4466 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 62, NO.
7, JULY 2015
Power Converters, Control, and Energy
Management for Distributed Generation
D ISTRIBUTED generation (DG) is expected to play a vital
role in the future to improve the quality of human life.
DG and its integration to the local AC grid provide options for
economical, continuous, and bidirectional power flow (utility
interface). In addition, it provides a back-up to support during
grid failure or blackouts. Extensive promotion of the DC grid
is also proposed for the future to facilitate easy integration of
renewable resources. Low-voltage DC grid derived from DG
is safe and may cover a significant portion of residential load,
which is mostly DC load avoiding inefficient AC/DC power
supply. Vehicles in the smart grid have introduced a concept of
living and mobility, i.e., sustainable living and low carbon mo-
bility and are foreseen as a part of future microgrid. Research is
needed to push and commercialize these technologies to make
the environment clean by replacing conventional generation
systems. This “Special Section on Power Converters, Control,
and Energy Management for Distribution Generation” of the
IEEE T RANSACTIONS ON I NDUSTRIAL E LECTRONICS, is a
step forward to promote and encourage extensive investigations
in the areas associated with DG. In all, 16 papers were selected,
which have one or more very unique features for the proposed
applications. The topics range from new high gain DC/DC
converters to inverters for solar PV integration on one side
and development of effective test bed to brushless generation
systems for potential DG applications on the other. To facilitate
an in-depth survey of the published papers, the Guest Editors
will now examine one by one the different contributions by
highlighting the most noteworthy developments and findings.
In [1], a soft-switching extended secondary universal current-
fed converter (ESUC) has been proposed, analyzed, and de-
signed. The proposed converter accommodates wide source
voltage range to cover several sources to interface through
extended secondary circuit and hybrid modulation. Proposed
fixed frequency hybrid modulation and design achieve soft-
switching of semiconductor devices under all operating condi-
tions. It is therefore suitable to be universally adopted for solar
photovoltaic (PV), fuel cells, and battery applications. Current-
fed technology is suitable for such sources (low-voltage high
current). Experimental results are illustrated to verify the claims
and to show performance of the converter over wide input
voltage range of 20 to 60 V with load variation.
In [2], the authors analyze the interleaved boost with cou-
pled inductors (IBCIs) converter, an isolated topology that is
suitable for high step-up applications. Two main contributions
are given: an exhaustive steady-state analysis and an accurate
small-signal model. The former allows one to derive a closed-
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form, noniterative, design procedure for the power stage active
and passive components. In addition, it reveals an interesting
equivalence with an apparently different converter, the single
active bridge. Subsequently, the IBCI converter dynamic be-
havior is investigated, deriving a nonlinear average model that,
under small-signal approximation, can be linearized around a
given operating point and used for feedback controller design.
A single PV module interface converter, rated for 300 W output
power, is considered as a case study to validate the analysis
outcomes and the design procedure.
In [3], a novel high-conversion-ratio high-efficiency isolated
bidirectional DC–DC converter is reported. The proposed con-
verter is operated at the step-down stage. The DC blocking
capacitor in the high-voltage side is used to reduce the voltage
on the transformer, and the current doubler circuits are used
in the low-voltage side to reduce the output current ripple.
The energy stored in the leakage inductance is recycled to
the DC blocking capacitor. When the proposed converter is
operated with a step-up function, dual current-fed circuits on
the low-voltage side are used to reduce the current ripples
and conduction losses of the switches in the low-voltage side.
The voltage doubler circuit in the high-voltage side increases
the conversion ratio. The proposed converter can achieve high
conversion with high efficiency. Experimental results based on
a prototype implemented in the laboratory with a high voltage
of 200 V, low voltage of 24 V, and output power of 200 W verify
the performance of the converter.
In [4], a decoupled controlled triport DC/DC converter is de-
rived by combining two bidirectional single-phase buck–boost
converters and one isolated full-bridge converter for the mul-
tiple input source applications. The power density is improved
and the circuit structure is simplified because the power devices
are completely shared in the primary side. Furthermore, the
pulsewidth modulation (PWM) plus phase-shift (PPS) control
strategy is introduced to provide two control freedoms and
achieve the decoupled voltage regulation within a certain op-
erating range. The duty cycle of the bidirectional buck–boost
converters is adopted to balance the voltage between the two
primary input terminals, whereas their phase angle is applied
to regulate the accurate secondary voltage. Furthermore, zero-
voltage-switching operation is provided for all the primary
power switches due to the inherent phase-shift control scheme.
