  assumed:  converters  always  operate  in  steady  state  regime  (constant  input 
and fixed duty cycle according its operating conditions), the capacitor value C is to be assumed large
voltage  and  fixed  duty  cycle  according  its  operating  conditions),  the  capacitor  value  C  is  to  be 
enough and itslarge 
assumed  losses negligible
enough  (very
and  its  lownegligible 
losses  equivalent series
(very  low resistance,
equivalent ESR).
series This allowsESR). 
resistance,  consideration
This 
of a practically constant output voltage V0 (Figure 3).
allows consideration of a practically constant output voltage  V0   (Figure 3).   

 
Figure 3. Boost converter circuit including its main non‐idealities (losses). 
Figure 3. Boost converter circuit including its main non-idealities (losses).

3. Boost Converter   
3. Boost Converter
Figure 3 shows a boost converter that includes its main non‐idealities (losses). Thus, r stands for 
Figure 3 shows
the  internal  a boost
inductor  converter
resistance  that
and  R includes its main non-idealities (losses). Thus, r stands
S  for  the  power  switch  resistance  in  “on”  state  (closed).  The 
for the internal inductor resistance and R S for the power switch resistance in “on” state (closed).
leakage resistance of the power switch in “off” state (open) is so large that it can be considered an 
The leakage resistance
open circuit. R of the power switch in “off” state (open) is so large that it can be considered
D is the forward (on) resistance of the freewheeling diode (the leakage resistance in off 

an opencondition is so large that it can be considered an open circuit) and V
circuit. RD is the forward (on) resistance of the freewheeling γ is its threshold voltage. The 
diode (the leakage resistance
in off capacitor is considered an ideal element, as its series resistance has a very low value and its leakage 
condition is so large that it can be considered an open circuit) and Vγ is its threshold voltage.
resistance is very large (for capacitors of certain quality) whereby it can be neglected in parallel with 
The capacitor is considered an ideal element, as its series resistance has a very low value and its leakage
the load. 
resistance is very large (for capacitors of certain quality) whereby it can be neglected in parallel with
the load.
3.1. Determination of the Generator‐Supplied Current 
In Figure 3, the mean current supplied by the generator within a given time period T (see Figure 
2 and (11)) is: 
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 19 6 of 28

3.1. Determination of the Generator-Supplied Current

In Figure 3, the
Appl. Sci. 2017, 8, 19    mean current supplied by the generator within a given time period T (see Figure 2
6 of 28 
and (11)) is:
T
ZON ZTX
1 1 TON T
11 X
I g   LiL dt   iL idt
Ig = i dt + L dt (12)
(12)
TT 0 TT TON
0 TON  
Next we will analyze the behavior of the converter in the time intervals considered in (12).
Next we will analyze the behavior of the converter in the time intervals considered in (12). 
≤t≤T
00 ≤ t ≤ TON 
ON

In
In this
this time interval,
time  current
interval,  through
current  the inductor
through  grows,grows, 
the  inductor  the diode
the isdiode 
reverse
is  biased and
reverse  therefore
biased  and 
its branch is disconnected. Figure 4 shows the equivalent circuit.
therefore its branch is disconnected. Figure 4 shows the equivalent circuit. 

 
Figure 4. Equivalent boost converter circuit for 0 ≤ t ≤ T
4. Equivalent boost converter circuit for 0 ≤ t ≤ TON . 
Figure ON .

From Figure 4 the following is deduced: 
From Figure 4 the following is deduced:
di
Vg   r  RS  iL  L diL  (13)
Vg = (r + RS )i L + L dt L ·  (13)
dt
Solving it for iL and integrating the result into (12): 
Solving it for iL and integrating the result into (12):
1  ON Vg   Vg
T T I
1 ON L 2 f L
T  i dt  T   dt   di
I   I , (14)

1
ZON
T
L
1 T 
ON
rVg RS r LRS I1
2 L
 r  R Vg r  RS f · L
i L dt0 =   0 diL  = S
Z Z
dt − δ−   ∆I, (14)
T T r + RS r + RS r + RS r + RS
where     and ΔI are given by (3) and (6) respectively. On the other hand, from (13), (4) and Figure 2 
0 0 I1

it follows that: 
where δ and ∆I are given by (3) and (6) respectively. On the other hand, from (13), (4) and Figure 2 it
follows that: I2 T
diL dt
ZI2   ZδT  (15)
V
I1 g
  r
di 
L R S  iL =0 L
dt
 · (15)
Vg − (r + RS )i L L
I1 0
By a simple variable change in the left‐hand integral: 
By a simple variable change in the left-hand integral:
 Vg   r  RS  I 2  r  RS
 ln        1 , (16)
Vg − 
 Vg   r  R
S S 2I1  rf + LRS
( r + R ) I
ln =− δ = −γ   1, (16)
Vg − (r + RS ) I1 f ·L
where 
where
rr+R RSS δ
γ1 1= δ = ,  , (17)
(17)
ff · L
L k1k1
and
and 
f ·L
k1 = · (18)
r+f R
LS
k1   (18)
r  RS
 
Finally, by solving (16) for I1: 
Vg
I1 
r  RS
1  e   I
1
2 e 1 . (19)
 
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 19 7 of 28

Finally, by solving (16) for I1 :

Vg
I1 = (1 − eγ1 ) + I2 eγ1 . (19)
Appl. Sci. 2017, 8, 19    r + RS 7 of 28 

TTON ≤ t ≤ X TX
ON ≤ t ≤ T

In
In this time
this  interval,
time  the the 
interval,  diode branch
diode  is connected
branch  to the generator.
is  connected  Figure 5 shows
to  the  generator.  Figure the
5  equivalent
shows  the 
circuit. Figure 2a shows how current through the inductor drops exponentially (up to t = TX ) in this
equivalent circuit. Figure 2a shows how current through the inductor drops exponentially (up to t = 
time interval. At this point, if the current reaches 0 (DCM), it then keeps this value until new switch
TX) in this time interval. At this point, if the current reaches 0 (DCM), it then keeps this value until 
conduction (see Figure 2b).
new switch conduction (see Figure 2b).   

 
Figure 5. Equivalent boost converter circuit for T
Figure  ≤ t ≤ T
5. Equivalent boost converter circuit for TONON≤ t ≤ TXX. .

