CHAPTER ONE

1.0 BASIC CONCEPTS OF ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS

In this course, we shall be considering different aspects involved in the transmission

and reception of signals between points in a communication system. The typical
communications systems consists of very many and diverse parts which contribute in
one way or the other to establish links between two points referred to as sources and
destination.

Source Medium Destination

Fig 1:1 Communication Channel

Communication systems vary in overall forms and sophistication and depend on the
specific communications method adopted. This is evident in the evolution of electrical
communication field from the simple were telegraphy of Morse in 1837 to the satellite
communication links and most recently the information super high way - the Internet.
It may therefore be appropriate to consider the significant milestone in this evolutionary
trend as shown in the selected chronology given below.

YEAR EVENT
1826 Ohms law
1837 Morse telegraphy
1864 Maxwell J. C. Predicted Electromagnetic radiation
1877 Alexander Bell Patented the telephone
1887 Henricth Hertz verified Maxwells Theory
1887 Stronger step-by-step switch
1897 Marconi Patented a complete wireless telegram system
1904 Fleming invented diode
1905 Lee De Forest invented amplifier
1915 Bell System completed transcontinental telephone with electronic
repeaters

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 1927 Beginning of TV broadcasting
1938 Development of radar systems and
1945 Microwave system
1948 Invention of Transistor
1955 Proposition of Satellite Communication System
1956 Laser amplifiers and Lunching of first communication satellite
1960-70 Laser amplifiers and Launching of first communication satellite.
1963 Solid sate microwave oscillator was perfected
1970 Digital signal processing, colour TV, fibre optic technology
1975-date International computer communications network; Direct Broadcast
satellite. Earth remote sensing: maritime communications, satellite:
Teleconferencing; Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), E-
mail technology: Internet
1.2 Elements of Communication Systems
The myriad of communication system notwithstanding, the basic functional elements
may for convenience be configured as inter-connected Building blocks as shown in
figure 1.2.
Disregarding for the moment the transducer, the communication system may be
assumed of having three main parts: transmitter, transmission channel and the
receiver. Although the configuration is suggestive of a system in which the sources
and the receiver are remote from each Other, in practice, these two parts of the system
may be at the same locality as the case of radar system.
1.2.1 Input Transducer
Because there are many possible information sources including men and machines,
there are correspondingly different forms of messages. But regardless of the exact
form, these messages may be termed analogue or digital.
Example of analogue message is the speech which varies continuously with time. A
typical example of digital system is the digital computers. In almost all eases, the
message input to the transducer is not electrical and therefore the role of the
transducer is to transform this message into a form most suitable for the

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communication system in use. For electrical communications, the suitable form is either
a time varying voltage or a time varying current which is now referred to as a signal.

Source Output Device

Input Signal Output Signal

Input Transducer Output Transducer

Message signal

Transmitter Channel Receiver

Noise, Interference,
Distortion, Fading

Fig 1.2 Communication System Building Block

1.2.2 Source

This refers to where the input signal is generated from. Typically, there are four sources
of input signals for communication systems. They include: (a) Speech/voice (b) Music
(c) Picture/image (d) Computer system.

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1.2.3 Input Transducer

Because there are many possible information sources including men and machines,
there are correspondingly different forms of messages. But regardless of the exact
form, these messages may be termed analogue or digital.

Example of analogue message is the speech which varies continuously with time. A
typical example of digital system is the digital computers. In almost all eases, the
message input to the transducer is not electrical and therefore the role of the
transducer is to transform this message into a form most suitable for the
communication system in use. For electrical communications, the suitable form is either
a time varying voltage or a time varying current which is now referred to as a signal.