Two filter inductors in the bidirectional buck–boost converters
and the isolated transformer in the full-bridge topology are
integrated and replaced by the winding-cross-coupled inductors
(WCCIs) to reduce the component numbers and simplify the
magnetic structure. Finally, a 1-kW prototype is built to verify
all theoretical considerations and it is shown that the proposed
topology is particularly advantageous in the distributed power
generation system with multiple energy sources.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 62, NO. 7, JULY 2015
A modeling technique for current-mode-controlled power
converters is studied in [5]. While current-mode control of
DC–DC converters provides numerous benefits over voltage-
mode control, previous models of the control strategy have been
limited to the form of classical control models. Through the use
of a state-space averaged model of current-mode control, both
the open-loop and closed-loop circuit parameters of open-loop
control-to-output frequency response, conducted susceptibility,
input admittance, output impedance and any other desired
response can easily be obtained. In this paper, state-space aver-
aged models of current mode controlled converters are derived
and presented for buck, boost, and flyback topologies operating
in CCM. The new model allows for simpler and more accurate
modeling than possible with previous methods, and facilitates
the modeling cascaded converters, and allows for the use of
state-variable feedback and other modern control methods in
applications those use current mode control.
In [6], the authors propose an effective test bed for a 380-V
DC distribution system using isolated power converters. The
proposed test bed system is composed of a grid-interactive
AC–DC converter for regulating DC bus voltage, a bidirectional
converter for battery power interface, a renewable energy sim-
ulator, DC home appliances modified from conventional AC
components, a DC distribution panel board, and its monitoring
system. This paper discusses three isolated power converters:
the bidirectional AC–DC converter, bidirectional DC–DC con-
verter, and unidirectional DC–DC converter for effective power
interface of a DC bus. These isolated power converters are de-
signed using dual active bridge converter and resonant topolo-
gies of CLLC and LLC. The proposed test bed system has been
implemented using a 5-kW bidirectional AC–DC, a 3-kW bidi-
rectional dc–dc, and a 3-kW unidirectional DC–DC prototype
converter. Finally, the performance of the test bed system has
been verified using practical experiments of load variations and
bidirectional power flow, employing the prototype converters.
In [7], the authors present and summarize recently reported
single-phase voltage source inverter topologies for grid-tie
transformerless PV system. Based on different sufficient condi-
tions for generating leakage current, they are classified into two
groups, namely, asymmetrical inductor-based and symmetrical
inductor based. Aside from the generation mechanism and
suppression principle for the leakage current, the authors also
compare power losses, dc-link voltage, reactive power control
capability, shoot-through possibility and filtering requirement
of the inverters. For the symmetrical inductor based group,
the authors further explore the topology derivation law and
transformation principle and come up with the concepts of
DC decoupling network and AC decoupling network. From the
concepts, the authors cover existing transformerless inverters
from the perspectives of zero-voltage level generation, leakage
current suppression, reactive power production, conversion ef-
ficiency and cost-effectiveness. Using the same concepts, new
transformerless PV inverter topologies are derived. Finally,
the authors propose a family of clamped highly efficient and
reliable inverter concept transformerless inverters with an aim
to offer some excellent candidates for next-generation high
efficiency and cost-effective PV grid-tie inverters. A selected
topology is built, tested and compared with a comparable,
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4467
existing topology. The results show the new inverter has less
common mode voltage and less leakage current.
In [8], a methodology to stabilize DC/DC converters in DC
microgrids is presented. In the DC microgrids, it is common
to have many different DC/DC converters connected either in
series or in parallel to interface with different types of sources
and loads. For a stable operation of the cascaded convert-
ers, based on the Middlebrook’s stability criterion, the output
impedance of the source side converter should be smaller than
the input impedance of the load side converter. It is known that
the stability criterion is difficult to meet when an LC filter
is inserted in between the cascaded converters. Most existing
solutions were proposed to modify the input impedance of the
load side converter via its feedback loop. This is so-called active
stabilization method, which is more power efficient than its
passive counterpart. However, such approach would cause large
transient variation in load performances. The authors propose a
solution by reducing the output impedance of the source side
converter to ensure the LC filter is operated stably and the
load performance is undisturbed. The authors also investigate
into the issues with parallel-connected load side converters
and conclude that the value of LC filter of each load side
converter has to be different to ensure stable system operation.
Experimental results are given to verify the proposed methods.