From Figure 5 the following is deduced: 
From Figure 5 the following is deduced:
diL
Vg  Vo  V    r  RD  iL  L di  (20)
Vg − (Vo + Vγ ) = (r + R D )i L + Ldt L  · (20)
dt
By solving it for iL and integrating the result into (12): 
By solving it for iL and integrating the result into (12):
1  X Vg  Vo  V   Vg  Vo  V 
T T I
1 X  L 1  f L
1
T
ZX 
T TON1
i dt
T
L ZX 
T g−
V 
TON ( o r  R
V + VγD)
dt 
rL RD I2
Z I1 diL  
 R
Vgr −
f  I .
D o + Vγ ) r  RD f · L
(V
(21)
i L dt =   dt − 
di L =
 δf +   ∆I. (21)
T T r + RD r + RD r + RD r + RD
TON   is given by (5). On the other hand, from (20) and Figure 2 it follows that: 
where  TON I2
f

where δ f is given by (5). On the other

I1 hand, from (20) and Figure TX 2 it follows that:
diL dt
  
   (22)
ZI1 I2 Vg  Vo  V   r  RD  iL TON ZL
TX
 dt
di L
= · (22)
Now, by solving (22) as (15): Vg − (Vo + Vγ ) − (r + R D )i L L
I2 TON
 Vg  Vo  V    r  RD  I1  r  RD

Now, by solving (22) asln(15):   f   2 ,   (23)
 Vg  Vo  V    r  RD  I 2  f L
 
Vg − (Vo + Vγ ) − (r + R D ) I1
 
r + RD
ln =− δ = −γ2 , (23)
where  Vg − (Vo + Vγ ) − (r + R D ) I2 f ·L f
r  RD 
where 2  f  f ,   (24)
r+f RLD kδ f
γ2 = δ = 2 , (24)
f ·L f k2
and 
and
ff · L
2 r + R 
k2k= · (25)
(25)
r  DD
 
Finally, by solving (23) for I2: 

Vg  Vo  V 
I2 
r  RD
1  e   I e
2
1
2
.  (26)

The complete solution of (12) can be found by adding (14) and (21). However, both depend on 
ΔI, so this value must be calculated previously. For this, the equation system comprising (19), (26) 
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 19 8 of 28

Finally, by solving (23) for I2 :

Vg − (Vo + Vγ )
I2 = (1 − eγ2 ) + I1 eγ2 . (26)
r + RD

The complete solution of (12) can be found by adding (14) and (21). However, both depend on ∆I,
so this value must be calculated previously. For this, the equation system comprising (19), (26) and (6)
is suggested:
Vg
I1 = (1 − eγ1 ) + I2 eγ1 . (27a)
r + RS
Vg − (Vo + Vγ )
I2 = (1 − eγ2 ) + I1 eγ2 . (27b)
r + RD
∆I = I2 − I1 . (27c)

By solving (27c) for I1 and substituting it in (27a):

Vg ∆I
I2 = + · (28)
r + RS 1 − eγ1

An analogous procedure in (27c) and (27b) leads to:

Vg − (Vo + Vγ ) ∆I
I1 = − · (29)
r + RD 1 − eγ2

Subtracting (29) from (28) and operating:

Vg − (Vo + Vγ ) Vg
 
1 1
∆I −1 + + = − · (30)
1 − eγ1 1 − eγ2 r + RD r + RS

Now, multiplying the numerator and denominator in the left-side of (30) by −e−γ2 and solving
for ∆I:
Vg − (Vo + Vγ ) Vg
 
∆I = β − , (31)
r + RD r + RS
where
(1 − eγ1 )(1 − e−γ2 )
β= · (32)
eγ1 − e−γ2
Now (12) can be solved. Thus, from (14) and (21):

Vg f ·L Vg − (Vo + Vγ ) f ·L
Ig = δ− ∆I + δf + ∆I. (33)
r + RS r + RS r + RD r + RD

Substituting in this equation coefficients k1 and k2 given by (18) and (25) respectively:

Vg Vg − (Vo + Vγ )
Ig = δ+ δ f + k∆I, (34)
r + RS r + RD

where
k = k2 − k1 . (35)

Substituting now (31) in (34), the following is obtained:

Vg Vg − (Vo + Vγ )  
Ig = (δ − kβ) + δ f + kβ . (36)
r + RS r + RD
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 19 9 of 28

Finally, substituting ∆V ∗ in the previous equation by its value in (8), it is finally obtained that:

δ f +kβ δ f +kβ δ f +kβ δ f +kβ δ f +kβ

   
δ−kβ δ−kβ
Ig = r + RS + r+RD Vg − r + R D (Vo + Vγ ) = r + RS + r+RD Vg − r + R D Vo − r + R D Vγ . (37)

3.2. Loss Resistance, Loss Voltage and Voltage Gain Determination

At the input of the ideal converter (Figure 1):

Pi = Vi Ii = AVi Vi Io , (38)

while at the output:

Po∗ = Vo∗ Io = AVi Vi Io . (39)

Of course, (38) and (39) show that in an ideal converter Pi = Po∗ , so the efficiency η = Po∗ /Pi is 1.
At the input of the actual converter (Figure 1):

Vo∗ Vo + VX
Vg = Ig R X + Vi = AVi Io R X + = AVi Io R X + · (40)
AVi AVi

Multiplying the previous equation by AVi , and considering R L = Vo /Io the load resistance
connected to the converter,
 
R R
AVi Vg = AVi 2 Vo X + Vo + VX = Vo 1 + AVi 2 X + VX . (41)
RL RL

From here the output voltage Vo is given by

VX
AVi − Vg
Vo =   Vg = AVr Vg , (42)
1 + AVi 2 RRXL

where AVr is the converter actual voltage gain. That is:

VX
Vo AVi − Vg
AVr = = · (43)
Vg 1 + AVi 2 RRXL

At this point, we are interested in identifying the parameters RX , V X and AVi of the model of
Figure 1. From it:

Vg − Vi Vg V Vg Vo∗ Vg Vo VX
Ig = Ii = = − i = − = − − · (44)
RX RX RX RX AVi R X RX AVi R X AVi R X

The previous equation is then compared to (37) to determine that:

 −1
δ − kβ δ f + kβ

RX = + , (45)
r + RS r + RD

VX = Vγ , (46)

and
r + R D δ − kβ
AVi = 1 + · · (47)
r + RS δ f + kβ
Equations (45)–(47), respectively, allow obtaining the practical values (from Vγ , RD and RS given
by the manufacturers of the converter components) of the model parameters (Figure 1) of a generic
and real boost converter.
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 19 10 of 28

Appl. Sci. 2017, 8, 19    10 of 28 
Then, writing Equation (45) as:

1 1 11 1 δ−k kβ + f δf k+kβ

=  + =  , , (48)
(48)
R X R R X1
X
R
RX 1 RX2X2 r  RS S r r +
r + R RDR D
 
the total loss resistance RXX can be obtained as shows Figure 6. 
the total loss resistance R can be obtained as shows Figure 6.

 
Figure 6. Total loss resistance R
Figure 6. Total loss resistance RXX for the boost converter. 
for the boost converter.