1.2.4 Transmitter
This serve to couple the message signal to the channel. Although in a few cases, the
transducer output may be couple directly to the channel. It is often necessary to
modulate a carrier wave with the signal form the input transducer.
Modulation in this sense means some systematic variations of the carrier such as its
amplitude, frequency or phase as a function of the message signal. Modulation may be
continuous wave (CW) or pulsed modulation, the classification depending on the type of
carrier wave employed. Whatever the form of modulation however, it is necessary that
the receiver be in a position to perform the complementary process of demodulation.
In addition to modulation, the transmitter serves to filter, amplify and then couple the
modulated signal to the channel or some other devices.
1.2.5 The Channel
This serves as the electrical connector between the transmitter and the receiver. It
comes in different forms which may include a pair of wires, coaxial cables, radio waves,
laser beam etc. A feature of all these channels is that they introduce some level of
degradation of the transmitter signal as a result of a variety of causes. In general the
degradation may be attenuation or fading which reduces the signal strength or
distortion/interference and noise which alter the signal shape.

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Distortion occurs if the system response to the desired signal is not perfect.
Interference on the other hand is the contamination of the signal usually man made
which has the form similar to that of the wanted signal. Noise is the random and
unpredictable electrical signal arising from natural causes both internal and external to
the system. We may in general classify noise in communications into these categories
depending on the source viz: Atmospheric, Man-made and Extraterrestrial noise.
Atmospheric noise results primarily from spurious radio waves which include voltages
that impinge in the antenna from natural sources of disturbances generally called static.
Static is caused by lightening discharges in thunderstorms and other natural electric
disturbances occurring in the atmosphere. Atmospheric noise becomes less severe at
frequencies above about 30 MHz because of two reasons:
a. Such frequencies are limited to line–of-sight propagation i.e. ≤80km and
b. The nature of generating this noise is such that very little of it is created in the
VHF range and above.
Extraterrestrial noises are those resulting from space objects like the sun. These
include solar noise and cosmic noise.
Man-made noise are those resulting from high voltage power lines, electric motors
ignition key etc. For more information on noise and noise calculations, refer to the book
“Electronic Communications System” by George Kennedy.

1.2.6 Receiver

The receiver receives the transmitted signal via the antenna. Receivers can be generally
classified as Superheterodyne or Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF). Whichever the receiver
employed, it’s most important function is to demodulate the modulated signal from the
transmitter (decoding) before sending it to the output transducer.

1.2.7 Output Transducer

The signal is converted back to its original form in the output transducer.

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1.3 Some Basic Definitions

a. Fading: This is the term used to refer to the phenomenon where a transmitted
signal gradually disappears. It can be described as the loss of signal as seen by the
receiver. It is caused by quite a number of factors, and this is why, every signal has its
limit in terms of the distance it can travel. Fading can be ameliorated by the
introduction of fade margin.

b. Interference: This is the term used to refer to the phenomenon where a signal
becomes contaminated by manmade effects. Interference is caused when the
interfering signal is similar and becomes nearly equal in strength to the wanted signal.

c. Attenuation: This refers to a reduction in the strength of a signal or which a

signal becomes less effective. It is also caused by quite a number of factors including
noise. One thing we must note is that when a signal is attenuated, its strength begins
to reduce.

D. Atmospheric Noise

Atmospheric noise is cause by lightening discharges in thunderstorms and other natural

electrical disturbances occurring in the atmosphere. These electrical impulses are
random in nature. Hence the energy is spread over the complete frequency spectrum
used for radio communication. Atmospheric noise accordingly consists of spurious radio
signals with components spread over a wide frequency range. These spurious radio
waves constituting the noise get propagated over the earth in the same fashion as the
desired radio waves of the same frequency. Accordingly at a given receiving point, the
receiving antenna picks not only the signal but also the static from all the
thunderstorms, local or remote. It is important to note that Atmospheric noise affects
Radio broadcast than TV broadcast. Finally, atmospheric noise becomes less severe in
frequencies greater than 30MHz for two reasons.

i. Atmospheric noise is limited to line-of-sight propagation. (Line-of-sight refers to

the maximum distance the human eye can see. It is less than 80km).

ii. Its nature is such that only a little of it is present in the VHF band.

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E. Extra-Terrestrial Noise

This refers to noise occurring outside the earth. They can generally be classified as
cosmic noise, and solar noise.