In [9], the authors investigate the influence of digital control
delays, namely, computation and PWM delays, on the LCL-
type grid-connected inverters. The computation delay is defined
as the time duration between the sampling instant and the PWM
reference update instant, whereas the PWM delay is caused
by the zero-order hold effect. By modeling the delays in the
control loops, the authors observe that, as compared with analog
control, the digital control introduces a phase lag in the loop
gain as early as one-sixth of the switching frequency. It also
turns the phase of loop gain into complex impedance after the
resonance frequency of the LCL filter. This complicates the
design of close loop control and weakens the system robustness
against the grid impedance variation. Since the PWM delay is
hardware dependent and is fixed at half of switching period,
the authors focus on deriving the criteria of reducing the
computation delays of the inner capacitor current loop and the
outer grid current loop. The authors further propose a real-time
computation method with dual sampling modes which allows
minimum delay time of one-fourth of switching period and
realizes the real-time control without any duty cycle limitation.
The proposed method also prevents the switching noise from
distorting the sampled signals. The key idea is to perform
sampling and update the PWM reference before either the rising
edge or failing edge of actual PWM switching. The analysis is
fully verified by experiments on a 6kW hardware prototype.
In [10], the authors propose a simplified PWM with switch-
ing constraint method to prevent circulating currents without
any communication between the paralleled converters. The
converter under study is a bidirectional single-phase bridgeless
converter. When a number of the same converter are connected
in parallel directly without isolation, both AC and DC circulat-
ing current loops are present. This results in current distortion
and unbalanced current sharing. Another serious problem is that
short-circuit current loops are generated which causes severe
4468
damages to the paralleled converters. The authors show that
when the paralleled converters operate under either unipolar
PWM or bipolar PWM, both AC and DC circulating current
loops will be generated. To derive the switching constraint
method, the authors first identify all possible switching com-
binations and their corresponding circulating current control-
lability. The selection criterion is that only those circulating
current loops those are controllable are allowed to implement
in the controller. The method works for both rectifier mode and
inverter mode. For practical implementation, the authors add
the duty ratio feedforward control and power flow direction to
the traditional dual loop control to enhance the control force
to achieve current shaping and voltage regulation in the steady
state, as well as fast response during the transient. A hardware
prototype is built and tested. Experimental results show that the
proposed simplified PWM with switching constraint method
has higher efficiency than the bipolar and without switch con-
straint cases.
In [11], a system-level solution for developing a solid-state
transformer using silicon carbide (SiC) power devices is pre-
sented. The study is conducted on a hybrid microgrid platform,
which is mainly composed of high-voltage (HV) grid interface,
DC bus, and low-voltage (LV) output interface. The microgrid
can be regarded as a three-stage power conversion from HVAC
to load/grid, namely, cascade unit, high frequency isolated unit
and output unit. All converters employ a full-bridge structure.
The aims of this study are to focus on intelligent control and
management strategy and hardware design and implementation.
The authors firstly present four realistic coordinated control
management strategies to ensure correct and stable operation.
Comparing these four strategies, the one which has faster
overall response, less influence on other units, and islanded
operation capability is chosen for further study. Since there are
a large number of control variables, the authors adopt a four-
layer hierarchical control management architecture to ensure
correct operation. The authors present a logical process to start
up the microgrid. It basically starts with the HVAC side and
under open load condition. After subsequently energizing the
cascade unit, high frequency isolated unit and low-voltage DC
bus, the grid and load are connected. The hardware structure
employs a distributed and modular design strategy to facilitate
extendibility and enable access to various distributed generators
and energy storage systems and loads. A mix controller by
DSP/FPGA is implemented on a scaled-down 2kVA hardware
prototype. Experimental results are reported to show proper
start-up, steady state, and transient state performances.
In [12], the authors propose a simple and robust single-
objective finite control set model predictive control (FCS-MPC)
method applied to a multilevel NPC converter that avoids the
use of weighting factors in the FCS-MPC cost function. The
only objective in the cost function is to select the best voltage
to be applied at the next instant, to minimize the current
tracking error. For traditional FCS-MPC, the cost function
should achieve minimum current error tracking, a stable dc-bus
voltage and balanced DC-bus voltages. Authors propose to use
a combination of an adequate current reference generator and
selection of redundant switching states to ensure each DC-bus
voltage is controlled and to eliminate the need for weighting
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 62, NO. 7, JULY 2015
factors and DC capacitor currents. In this case, the algorithm
is fully dedicated to obtaining the optimal output switching
state that minimizes the current tracking error. This is achieved
based on the assumption that the process of increasing or
decreasing the capacitor voltages occurs slower than the process
of tracking the output current. Experimental results on a six-
pulse rectifier and motor load show that the proposed predictive
controller is robust even the predictive model has a relatively
large error between actual and estimated grid impedance values.