3.3. Input Resistance 
3.3. Input Resistance
This parameter is very important when the purpose of the converter is to match the generator 
This parameter is very important when the purpose of the converter is to match the generator
output and load resistances. This is a typical application to achieve maximum power transfer from 
output and load resistances. This is a typical application to achieve maximum power transfer from the
the generator to load. Then, from Figure 1, (40) and considering the load RL, 
generator to load. Then, from Figure 1, (40) and considering the load RL ,
V V* Vo VX 1 V V 1 RV
Vg g  R  Voo∗  R 
Ri =i Ig I = R XX+ AA IIg = RXX +AAVI oIg+A AIVXIg =
R  RXR + 2 1o Vo +X VX RX=R +
X A AI 2 Io Vg Vg 2
RL 1 Ri X+  Ri VX · (49)
AXVi AVi 2 AViLVg AVi Vg (49)
g Vi
Vi g Vi Vig Vi Vi
g Vi Vio
AVi AVi Ri
Ri
 
Now, by solving for Ri ,
Now, by solving for Ri,  R X + A1 2 R L
Vi
Ri =
1VX
· (50)
1 −
RX  AVi2VR gL
AVi
where RX , VX and AVi are given by (45)–(47) Ri respectively. 
Equation (50) can be approximated taking (50)
VX
  1 
into account that usually AVi Vg  |VX |, wherewith,
 
AViVg
 
1
where RX, VX and AVi are given by (45)–(47) respectively. Equation (50) can be approximated taking 
Ri = R X + RL , (51)
A 2
into account that usually  AViVg  VX , wherewith,  Vi
3.4. Efficiency
1
Ri  RX  2 RL , (51)
AVi and that supplied by the generator (Figure 1):
Efficiency η is defined as the power ratio in the load
 
Po Vo Io A
3.4. Efficiency  η= = = Vr · (52)
Pg Vg Ig AVi
Efficiency η is defined as the power ratio in the load and that supplied by the generator (Figure 1): 
Now, substituting AVr by its value given in (43):
P VI A
  o 1− o oVX Vr  (52)
P Vg AI gVi Vg AVi
η=g ·   (53)
1 + AVi 2 RRXL
Now, substituting AVr by its value given in (43): 
where RX , VX and AVi are given by (45)–(47) respectively.
V
1 X
AViVg
  (53)
R
1  AVi 2 X
RL
 
where RX, VX and AVi are given by (45)–(47) respectively. 
3.5. Conventional Approximate Analysis
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 19 11 of 28

3.5. Conventional Approximate Analysis

It is interesting to show how from the exact expressions of RX and AVi , (45) and (47) respectively,
it is easy to get their common idealized CCM values [24,36–39]:

R X |CCM = r, (28)

and
1
AVi |CCM = · (55)
1−δ
Let us assume that at the working frequency γ1 , γ2  1 (see (17) and (24)). Under this premise,
eγ1 ' 1 + γ1 and e−γ2 ' 1 − γ2 . Substituting these values in (32):
γ1 γ2
β|γ '− · (56)
1 ,γ2 1 γ1 + γ2

Keep in mind that being γ1 , γ2  1, β → 0 . On the other hand, according to (18), (25), and (35):
 
1 1
k = k2 − k1 = f · L − · (57)
r + RD r + RS

It is rather common that (r + RD ) ' (r + RS ), which leads to k → 0 . Thus, kβ → 0 . Them from (45):

1
RX ' δf
· (58)
δ
r + RS + r+RD

Usually r  R D and r  RS , so (58) can be written as:

r
RX ' · (59)
δ + δf

From (47) and taking into account again that (r + R D ) ' (r + RS ) and kβ → 0, AVi can be
approximated to:
δ
AVi ' 1 + · (60)
δf
 
In CCM δ f = 1 − δ , wherewith (59) and (60) lead to (54) and (55) respectively, which are the
usual simplifications in the literature.
Analogously from (51) and with (59) and (60) in CCM,

Ri |CCM ' r + (1 − δ)2 R L (61)

Finally, from (53), (46) and with (59) and (60) in CCM,

1 (1 − δ )2 R L
η |CCM ' = · (62)
1+ 1
(1− δ )2
· r
RL (1 − δ )2 R L + r

3.6. Discontinuous Conduction Mode (DCM)

In DCM (see Figure 2b), (27) will be written as:

Vg
r + RS (1 − e ) + I2 e .
0= γ1 γ1 (a)
Vg −(Vo +Vγ ) (63)
I2 = r+RD (1 − eγ2 ). (b)
∆I = I2 . (c)
 0
r  RS
1  e   I
1
2 e 1. (a)

Vg  Vo  V  (63)
I2 
r  RD
1  e  .2
(b)  

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 19 I  I 2 . (c) 12 of 28

By solving (63a) for I2 and substituting the result in (63b),   
By solving (63a) for I2 and substituting  the result in (63b), 
Vg r  RD
 2 DCM  ln 1  
 Vg  VVgo  V  r r +

RSR D
1  e 1  .   


(64)
γ2 | DCM = ln 1 − · 1 − e−γ1 . (64)
Vg − (Vo + Vγ ) r + RS
From   2   given by (24), it is easy to get the duty cycle value   f  crit    that sets the boundary 
 
From γ2 given by (24), it is easy to get the duty cycle value δ f −crit that sets the boundary
between DCM and CCM: 
between DCM and CCM:
 Vg k 
 f  crit  k2  ln 1   1 k1  e  1   .
 (65)
 Vg  Vgo  V  k·2 1 1 − e−
V
δ f −crit = k2 · ln 1 −  γ1 . (65)
Vg − (Vo + Vγ ) k2  

4. Buck Converter  
4. Buck Converter 
Figure 7 shows a buck converter with its main non-idealities.
Figure 7 shows a buck converter with its main non‐idealities. 

 
Figure 7. Buck converter circuit including its main non‐idealities (losses). 
Figure 7. Buck converter circuit including its main non-idealities (losses).

4.1. Determination of Generator‐Supplied Current 
4.1. Determination of Generator-Supplied Current
We are going to analyze the behavior of the converter in the time intervals considered in (11). 
We are going to analyze the behavior of the converter in the time intervals considered in (11).
Now, 
Now, inin both
both  operation 
operation modes, 
modes, thethe 
meanmean  current 
current supplied 
supplied by theby generator
the  generator 
withinwithin 
a givena time
given  time 
period
period T (see Figure 2 and (11)) is 
T (see Figure 2 and (11)) is
T TON
ZON T
TON
ZON
1 1 i dt  11 i dt.  
I
Ig =g
TT 0
ig gdt = TT 0 Li L dt. (66)
(66)
0 0
A similar analysis to Section 3 will then be carried out. 
A similar analysis to Section 3 will then be carried out.
0 ≤ t ≤ T
0 ≤ONt ≤ T ON
In this time interval current through the inductor grows, the diode is reversing biased and its 
In this time interval current through the inductor grows, the diode is reversing biased and its
branch is disconnected. Figure 8 shows the equivalent circuit. 
branch is disconnected.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 8, 19    Figure 8 shows the equivalent circuit.   13 of 28 

 
Figure 8. Equivalent buck converter circuit for 0 ≤ t ≤ T
8. Equivalent buck converter circuit for 0 ≤ t ≤ TON . 
Figure ON .

Reasoning in Figure 8 like from (13) to (14), but now for  V  Vg  V0 , 

V f L
Ig   I .   (67)
r  RS r  RS

Now, operating like from (15) to (19) it comes to 
V  
  
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 19 13 of 28
Figure 8. Equivalent buck converter circuit for 0 ≤ t ≤ TON. 