Solar Noise: Under normal quiet conditions, the sun constantly radiates noise simply
because it is large body at a very high temperature (over 6,000 ◦C). This noise spreads
over a broad frequency spectrum including that which we use for broadcasting.

Cosmic Noise: Just like the sun, the star radiates noise. However, the effect the noise
produced by each star is small because of their far distance from the earth. Cosmic
noise only becomes significant when they (the stars) are in their numbers.

f. Modulation

Modulation in this sense means some systematic variations of the carrier such as its
amplitude, frequency or phase as a function of the message signal. Modulation may be
continuous wave (CW) or pulsed modulation, the classification depending on the type of
carrier wave employed. Whatever the form of modulation however, it is necessary that
the receiver be in a position to perform the complementary process of demodulation.

g. Man-made Noise

Man-made noise also known as industrial noise are those resulting from automobiles,
aircraft, ignition electric motors and switching gear, high voltage wires and fluorescent
lamps etc. These noises are produced by the discharge present in all these operations.

Between the frequencies of 1 to 600MHz (in urban, suburban and other industrial
areas) the intensity of noise made by humans easily outstrips that created by any
source, internal or external to the receiver. Under certain conditions, man-made noise
due to spark discharge may even span oceans, as demonstrated by Marconi.

The nature of man-made noise is so variable that it is difficult to analyze it on any basis
other than the statistical. It does, however, obey the general principle that received
noise increase as the receiver bandwidth is increased.

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1.4 Designation of Frequency Bands
The electromagnetic spectrum which is available for electronic communication is often
for convenience divided into a number of bands and each band has associated with it
some typical application as shown below.

Frequency Name Mode Special Feature

0.3 kHz – 3KHz Voice Speech
3KHz - 30KHz VLF Earth ionosphere Long distance(worldwide)
/waveguide Low fading, military and
navigation. Very large antennas
(inefficient)
30 - 300KHz LF Ground wave LW band stable transmission, little
with small amount fading due to sky wave up to
amount of skywave 1500Km; large antenna and high
atmospheric noise
300KHz – 3MHz MF Ground Wave MW band broadcasting
MW (short distance) more fading but less atmospheric
Sky Wave More noise than HF, reliable up to
(long distance) few hundred kilometers, commercial
radio
3 – 30MHz HF Sky Wave Fading often severe, noise less
important than fading, mobile land
communications; ship to shore
30 – 300MHz VHF Space Wave Line – of – sight, VHF links, fading a
problem due to the structure of
atmosphere. Atmospheric noise
severe, low antenna structure, VHF
TV.
300MHz – 3GHz UHF Space Wave L–O–S short distance, fading
Scatter Wave Problem, presence of galaxy noise,
small antenna with high gain and
directivity, UHF TV.

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3GHz – 30GHz SHF Space Wave L-O-S satellite links, microwave radio
relays, high atmospheric absorption,
Radar for surveillance and weather.
30GHz – 300GHz EHF Space Wave Radar and landing systems, L-O-S
satellite links, small antennas with
very high gain, High atmospheric
absorption.
Above 300GHz Infra red, LASER beam, optical fibre
Communications.
NOTE:
1 – 2 GHz is called the L Band
2 – 4 GHz is called the S Band
4 – 8 GHz is called the C Band
8 – 12 GHz is called the X Band
12 – 18 GHz is called the Ku Band
18 – 27 GHz is called the K Band
27 – 40 GHz is called the Ka Band
40 – 300GHz is called the mm Band

1.5 International Regulations

For a complete communication network, it is important that individual system within a
country need not only be interconnected, the whole national system must be connected
to the international system. The problem with such an interconnection is that there are
different types of communication system used in different countries which have been
built to different standards. There is therefore need to specify certain common
standards that will be applicable to different countries and facilitate international
communications through networks that are millions of kilometers long.
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) based in Geneva was set up and
charged with the responsibility of preparing recommendations for proper working of