In [13], an energy management system for a hybrid power
conditioning system (HPCS) with an energy storage device
(ESD) using lithium-ion battery has been presented. To under-
stand the energy flow, the authors examine the characteristics
of PV system and residential loads, and night-time electricity
price. This generates five different operation modes which also
take into account the weather condition. It is shown that the use
of ESD is essential. When there is excessive power from the
sun, instead of injecting all the generated powers into the grid,
the ESD can use to compensate the power fluctuations. This
avoids frequency deviation and reduction in reliability of micro-
grid. In addition, the authors derive a second-order polynomial
function for the ESD control to ensure changes in energy is
smooth for better battery life. The system is both simulated
in MATLAB and implemented on a 4kW hardware prototype
using a PV simulator as the power source. Experimental results
for 24-h long tests under different weather conditions are re-
ported to verify the usefulness of the proposed system.
In [14], the focus is on developing a topology and associated
control algorithm to feed 4-wire loads from Permanent-Magnet
Synchronous Generator based Variable speed Generation Sys-
tem. Previously published literature dealt with integration of
delta-star transformer or use of matrix converter. Use of trans-
former makes the system bulky. Absence of intermediate DC
stage in case of matrix converter causes distortion in machine
currents when load is unbalanced. In this paper, a 7-leg con-
verter with an intermediate DC stage is used. First three legs
form the Machine Side Converter (MSC) and the remaining
four form Load Side Converter (LSC). Both the Load Side
and Machine Side Converter are controlled using resonant con-
trollers. The resonant frequency of load side converter is fixed
at 50 Hz, whereas it is self-tuned for Machine Side Converter
using the estimated speed. Flux based MRAS is used to esti-
mate rotor speed. The major contributions of this research are
formulation of a design methodology for self-tuning Resonant
Controllers to make it befitting for variable speed application
and introduction of feedforward control action for DC Bus
Voltage regulation to improve the dynamic performance under
unbalanced and nonlinear load. Simulation and experimental
investigations have been performed on a 4 kW, 2000 r/min
permanent-magnet synchronous generator. Good control over
load voltage and DC Bus Voltage is shown under unbalanced
and nonlinear load. Reduction of DC Bus voltage overshoot and
undershoots, during switching on and switching off of load, is
achieved using feedforward control mechanism.
Three-phase standalone generation system using a doubly
fed induction generator (DFIG) is investigated in [15].
Normally, DFIG-based grid-connected wind energy systems
are beneficial from the use of fractionally rated Back-to-Back
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 62, NO. 7, JULY 2015
converter point of view. In this paper, the LSC is modified
to have four legs in order to prevent flowing of unbalanced
currents, generated by standalone load, into the stator.
Previously published literature mostly focused on the compen-
sation of negative sequence currents. However, the stator
currents could not be fully balanced due to the presence of
zero-sequence components. Here, the fourth leg is actively
modulated to improve DC Bus utilization. Sequence separation
algorithms are avoided in the feedback path in order to enhance
dynamic performance of current controller. Current control
is carried out in stationary reference frame using resonant
controllers. The DC bus voltage of LSC is controlled by using
the positive sequence d-axis current. The rotor-side Converter is
conventional stator flux oriented vector controlled. Simulation
and experimental results are conducted on a 4 kW, 380 V, DFIG
laboratory prototype. Experimental results show the ability
of the controller to regulate DC Bus voltage and maintain
balanced stator currents in case of single phase loading. A
speed range of 0.8 to 1.2 p.u. is considered. The controller is
able to prevent negative and zero-sequence currents, generated
due to load unbalance, from flowing DFIG stator.
Various topological variations, control issues and possi-
ble application of dual stator winding induction machines
(DSWIMs) are illustrated in [16]. Brushless Systems have at-
tracted the researchers around the globe due to their robustness.
In addition, fluctuating cost of permanent-magnet machines
have prompted researchers to look for magnet-less alterna-
tives. This work gives an overview of the various brushless
and magnet-less drive systems using DSWIM. In this paper,
different possible stator and rotor configurations of DSWIM are
highlighted. DSWIM can be classified into two groups in accor-
dance to their rotor configuration. The rotor may be of squirrel
cage type or of nested loop rotor type. For the squirrel cage type
rotor, the two stator windings can be of similar or dissimilar
pole configurations. The two windings on the stator may or may
not have any phase displacement. For each of the topologies of
DSWIM, control issues and possible applications are discussed.
The uniqueness of each control strategy applied to DSWIM
drive is compared with similar multiphase induction machine
drives. The authors are of the opinion that DSWIM will find
immense popularity for wind power extraction as brushless and
magnet-less generation systems are in great demand for remote
area power supply and off-shore wind energy systems.