Reasoning in Figure 8 like from (13) to (14), but now for 
Reasoning V= V
in Figure 8 like from (13) to (14), but now for ∆V  VV0 , ,
Vg −
g 0

∆VV ff ·LL
g 
Ig I= r  R δ− r  R ∆I.I.   (67)
(67)
r + RSS r + RS S
Now, operating like from (15) to (19) it comes to 
Now, operating like from (15) to (19) it comes to
V
I1  ∆V  
1  e  1  I e 1 .  
I1 = r  RS(1 − eγ1 ) + 2I2 eγ1 .
(68)
(68)
r + RS

TON ≤X t ≤ TX
TON ≤ t ≤ T
Now the generator branch is disconnected. Figure 9 shows the equivalent circuit.  
Now the generator branch is disconnected. Figure 9 shows the equivalent circuit. 

 
Figure 9. Equivalent buck converter circuit for T
Figure 9. Equivalent buck converter circuit for TONON ≤ t ≤ TX. 
≤ t ≤ TX .

Reasoning on Figure 9 like from (20) to (21),   
Reasoning on Figure 9 like from (20) to (21),
T
1 X V0  V f L
ZTTX  iL dt   r  R  f  r  R I . (69)
1 TON V0 + VDγ f D· L
i L dt = − δ + ∆I.
  (69)
T r + RD f r + RD
Now, operating like from (22) to (26), 
TON

Now, operating like from (22) to (26), V0  V

I2  
r  RD
 
1  e 2  I1 e 2 .   (70)
V0 + Vγ
I2 = − (1 − eγ2 ) + I1 eγ2 . (70)
r + the 
At  this  point,  as  in  the  step  to  (27),  R D equation  system  formed  by  (68),  (70),  and  (6)  is 
suggested: 
At this point, as in the step to (27), the equation system formed by (68), (70), and (6) is suggested:
V
r
 
I1  ∆V 1  e 1  I 2 e1 .  
 RS (1 − eγ1 ) + I2 eγ1 .
(71a)
I1 = (71a)
r + RS
V0  V
I2  V 0 + Vγ 1  e 2γ  I1 e 2 . γ  (71b)
I2 = − r  RD (1 − e 2 ) + I1 e 2 . (71b)
r + RD
I =
∆I  II22−I1I.1 . (71c)
(71c)

Solving (71) in the same way that from (27) to (31):

∆V
 
V0 + Vγ
∆I = − β + , (72)
r + RD r + RS

with β given in (32).

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 19 14 of 28

Now we can calculate the current supplied by the generator in the interval that “sees” the load.
Therefore, substituting (72) into (67),

∆V f ·L ∆V
 
V0 + Vγ
Ig = δ+ β + · (73)
r + RS r + RS r + RS r + RD

Taking into account k1 and k2 values from (18) and (25) respectively, ∆V from (7) and
considering (35),
Vg Vo k2 βVγ
Ig = (δ + k1 β) − (δ − kβ) + . (74)
r + RS r + RS r + RS

4.2. Loss Resistance, Loss Voltage and Voltage Gain Determination

With the aim of identifying RX , VX and AVi according to the converter parameters given in
Figure 1, we proceeded as follows. Comparing (44) and (74) the following is obtained:

r + RS
RX = , (75)
δ + k1 β
 
k2 β
VX = Vγ , (76)
kβ − δ
and
δ + k1 β
AVi = · (77)
δ − kβ
Substituting (75)–(77) in (43), it is immediate to calculate the converter actual voltage gain, Avr .

4.3. Input Resistance

It is immediate, simply replace RX , VX and AVi from (75)–(77), respectively, in (50).

δ−kβ 2
 
r + RS
δ+k1 β + δ+k1 β RL
Ri = k2 β Vγ
. (78)
1+ δ+k1 β Vg

4.4. Efficiency
Again it is immediate, simply replace RX , VX and AVi from (75) to (77), respectively, in (53).

k2 β Vγ
1+ δ+k1 β · Vg
η= δ+k1 β r + RS
· (79)
1+
(δ−kβ)2 R L

4.5. Conventional Approximate Analysis

Assume that at the working frequency, β can be approximated like in (56), whereby

δf δδ f
γ γ
δ
k1 ·
k2 k2
k1 β |γ1 ,γ2  1 ' −k1 1 2 = −k1 =− · (80)
γ1 + γ2 δ δf δ δf
k1 + k2 k1 + k2

As in Section 3.5 (reasoning after (57)), under the commonest operating conditions k1 ∼
= k2 and
k → 0, you have to
δδ f
k1 β ' − · (81)
δ + δf
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 19 15 of 28

Then, (75) and (77) can be approximated respectively to:

δ + δf δ + δf
RX ' (r + R S ) ' r, (82)
δ2 δ2
and
δf
AVi ' 1 − · (83)
δ + δf
Finally, regarding (76), considering in this order: (25), (56) with (17) and (24), and (35) with (18),
it can be rewritten as:
δf
VX ' Vγ (84)
δ + δf
 
If the converter works in CCM δ f = 1 − δ , (82) and (83) lead to the literature common
expressions [24,36–39]:
1 r
R X |CCM ' 2 (r + RS ) ' 2 , (85)
δ δ
and
AVi |CCM ' δ. (86)

On the other hand, substituting (82) and (83) in (51):

2
δ + δf δ + δf

Ri ' r+ RL , (87)
δ2 δ
 
that for CCM condition δ f = 1 − δ leads to:

r + RL
Ri |CCM ' · (88)
δ2
Similarly, (84) can be written in CCM as:

VX ∼
= (1 − δ)Vγ . (89)

Regarding approximate efficiency determination, it is enough to substitute (82)–(84) in (53) with

 
the condition that  AVi Vg   |Vγ |:
1
η' r · (90)
1+
(δ+δ f ) R L
This efficiency for CCM condition can be written as:

1
η |CCM ' · (91)
1 + RrL

4.6. Discontinuous Conduction Mode (DCM)

For this mode, (71) is expressed as follows:

∆V
0= (1 − eγ1 ) + I2 eγ1 . (92a)
r + RS

V0 + Vγ
I2 = − (1 − eγ2 ). (92b)
r + RD
∆I = I2 . (92c)
 0
r  RS
1  e   I e 2 .   (92a)

V0  V
I2  
r  RD
1  e  .2
  (92b)

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 19 16 of 28

I  I 2 .   (92c)

By solving (92a) for I
By solving (92a) for I22 and substituting the result in (92b), 
and substituting the result in (92b),  
  V rR 

 2 DCM
γ2 | DCM  ln1 +
= ln 1  ∆V · r + DRD1 1e−
1

e  ,γ1 ,
− (93)
(93)
 VV0 0+ V
V r r+RSR
γ S   

Finally,  from   2   value  given  by  (24),  the  duty  cycle  value   f  crit    that  sets  the  boundary 
 
Finally, from γ2 value given by (24), the duty cycle value δ f −crit that sets the boundary between
between DCM and CCM can be calculated from (93) as 
DCM and CCM can be calculated from (93) as  
  V k1k1 

  k
 critk 2 · ln
δ f −crit f= 2  ln  1  ∆V
1 + V  V ·k  1  1

1 − e γ. 1 .
e − (94)
(94)
 V00+ Vγ 2k2 
 
where k
where k11 and k
and k22 are given by (18) and (25) respectively. 
are given by (18) and (25) respectively.  