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long international circuits. This body does this via its three arms the ITU –T, ITU-R and
ITU - D.
ITU was founded in Paris in 1865 as the International Telegraph Union. It took its
present name in 1932, and in 1947 became a specialized agency of the United Nations.
Although its first area of expertise was the telegraph, the work of ITU now covers the
whole ICT sector, from digital broadcasting to the Internet, and from mobile
technologies to 3D TV. An organization of public-private partnership since its inception,
ITU currently has a membership of 193 countries and some 700 private-sector entities.
The Specialised Secretariat of the International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative
Committee (CCITT) was transformed into the Telecommunication Standardisation
Bureau (TSB) headed by an elected Director. The work of the Union was thus organized
into three bureaus, one each for Radiocommunications, Telecommunication
Standardisation and Development. Each Sector would have an Advisory Group, drawn
from member States as well as the private sector, to advise the director of the Bureau
on the work of his/her Sector. A regular cycle of conferences was established to help
the Union rapidly respond to new technological advances.
1.5.1 ITU - R
The ITU-R formally called CCIR (International Radio Consultative Committee) is
responsible for the preparation and recommendations relating to radio and microwave
system.
The mission of the ITU-R is:
 To ensure interference-free operations of radiocommunication systems by
implementing the Radio Regulations and regional agreements, as well as
updating these instruments in an efficient and timely manner through the
processes of world and regional radiocommunication conferences.
 To establish Recommendations intended to assure the necessary performance
and quality in operating radiocommunication systems.
 To seek ways and means to ensure the rational, equitable, efficient and
economical use of the radio-frequency spectrum and satellite-orbit resources and
to promote flexibility for future expansion and new technological developments.

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1.5.2 ITU - T
The ITU-T formally called CCITT (International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative
Committee) is responsible for setting standards of operation and interoperability for
telecommunication networks.
1.5.3 ITU - D
The Telecommunication Development Sector (ITU-D) fosters international cooperation
and solidarity in the delivery of technical assistance and in the creation, development
and improvement of telecommunication and ICT equipment and networks. The key
objectives of this sector is:
 To foster international cooperation on telecommunication and ICT development
issues.
 To foster an enabling environment for ICT development and the development of
telecommunication and ICT networks.
 To enhance confidence and security in the use of telecommunication and ICTs.
 To build human and institutional capacity, provide data and statistics, promote
digital inclusion and provide concentrated assistance to countries in special need.

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 CHAPTER TWO
2.0 MODULATION
The message signal from the transducer which is a time varying current or voltage is
referred to as the information. To be relevant the information signal must have some
element of uncertainty associated with it so that when information transfer occurs,
something new is gained. This element of uncertainty is the reason for the statistical
treatment of information in communications theory.
2.1 Modulation of a Sinusoidal Wave
Consider a typical sinusoid given by
V(t) = ACos(ωt + φ) Eqn 2.1
Where
V(t) = Instantaneous value of voltage (current)
A = Maximum amplitude
ω = Angular velocity in radians /sec.
φ = Phase angle in radians
If any one of these three parameters is varied in accordance with another signal,
normally of a lower frequency, then the process is called modulation and the first is said
to be modulated by the second. When modulation is performed on the sinusoid, one of
the parameters of the V(t) is varied in sympathy with the modulating signal Vm(t).
Allowing V(t) to have time – varying parameters, then eqn. 2.1 becomes
V(t) = A(t)Cos{(t)} Eqn 2.2
Where
(t) = (2ft + φ)
Eqn 2.2 has a phasor representation which consists of a rotating member of length A(t)
making an angle (t) with the abscissa. Since (t) = 2ft + φ, it then follows that
d
 2f
dt
d 1
Therefore .  f Eqn 2.3
dt 2