C HANDAN C HAKRABORTY, Guest Editor
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Kharagpur, WB 721 302, India
H ERBERT H O -C HIANG I U, Guest Editor
School of Electrical Electronic and Computer
Engineering
The University of Western Australia
Perth, WA 6009, Australia
DYLAN DAH -C HUAN L U, Guest Editor
School of Electrical and Information Engineering
The University of Sydney
Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
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4469
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The Guest Editors would like to thank all authors and re-
viewers for their excellent support that made possible the timely
publication of this “Special Section on Power Converters, Con-
trol, and Energy Management for Distributed Generation.” As
the scope of the Special Section was very wide and the topic is
very demanding, the continuous and unflinching support from
Editor-in-Chief of the IEEE T RANSACTIONS ON I NDUSTRIAL
E LECTRONICS, Prof. C. Cecati, and the Journal Administrator,
S. McLain are gratefully acknowledged.
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[3] T.-J. Liang and J.-H. Lee, “Novel-high-conversion-ratio high efficiency
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[12] P. Acuña et al., “A single-objective predictive control method for a multi-
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[13] S.-T. Kim, S. Bae, Y. C. Kang, and J.-W. Park, “Energy management based
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4470 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 62, NO. 7, JULY 2015

Chandan Chakraborty (S’92–M’97–SM’01–F’15) received the B.E and M.E degrees

in electrical engineering from Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India, in 1987 and 1989,
respectively, and Ph.D degrees from the Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur,
Kharagpur, India, and Mie University, Tsu City, Japan, in 1997 and 2000, respectively.
Presently, he is a Professor with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian
Institute of Technology Kharagpur. His research interests include power converters,
motor drives, electric vehicles, and renewable energy.
Dr. Chakraborty was awarded the JSPS Fellowship to work at The University of
Tokyo during 2000–2002. He received the Bimal Bose award in power electronics in
2006 from the IETE (India). He has regularly contributed to IEEE Industrial Electronics
Society (IES) conferences such as IECON, ISIE, and ICIT as Technical Program
Chair/Track Chair. He is an AdCom member of the IES. He is an Associate Editor of the
IEEE T RANSACTIONS ON I NDUSTRIAL E LECTRONICS and IEEE Industrial Electronics
Magazine and an Editor of the IEEE T RANSACTIONS ON S USTAINABLE E NERGY. He is
the Founding Editor-in-Chief of IE Technology News (ITeN), a web-only publication of the IES. He is a Fellow of the
Indian National Academy of Engineering (INAE).

Herbert Ho-Ching Iu (S’98–M’00–SM’06) received the B.Eng. (Hons) degree in

electrical and electronic engineering from the University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong,
in 1997 and the Ph.D. degree from Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, in
2000.
In 2002, he joined the School of Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering,
The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia, as a Lecturer. He is currently
a Professor at the same school. His research interests include power electronics,
renewable energy, nonlinear dynamics, current sensing techniques, and memristive
systems. He has published over 100 papers in these areas.
Prof. Iu won two IET Premium Awards in 2012 and 2014. In 2014, he also won the
Vice-Chancellor’s Mid-Career Research Award. He currently serves as an Associate
Editor for the International Journal of Bifurcation and Chaos, IEEE C IRCUITS AND
S YSTEMS S OCIETY N EWSLETTER, IET Power Electronics and the International Journal
of Electronics, an Editorial Board Member for International Journal of Circuit Theory
and Applications. He is a coeditor of Control of Chaos in Nonlinear Circuits and Systems (World Scientific, 2009) and
a coauthor of Development of Memristor Based Circuits (World Scientific, 2013).

Dylan Dah-Chuan Lu (S’00–M’04–SM’09) received the B.Eng. (Hons.) and Ph.D.

degrees in electronic and information engineering from The Hong Kong Polytechnic
University, Hong Kong in 1999 and 2004, respectively.
In 2003, he joined PowereLab Ltd. as a Senior Design Engineer. In 2006, he joined
the School of Electrical and Information Engineering, The University of Sydney, Sydney,
Australia, where he is currently a Senior Lecturer. From July 2013 to December 2013,
he was with the University of Hong Kong as a Visiting Associate Professor. He is
the author/coauthor of more than 100 papers in the areas of power electronics and
engineering education. He is the holder of two patents on efficient power conversion.
His current research interests include power electronics circuits and control for efficient
power conversion, lighting, renewable electrical energy systems, microgrids, motor
drive and power quality improvement, and engineering education.
Dr. Lu is a member of the Institute of Engineers Australia. He presently serves as an
Associate Editor for IET Renewable Power Generation and an Associate Editor for the International Journal of
Electronics. He was a recipient of the Dean’s Research Award in 2011.

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