5. Buck-Boost Converter  
5. Buck‐Boost Converter 
Figure 10 shows a buck-boost converter that includes its main non-idealities (losses).  
Figure 10 shows a buck‐boost converter that includes its main non‐idealities (losses). 

 
Figure 10. Buck‐boost converter circuit with main non‐idealities (losses). 
Figure 10. Buck-boost converter circuit with main non-idealities (losses).

5.1. Determination of Generator‐Supplied Current 
5.1. Determination of Generator-Supplied Current
In Figure
In Figure 10,
10,  the 
the mean 
mean current 
current supplied 
supplied by generator
by the the  generator 
withinwithin 
a givena time
given  time Tperiod 
period T  (see 
(see Figure 2
Figure 2 and (11)) is: 
and (11)) is:
T T
ZON TT
ZON
1 1 11
ON ON

I g  i gigdt
Ig = 
dt =  i idt . 
L dt.
L (95)
(95)
TT 0 TT 0
0 0
Next we will proceed like in the previous sections. 
Next we will proceed like in the previous sections.
0 ≤ t ≤ T t  ≤ TON 
Appl. Sci. 2017, 8, 19 
0 ≤ON 17 of 28 

In this time interval the diode branch is disconnected. Figure 11 shows the equivalent circuit.
In this time interval the diode branch is disconnected. Figure 11 shows the equivalent circuit. 

 
Figure 11. Equivalent buck‐boost converter circuit for 0 ≤ t ≤ T
Figure 11. Equivalent buck-boost converter circuit for 0 ≤ t ≤ TONON. 
.

Reasoning in Figure 11 for Vg as was done from (13) to (14): 
TON
1 Vg f L
Ig 
T i L dt 
r  RS

r  RS
I . (96)
0  
Equation (96) is analogous to (14), wherewith and as might be expected, (97) is also (19): 
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 19 17 of 28

 
Figure 11. Equivalent buck‐boost converter circuit for 0 ≤ t ≤ T
Reasoning in Figure 11 for Vg as was done from (13) to (14): ON. 

T
Reasoning in Figure 11 for Vg as was done from (13) to (14): 
ZON
1 Vg f ·L
Ig = i L dt =
TON δ− ∆I. (96)
T 1 r+Vg R S fr +L RS
I g  0  iL dt   I . (96)
T 0 r  RS r  RS
 
Equation (96) is analogous to (14), wherewith and as might be expected, (97) is also (19):
Equation (96) is analogous to (14), wherewith and as might be expected, (97) is also (19): 
Vg
Vg (1 − eγ1 ) + I2 eγ1 .
 
I1 = (97)
I1 r + RS 1  e1  I 2 e1 .   (97)
r  RS
TON ≤X t ≤ T X
TON ≤ t ≤ T
Now the generator branch is disconnected. Figure 12 shows the equivalent circuit.
Now the generator branch is disconnected. Figure 12 shows the equivalent circuit. 

 
Figure 12. Equivalent buck‐boost converter circuit for T
Figure ON ≤ t ≤ TX. 
12. Equivalent buck-boost converter circuit for TON ≤ t ≤ TX .

Reasoning on Figure 12 like from (20) to (21), 
Reasoning on Figure 12 like from (20) to (21),
T
1 X Vo  V f L
ZTX  iL dt  r  R  f  r  R I .
T (98)
1 TON Vo − V Dγ f ·DL
i L dt = δf + ∆I.
  (98)
T r + RD r + RD
Now, operating like from (22) to (26), 
TON

Now, operating like from (22) to (26), V0  V

I2 
r  RD
 
1  e 2  I1 e 2 .   (99)
V0 − Vγ
I2 = (1 − eγ2 ) + I1 eγ2 . (99)
r + RD
As we did in (27), It is now suggests the equation system comprising (97), (99) and (6): 
Vg equation
As we did in (27), It is now suggests the
I1 
r  RS
1  e 1   I 2 e 1 .  
system comprising (97), (99) and (6):
(100a)
Vg
I1 = (1 − eγ1 ) + I2 eγ1 . (100a)
rV+0 R
VS
I2 
r  RD
1  e 2   I1 e 2 .   (100b)
V0 − Vγ
I2 = (1 − eγ2 ) + I1 eγ2 . (100b)
r + RD
∆I = I2 − I1 . (100c)

By solving (100) in the same way that from (27) to (31):

V0 − Vγ Vg
 
∆I = β − , (101)
r + RD r + RS

with β given in (32).

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 19 18 of 28

Now we can calculate the current supplied by the generator. So substituting (101) into (96),

Vg f ·L V0 − Vγ Vg
 
Ig = δ− β − · (102)
r + RS r + RS r + RD r + RS

Taking into account k1 and k2 values from (18) and (25) respectively,

Vg V0 Vγ
Ig = (δ + k1 β) − k2 β + k2 β (103)
r + RS r + RS r + RS

5.2. Loss Resistance, Loss Voltage and Voltage Gain Determination

With the aim of identifying RX , VX and AVi according to the converter parameters given in
Figure 1, we are going to proceed as follows. Comparing (44) and (103), the following is obtained:

r + RS
RX = , (104)
δ + k1 β

VX = −Vγ , (105)

and
δ + k1 β
AVi = · (106)
k2 β

5.3. Input Resistance

Substituting RX , VX and AVi from (104)–(106), respectively, in (50):

r + RS

k2 β 2

δ+k1 β + δ+k1 β RL
Ri = k2 β Vγ
. (107)
1+ δ+k1 β · Vg

5.4. Efficiency
Substituting RX , VX and AVi from (104)–(106), respectively, in (53):

k2 β Vγ
1+ δ+k1 β · Vg
η= δ+k1 β r + RS
· (108)
1+ · RL
( k 2 β )2

5.5. Conventional Approximate Analysis

Assume that at the working frequency β is (56), so k1 β is (81). This allows writing (104) as

δ + δf δ + δf
RX ' (r + R S ) ' r. (109)
δ2 δ2
Again, taking into account in (106) that k1 β is (81) and the fact that k1 ∼
= k2 ,

δ
AVi ' − · (110)
δf
 
If the converter works in CCM δ f = 1 − δ , (109) and (110) leads to the common expressions in
literature [24,36–39]:
r
R X |CCM ' 2 , (111)
δ
and
δ
AVi |CCM ' − · (112)
1−δ
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 19 19 of 28

On the other hand, substituting (111) and (112) in (50):

δ + δf δ2f
Ri ' r+ RL , (113)
δ2 δ2
that for CCM condition can be written as

r + (1 − δ )2 R L
Ri |CCM ' · (114)
δ2
Regarding approximate efficiency determination, it is enough to substitute (105), (109) and (110)
 
in (53) with the condition that  AVi Vg   |Vγ |:

1
η' δ+δ f
, (115)
r
1+ δ2f
· RL

that for CCM is expressed as follows:

1
η |CCM ' 1 r
· (116)
1+
(1− δ )2 R L

5.6. Discontinuous Conduction Mode (DCM)

For this mode, (100) can be written as follows:

Vg
0= (1 − eγ1 ) + I2 eγ1 . (117a)
r + RS

V0 − Vγ
I2 = (1 − eγ2 ). (117b)
r + RD
∆I = I2 . (117c)

By solving (117a) for I2 and substituting the result in (117b),

Vg
 
r + RD
1 − e−γ1 .