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is a time – varying frequency referred to as the instantaneous frequency of the wave
V(t). This gives a general sinusoid with time – varying parameters
V(t) = A(t)Cos{2ft + φ(t)} Eqn 2.4
Therefore, three basic lasses of modulation can be isolated from eqn 2.4 as shown in
table 2.1
Table 2.1: Classes of Modulation
Case Condition Example
Envelope Modulation A(t) = k{Vm(t)} - Product Modulation
φ(t) = constant - Conventional Amplitude Modulation
Angle Modulation A(t) = constant - Frequency Modulation
φ(t) = k{Vm(t)} - Frequency Modulation with Pre-emphasis
Composite Modulation A(t) = k{Vm(t)} - Single Side band
φ(t) = k{Vm(t)} - Asymmetric Side Band
- Independent Side Band
- Vestigial Side Band
- Compatible Single Side Band
Single Side Band FM

2.2 Purpose for Modulation

The need to modulate arises from a number of reasons.

1. To relocate base band information so that it is spectrally adjacent to the high

frequency carrier. This frequency translation makes electromagnetic propagation
much easier. Both transmission power and antenna size may be reduced as the
carrier frequency is increased.
2. To provide the capability of frequency division multiplexing many baseband
channels.
3. To increase the transmitted signal redundancy, thereby gaining a measure of
immunity to the signal corruption introduced by the channel.
4. To ease the radiation process.
5. To allow multiplexing many signals in one channel.
6. To assign channels of frequencies.

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7. To reduce noise and interference.
8. To avoid equipment limitation.
9. To match the signal to the transmission channel.

2.3 Amplitude Modulation (AM)

Amplitude modulation is defined as a system of modulation in which the amplitude of
the carrier is made proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating
voltage. If the carrier voltage and the modulating (message) voltage be represented by
Vc = AcSinωct
and Vm =AmSinωmt respectively.
Note: The phase angle has been ignored since it is unchanged by the amplitude.
When the carrier is amplitude modulated, the proportionality constant is made equal to
unity and the instantaneous modulating voltage variations are superimposed onto the
carrier amplitude. When there is temporarily no modulation, the amplitude of the carrier
is equal to its unmodulated value. When modulation is present, the amplitude of the
carrier is varied by its instantaneous value as shown in fig. 2.1. Distortion occurs if A m 
Ac and the ratio Am/Ac is known the modulation index m. The value of the modulation
index lies between 0 and 1 (0≤m≤1) for optimum operation.

Am AmSinωmt

Ac Vo

t
Fig. 2.1: Amplitude of AM wave
From fig. 2.1, we can write
Vo = Ac + AmSinωmt
But Am = mAc

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 Then Vo = Ac + mAcSinωmt
Vo = Ac[1+ mSinωmt] Eqn 2.5
The instantaneous voltage of the resulting AM therefore is given as
inst = VoSin = VoSinωct
= Ac[1+ mSinωmt]Sinωct Eqn 2.6
Expanding eqn 2.6 using trigonometrical relation
sinxsiny = ½[cos(x - y) – cos(x + y)] yields

inst = AcSinωct + ½mAcCos(ωc - ωm)t - ½mAcCos(ωc + ωm)t Eqn 2.7

inst = AcSin2fct + ½mAcCos2(fc - fm)t - ½mAcCos2(fc + fm)t Eqn 2.8

Eqn 2.8 represents the AM wave.

The spectral pattern of eqn 2.8 is as shown in fig. 2.2

LSB USB

fm fm fm fm

f -fm 0 +fm
fc – fm fc fc + fm
Fig. 2.2: Frequency Spectrum of AM wave
Comments
It can be seen from eqn 2.8 that the AM wave contains three terms:
1. The first term which represents the unmodulated carrier.
2. Two additional terms produced as sidebands.
3. The frequency fc – fm is termed the lower sideband (LSB) and that of fc + fm is
termed the upper sideband (USB).
4. The bandwidth required for AM is twice the frequency of the modulating signal.
5. The carrier which carries no information is also transmitted.