γ2 | DCM = ln 1 − · (118)
V0 − Vγ r + RS
 
Matching this result with (24) and taking into account (25), the duty cycle value δ f −crit that
sets the boundary between DCM and CCM is

Vg
 
k1 −γ1


δ f −crit = k2 · ln 1 − · 1−e . (119)
V0 − Vγ k2

6. Results
Now we are going to show the suitability of the developments carried out. For that, the results
obtained by the theoretical study (developed model) are going to be compared with the results obtained
by actual converters. In order to have a broader perspective and it be able to show in a clear way
the quality of the developed model, it will be also included in the comparison with the results by
the conventional model used in the literature [24,36–39]. Note, see for example (61) or (62), that the
conventional model only considers a non-ideality (losses), specifically the internal inductor resistance r.
Figures 13–15 show the PSpice simulation circuits for the three DC/DC power converters’ basic
topologies analyzed. For simulations we have used commercial diodes and switches. This allows
working with actual values of Vγ , RD and RS . Regarding r, it has been obtained by measuring a 1 mH
inductor made in the laboratory. For example, 10 V has been chosen for Vg and 20 or 10 Ω (depending
way the quality of the developed model, it will be also included in the comparison with the results 
by the conventional model used in the literature [24, 36–39]. Note, see for example (61) or (62), that 
by the conventional model used in the literature [24, 36–39]. Note, see for example (61) or (62), that 
by the conventional model used in the literature [24, 36–39]. Note, see for example (61) or (62), that 
the 
the  conventional 
conventional  model 
model  only 
only  considers 
considers  a 
a  non‐ideality 
non‐ideality  (losses), 
(losses),  specifically 
specifically  the 
the  internal 
internal  inductor 
inductor 
the  conventional 
resistance r. 
resistance r.  model  only  considers  a  non‐ideality  (losses),  specifically  the  internal  inductor 
resistance r. 
Figures 13–15 show the PSpice simulation circuits for the three DC/DC power converters’ basic 
Figures 13–15 show the PSpice simulation circuits for the three DC/DC power converters’ basic 
Figures 13–15 show the PSpice simulation circuits for the three DC/DC power converters’ basic 
topologies 
topologies 
Appl.
analyzed. 
Sci. 2018,analyzed. 
8, 19
For 
For simulations 
simulations we we have 
have used 
used commercial 
commercial diodes 
diodes and 
and switches. 
switches. This This allows 
allows 
20 of 28
topologies  analyzed.  For 
working with actual values of V simulations  we 
γ, RD and R have  used  commercial  diodes  and  switches. 
S. Regarding r, it has been obtained by measuring a 1 mH 
working with actual values of Vγ, RD and RS. Regarding r, it has been obtained by measuring a 1 mH  This  allows 
working with actual values of V
inductor 
inductor  made 
made  in  in  the  γ, RDFor 
the  laboratory. 
laboratory.   and R S. Regarding r, it has been obtained by measuring a 1 mH 
For  example, 
example,  10 
10  V V  has 
has  been 
been  chosen 
chosen  for 
for  VVgg   and 
and  20 
20  or 
or  10 
10  Ω 
Ω 
on the
inductor  characteristics
made  in  the of the active
laboratory.  components)
For  for
example, 
(depending on the characteristics of the active components) for R R
10 
L . Finally,
V  has  we
been  have used
chosen  f
for = V10 kHz
g  and  because
20  or 
L. Finally, we have used f = 10 kHz 
(depending on the characteristics of the active components) for RL. Finally, we have used f = 10 kHz  it Ω 
10  is
usual in DC/DC power converters.
(depending on the characteristics of the active components) for R
because it is usual in DC/DC power converters. 
because it is usual in DC/DC power converters.  L. Finally, we have used f = 10 kHz 

because it is usual in DC/DC power converters. 

  
Figure 13. PSpice simulation circuit for an actual boost converter.   
Figure 13. PSpice simulation circuit for an actual boost converter.
Figure 13. PSpice simulation circuit for an actual boost converter. 
Figure 13. PSpice simulation circuit for an actual boost converter. 

  
Figure 14. PSpice simulation circuit for an actual buck converter.   
Figure 14. PSpice simulation circuit for an actual buck converter. 
Figure 14. PSpice simulation circuit for an actual buck converter.
Figure 14. PSpice simulation circuit for an actual buck converter. 

  
 
Figure 15. PSpice simulation circuit for an actual buck-boost converter.

6.1. Boost Converter

Figure 16 shows the model-predicted AVr (introducing (45)–(47), with their respective values, into
(43)) and the actual obtained by simulation (by the circuit of Figure 13).
Regarding input resistance, Figure 17 shows the model-predicted (introducing (45)–(47), with
their respective values, into (50)), and by simulation.
Finally, regarding efficiency, Figure 18 shows model-predicted (introducing (45)–(47), with their
respective values, into (53)), and by simulation.
 Regarding input resistance, Figure 17 shows the model‐predicted (introducing (45)–(47), with 
Finally,  regarding  efficiency,  Figure  18  shows  model‐predicted  (introducing  (45)–(47),  with 
their respective values, into (50)), and by simulation. 
their respective values, into (53)), and by simulation.    
Finally,  regarding  efficiency,  Figure  18  shows  model‐predicted  (introducing  (45)–(47),  with 
their respective values, into (53)), and by simulation.   
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 19 21 of 28
f = 10 Khz A Vr by m odeling
6
L = 1 mH A Vr by sim ulation
r = 0.13  A Vr by conventional m odel
5 fR D= =100.02
Khz A Vr by m odeling
6
L
R S==10.014
mH  A Vr by sim ulation
r = 0.13  A Vr by conventional m odel
R L = 20 
4
5 R D = 0.02 
V  = 0.4 V
R S = 0.014 
V g = 10 V

AVr
3 R L = 20 
4
V  = 0.4 V
V g = 10 V
2

AVr
3

1
2

0
1
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0  

Figure 16. Boost converter: voltage gain AVr. 
 
Figure 16. Boost converter: voltage gain AVr .
Figure 16. Boost converter: voltage gain AVr. 
20
R i by modeling
R i by simulation
20 R by conventional model
R ii by modeling f = 10 Khz
15
R i by simulation L = 1 mH
R i by conventional model r = 0.13 
fR ==100.02
Khz
15 D
L = 1 mH
R S = 0.014 
10
Ri ()

r = 0.13 
R L = 20 
R D = 0.02 
V  = 0.4 V
R S = 0.014 
10
Ri ()

V g = 10 V
R L = 20 
5
V  = 0.4 V
V g = 10 V

0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Appl. Sci. 2017, 8, 19    0 22 of 28 
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0  
 input resistance Ri .
Figure 17. Boost converter:
Figure 17. Boost converter: input resistance Ri. 
 
1.0
Figure 17. Boost converter: input resistance Ri. 
0.8

f = 10 Khz
L = 1 mH
0.6
r = 0.13 
R D = 0.02 


R S = 0.014 
0.4 R L = 20   by m odeling

V  = 0.4 V  by sim ulation

 by conventional m odel
V g = 10 V
0.2

0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0


 
Figure 18. Boost converter: efficiency η.
Figure 18. Boost converter: efficiency η. 
6.2. Buck Converter
6.2. Buck Converter 
Following the same procedure as for the boost converter, Figures 19–21 show the behavior of AVr ,
RFollowing the same procedure as for the boost converter, Figures 19–21 show the behavior of 
i and η.
AVr, Ri and η.   

1.0
A Vr b y m o d elin g
A Vr b y sim u la tion
0.8 A Vr b y c on ven tion a l m od el
 Following the same procedure as for the boost converter, Figures 19–21 show the behavior of 
6.2. Buck Converter 
AVr, Ri and η.   
Following the same procedure as for the boost converter, Figures 19–21 show the behavior of 
AVr, Ri and η.   
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 19 22 of 28
1.0
A Vr b y m o d elin g
A Vr b y sim u la tion
1.0
0.8 A b y c on ven tion a l m od el
A VrVrb y m o d elin g
A Vr b y sim u la tion
0.8 A Vr b y c on ven tion a l m od el f = 10 K hz
0.6
L = 1 mH
r = 0.13 

AVr
f R= =
100 K
.0hz
3 
0.6 D
0.4 LR= =1 0.0
m H2 2 
S
r = 0.13 
AVr RL = 10 
R D = 0 .0 3 
0.4 V  = 0 .3 5 V
0.2 R S = 0.0 2 2 
Vg = 10 V
RL = 10 
V  = 0 .3 5 V
0.2
0.0 Vg = 10 V
0 .0 0.2 0 .4 0.6 0 .8 1.0

0.0
0 .0 0.2 0 .4 0.6 0 .8 1.0  

Figure 19. Buck converter: voltage gain AVr. 
 
Figure 19. Buck converter: voltage gain AVr .
Figure 19. Buck converter: voltage gain AVr. 
1600
R i by m odeling
R i by sim ulation
1400
1600 R by traditional m odel
R ii by m odeling
1200 R i by sim ulation
1400
R i by traditional m odel
1000 f = 10 Khz
1200 L = 1 mH

800 r = 0.13 
Ri () R ()

1000 f R= =100.03
Khz
D
i

L = 1 mH
600 R S = 0.022 
800 r = 0.13 
R = 10 
R DL = 0.03 
400 V = 0.35 V
600 R S  = 0.022 
V g = 10 V
R L = 10 
200
400 V  = 0.35 V
V g = 10 V
0
200 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Appl. Sci. 2017, 8, 19    0 23 of 28 
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0  
Figure 20. Buck converter: Input resistance Ri .
Figure 20. Buck converter: Input resistance Ri. 
 
1.0
Figure 20. Buck converter: Input resistance Ri. 

f = 10 Khz
L = 1 mH
r = 0.13 
0.8 R D = 0.03 
R S = 0.022 
R L = 10 


V  = 0.35 V
V g = 10 V

 by modeling
0.6  by simulation
 by conventional model

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0



 
Figure 21. Buck converter: efficiency η.
Figure 21. Buck converter: efficiency η. 
6.3. Buck-Boost Converter
6.3. Buck‐Boost Converter 
Figures 22–24 show the behavior of AVr , Ri and η.
Figures 22–24 show the behavior of AVr, Ri and η.   

4
f = 10 Khz |A V r | b y m o d elin g
L = 1 mH |A V r | b y sim u la tio n
 6.3. Buck‐Boost Converter  Figure 21. Buck converter: efficiency η. 

Figures 22–24 show the behavior of AVr, Ri and η.   
6.3. Buck‐Boost Converter 
Figures 22–24 show the behavior of AVr, Ri and η.   
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 19 23 of 28
4
f = 10 Khz |A V r | b y m o d elin g
L = 1 mH |A V r | b y sim u la tio n
r = 0 .1 3 
4 |A V r | b y c o n v en tio n a l m o d el
R D = 0 .0 3 8 
3 f = 10 Khz |A V r | b y m o d elin g
m 1H4 
RLS == 10 .0
|A V r | b y sim u la tio n
Rr L==01.103
|A V r | b y c o n v en tio n a l m o d el
8 
VRD==00.3.023V
3

|AVr|
2 VRgS == 100.0V1 4 
R L = 10 
V  = 0 .3 2 V

|AVr|
2 Vg = 10 V
1

1
0
0 .0 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0 .8 1 .0

0
0 .0 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0 .8 1 .0
 

Figure 22. Buck‐boost converter: voltage gain AVr. 
 
Figure 22. Buck-boost converter: voltage gain AVr .
Figure 22. Buck‐boost converter: voltage gain AVr. 
1200
R i by modeling
R i by simulation
1000
1200
R i by conventional model
R i by modeling

800 R i by simulation
f = 10 Khz
1000
L = 1 m Hmodel
R i by conventional
r = 0.13 
600
800 Rf D==10 Khz
0.038
R i ()

RLS == 10.014
mH 
r = 0.13 
R L = 10 
400
600 R = 0.038 
R i ()

V D= 0.32 V
R = 0.014 
V gS = 10 V
200 R L = 10 
400
V  = 0.32 V
V g = 10 V
0
200
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

0 
Appl. Sci. 2017, 8, 19    24 of 28 
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0  
Figure 23. Buck-boost converter: input resistance Ri .

Figure 23. Buck‐boost converter: input resistance Ri.  
1.0
 
Figure 23. Buck‐boost converter: input resistance Ri.  
0.8

0.6 f = 10 Khz
L = 1 mH
r = 0.13 


R D = 0.038 
0.4
R S = 0.014 
R L = 10 
 by modeling
V  = 0.32 V
0.2  by simulation
V g = 10 V
 by conventional model

0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0


 
Figure 24. Buck-boost converter: efficiency η.
Figure 24. Buck‐boost converter: efficiency η. 
From the results shown in Figures 16–24, Table 1 summarizes the normalized mean absolute
From  the  results  shown  in  Figures 16–24,  Table 1  summarizes  the  normalized  mean absolute 
percent error (NMAE%) for the developed and conventional models regarding the actual converters.
percent error (NMAE%) for the developed and conventional models regarding the actual converters. 

Table 1. NMAE% for the developed and conventional models regarding the actual converters. 

Model  Converter AVr  Ri  h

Boost  0.45%  0.66% 0.30% 
Developed  Buck  0.73%  1.61% 0.31% 
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 19 24 of 28

Table 1. NMAE% for the developed and conventional models regarding the actual converters.

Model Converter AVr Ri h

Boost 0.45% 0.66% 0.30%
Developed Buck 0.73% 1.61% 0.31%
Buck-boost 1.4% 1.98% 0.84%
Boost 2.93% 2.19% 2.69%
Conventional Buck 7.10% 5.39% 8.09%
Buck-boost 7.57% 5.87% 8.65%

Finally, Table 2 summarizes the obtained parameters of the developed model.

Table 2. Summary of the parameters for each DC/DC converter (see Figure 1).