15
6. The baseband signal which extends to fm from 0 when modulated covers a
frequency range of 2fm.
7. One of the sidebands is actually redundant since it carries exactly the same
information as the other.
Consequently, it is possible to eliminate one of the sidebands without affecting the
transmitted signal. Since the carrier carries no information, it can either be suppressed
or eliminated. When the carrier and one sideband are suppressed, the signal is referred
to as single sideband suppressed carrier (SSB/SC) and when only the carrier has been
eliminate with the two hands present is referred to as double sideband suppressed
carrier (DSB/SC). When both the carrier and the two sideband are present is referred
to as double sideband amplitude modulation (DSB/AM) or double sideband full carrier
(DSB/FC) or (A3).

The appearance of the AM wave is as shown in fig 2.3 for one cycle of the modulating
sine wave as derived from fig 2.1. It is called the envelope of the AM wave given by
the relation Vo = Ac + AmSinωmt

+A [Ac + AmSinωmt]

Amin

0 t

-A - [Ac + AmSinωmt]

Fig. 2.3: Envelope of AM

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NOTE:

1. The envelope of the modulated wave will have the shape of the modulating
signal fm(t) provided fo >> fm and m < 1

2. When m = 1, we have 100% modulation and the modulated amplitude varies

from 0 to 2Ao

3. When m > 1, we have over modulation and there is envelope distortion.

Recovery of such signal with envelope distortion required a coherent
(synchronous) demodulation scheme.

2.3.1 Power Associated With AM Spectrum

It has been shown that carrier component of the modulated wave has the same
amplitude as the unmodulated carrier. However, the modulated wave contains the two
sideband components as well. It is therefore obvious that the modulated wave contains
more power than the carrier had before modulation took place. Also, since the
amplitude of the sidebands depends on the modulation index, then the total power in
the modulated wave will depend on the modulation index also.
Recall that Power is proportional to [rms Volts(t)]2. Total power transmitted (PT) is
equal to the power in the carrier (Pc) plus the power in the two sidebands (PSB).

Therefore, the total power in the AM wave

AC2 ALSB
2
A2
PT    USB Eqn 2.9
R R R
Where
R is in Ohms.
Ac is the rms value of the carrier voltage.
ALSB is the rms value of the lower sideband voltage and
AUSB is the rms value of the upper sideband voltage.
AC
( )2
AC2 2 AC2
PC    Eqn 2.10
R R 2R

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Similarly
2
ASB
PLSB  PUSB 
R
2
 mAC 
 2 
=   R
 2 
 
m 2 AC2 m 2 AC2
= =  Eqn 2.11
8R 4 2R
Substituting eqn 2.10 and 2.11 into eqn 2.9 yields
AC2 m 2 AC2 m 2 AC2
PT     
2R 4 2R 4 2R
m2 m2
= PC   PC   PC
4 4

 m2 m2 
PT  PC 1   
 4 4 

PT  m 2 
 1   Eqn 2.12
PC  2 

Note: Eqn 2.12 shows that the maximum power in AM is PT = 1.5Pc when m = 1. This
is important because it is the maximum power that an amplifier must be capable of
handling without distortion.
2.3.2 Summary
1. The maximum power in the sidebands is 50% of the carrier power when m = 1.0
2. The use of DSB/AM for broadcast purposes are based on:

i. It simplifies equipment at the transmitter and receiver, thus reducing cost.

ii. An envelope detector can be used at the receiver. It is easy to design and
does not call for any critical adjustment.
3. SSB/SC gives considerable savings of power.

4. SSB/SC offers great saving in bandwidth since only one sideband is transmitted.

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5. DSB/SC system is not very practicable because demodulation of the received
signal requires the re-insertion of the carrier at the receiving end. The carrier
must be of the correct frequency and phase as the original carrier, in order that
the received signal may be correctly demodulate, else it cannot be detected by
the receiver. Alternatively, a low power pilot carrier some 26dB below its normal
value may be transmitted and is used at the receiver to phase-lock a local
carrier.