Parameter Boost Buck Buck-boost

1 r + RS r + RS
RX δ−kβ δ +kβ
+ r+f R δ+k1 β δ+k1 β
r + RS D h i
k2 β
VX Vγ kβ−δ Vγ −Vγ
r+RD δ−kβ δ+k1 β δ+k1 β
AVi 1+ rh+ RS · δ f +kβ δ−kβh k2 β h
i i i
Vg ∆V Vg
δf-crit k2 ln 1 − ∆V −Vγ θ k2 ln 1 + V0 +Vγ θ k2 ln 1 − V0 −Vγ θ
where:
f ·L f ·L (1−eγ1 )·(1−e−γ2 ) δf TX − TON k1
∆V = Vg − Vo ; θ = 1 − e−γ1 .


k 1 = r + RS ; k 2 = r + R D ; k = k 2 − k 1 ; β = eγ1 −e−γ2
; γ1 = δ
k1 ; γ2 = k2 ; δf = T ; k2
For all converters:
V 1 VX
AVi − VXg RX + R 1− A
Vo AVi 2 L Vi Vg
AVr = Vg = R ;Ri = VX ;η = R
1+ AVi 2 RX 1− AVi Vg 1+ AVi 2 RX
L L

7. Discussion
Now we are going to discuss the results of the previous section and of the whole paper in general.
As we are going to demonstrate next, the quality of the developed model (Figure 1) is excellent for the
three DC/DC power converters’ basic topologies.
First of all it is important to discuss the way to obtain in the literature [24,36–39] the conventional
expressions (practically ideal, h = 1, except for taking into account the internal inductor resistance r) for
AVr , Ri and h. Authors arrive at these expressions from approximations from the beginning, specifically
considering that the current through r is constant and equal to a mean value. In the developed model,
you get to the same expressions (Sections 3.5, 4.5 and 5.5), but without previous approximations and
by the resolving of exact equations.
Analyzing Figure 16 it is easy to note how the developed model fits the voltage gain (AVr ) of
the actual boost converter. In fact, as you can see in Table 1, the (NMAE%) is negligible, only 0.45%.
Figure 16 shows up the great influence of its non-idealities on an actual boost converter operation.
Ideally, a boost converter presents no upper limit in the gain (55), so it can take anyone above 1.
However, in the actual case, as it is well known, and the developed model is able to show, the gain
is drastically modified. Although the conventional model error is also small (2.93%), it is 6.5 times
greater than the developed model.
Continuing the boost converter and regarding its input resistance, Figure 17 shows again the
quality of the model, NMAE% is very small, only 0,66% (2.19% in the conventional model). Finally,
regarding efficiency, Figure 18 shows that NMAE is again negligible, 0.3%. Here is where the difference
among the quality of the developed model and the conventional one is more notable, specifically
the error of the latter is 9 times greater (2.69%). Knowing the actual efficiency of a converter is
very important; in fact, in most facilities, DC/DC converters are a post-generator mandatory stage.
The foregoing means that the overall efficiency of the system up to the regulated-voltage output is
the product of the generator and converter efficiency. Thus, it is of great interest to know the actual
DC/DC converter losses and, from them, its true efficiency.
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 19 25 of 28

Now, regarding the buck converter, Figures 19–21 show the behavior of AVr , Ri and η. For the
developed model, NMAE% is again negligible: 0.73%, 1.61% and 0.31% respectively. However, for the
conventional model, NMAE% is 7.10%, 5.39% and 8.09% respectively. Again the differences are
notable, and especially regarding efficiency, where the error is much worse than in the buck converter,
specifically 26 times greater.
Finally, regarding buck-boost converter, Figures 22–24 show the behavior of AVr , Ri and η. For the
developed model, NMAE% is once again negligible: 1.4%, 1.98% and 0.84% respectively. In the case of
the conventional model, NMAE% is: 7.57%, 5.87% and 8.65% respectively. Now, the efficiency error is
more than 10 times greater in the conventional model regarding the developed one.
Going back to Sections 3.5, 4.5 and 5.5 that attend to the idealizations, it is important to point
out that in the converter literature, and also in converter teaching, it is very common to work with
idealized expressions, which are of common use for students, teachers and postgraduate engineers.
The developed model shows how it is possible to go in an easy way from exact expressions to
idealized ones.
Continuing with the above and in view of the development carried out in Sections 3–5 of this
paper, it may seem that the complexity of the modeling method may be quite high. However, in the
opinion of the authors, this is not true for four reasons: (1) the approach is very intuitive; (2) the laws
of circuit theory that have been applied are very simple and known; (3) the mathematical analysis
used is within the scope of any student of engineering degree; and (4) the methodology and steps are
identical for the three converter topologies. Moreover, one might think that for practical converters, the
difference between the results of the accurate analysis carried out in this paper and the conventional
approximate analysis is too small to justify the extra analytical effort (the results are shown in Table 1).
Well, this can be true in some cases (especially in converters that work in a small range of their duty
cycle), but not always, and in any case, the use of the developed model is very easy in practice, because
it does not require any mathematical development. It is enough to apply directly to Figure 1 the
parameter values that have been developed in the paper, depending on the converter, which has been
summarized in Table 2. The parameter values can be obtained immediately from the data sheets of the
converter components (no measurements are needed).
Finally, regarding the capacitor value C in the three topologies, it has been assumed to be large
enough and with negligible losses (very low equivalent series resistance, ESR). This has allowed the
consideration of a practically constant output voltage V0 . The ESR is inversely proportional to the
capacity and today, for typical capacities of C in power converters applications, it is easy to find
capacitors with ESR < 0.010 Ω.

8. Conclusions
An intuitive approach to model the steady state regime of the three DC/DC power converters’
basic topologies (buck, boost and buck-boost) has been developed in this work. This approach is new
because it is not present in the literature. Besides, the developed model is common (it is suitable for the
three basic topologies), realistic (it includes the main non-idealities (losses) of the active and passive
components of the three topologies), accurate (the behavior of the real converter and its model are
very close) and practical (it demands no measurements and just needs to have the data provided by
the manufacturers’ data sheets of the converter components).
The developed model transforms a complex system with strong non-idealities in the form
of distributed parameters, into a simple and intuitive scheme of concentrated parameters, which
accurately reflect the actual behavior of the converters components.
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 19 26 of 28

The quality of the developed model has been checked by two independent lines. The first has
been to probe how the relationships developed in this work can lead to the approximations commonly
used in literature. The second has demonstrated how the behavior of the developed model matches
the behavior of an actual converter in any of the studied basic structures. Moreover, the developed
model has been subjected to a battery of comparatives for the three types of basic converters regarding
the conventional model used until now in the literature. The results are summarized in Table 1 and
the conclusion can be that the quality of the developed model is excellent and it far exceeds the
conventional model.
As a future work that in fact it is already running, authors of this manuscript are working to try
to extend the approach presented in this paper to other DC/DC converters topologies.

Author Contributions: Juan Manuel Enrique and José Manuel Andújar conceived and designed the model; Eladio
Durán performed the experiments; Antonio Javier Barragán analyzed and wrote the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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