2.4 AM Modulators
The function of an AM modulator is to modulate a carrier wave, which results in sum
and difference frequencies, together with the carrier. This may be achieved using valves
or transistors operating as non-linear or linear modulators. One example is the Cowan
Modulator

2.4.1 Cowan Modulator

Cowan Modulator is a typical modulator used in AM transmission and is also known as

ring modulator, invented by Frank A. Cowan in 1934. It is referred to a ‘ring’ modulator
because the analog circuit of diodes originally used to implement this technique took
the shape of a ring. This circuit is similar to a bridge rectifier, except that instead of the
diodes facing “left” or “right” they go “clockwise” or “counter clockwise”.

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When A is negative with respect to B, the diodes are reversed biased and appear as an
open-circuit across the network, thus allowing audio signal to get through. The carrier
wave has a square wave switching action on the audio signal.

The carrier, which alternates between positive and negative current, at any given time,
makes one pair of diodes conduct, and reverse-biases the other pairs. The conducting
pair carry the signal from the left transformer secondary to the primary of the transform
at the right. If the left carrier terminal is positive, the top and bottom diodes conduct, if
the terminal is negative, then the “side” diodes conduct, creating a polarity inversion
between the transformers.

A particular elegance of the ring modulator is that it is bidirectional, the signal flow can
be reversed allowing the same circuit with the same carrier to be used either as a
modulator or demodulation, for example in low-cost radio transceivers.

2.5 Frequency Modulation (FM)

Frequency Modulation (FM) is a system in which the amplitude of the modulated carrier
is made constant whereas its frequency is varied in accordance with variations of the
modulating signal. Consider eqn 2.1 given as
V(t) = ACos(ωt + φ)
Where
V(t) = instantaneous value of voltage (current)
A = Maximum Amplitude
ω = Angular velocity (rad/s)
φ = Phase angle (rad)
Instantaneous frequency f of an FM is given by
f = fc[1 + kAmCosωmt] Eqn 2.13
Where
fc = Unmodulated carrier frequency
k = Proportionality constant
AmCosωmt = Instantaneous Modulating voltage

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Maximum deviation occurs when the cosine term has its maximum value  1. Under
these conditions, the instantaneous frequency will be
f = fc[1  kAm] Eqn 2.14
so that the maximum deviation  will be given by

 = kAmfC Eqn 2.15

Therefore, the instantaneous amplitude of the frequency modulated signal is given by
V(t) = ASin[F(ωc,ωm)] = ASin Eqn 2.16

Where F(ωc,ωm) = Angle function =  (see eqn 2.13)

In order to find , eqn 2.13 is integrated with respect to time.

Therefore,

 =  dt   C 1  kAm Cos m t dt

= C  1  kAm Cos m t dt

 kAm Sin m t 
= C  t  
 m 
kAmC Sin m t
= C t 
m

kAm f C Sin m t
= C t 
fm


= C t  Sin  m t Eqn 2.17
fm

Substituting eqn 2.17 into eqn 2.16 gives

  
V t   ASin C t   Sin m t  Eqn 2.18
 fm 
Define modulation index, m, of an FM system as
Maximum Frequency Deviation 
m  Eqn 2.19
Modulating Frequency fm

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Therefore, eqn 2.18 becomes
V t   ASinC t  m  Sinmt  Eqn 2.20

2.5.1 Frequency Spectrum of FM Signal

Eqn 2.20 involves the sine of a sine and the only solution available to such equations is
the use of Bessel functions. Expanding eqn 2.20 gives
V(t) = ACos(2fct)Cos[mSin(2fmt)] +ASin(2fct)Sin[mSin(2fmt)]
------- Eqn 2.21
The terms are equivalent to trigonometric series of the nature
Cos[mSin(β)] = J0(m) + 2[J2(m)Cos(2β) + J4(m)Cos(4β) + - - - - -] Eqn 2.22
and
Sin[mSin(β)] = 2[J1(m)Sin(β) + J3(m)Sin(3β) + - - - - -] Eqn 2.23
The terms Jn(m) are known as Bessel functions of order n of the first kind. Rearranging
eqns 2.21, 2.22 and 2.23 and using the identity
Jn(m) = (-1)nJ-n(m) Eqn 2.24
We can conclude that

V (t )  A  J n (m)Cos[ C t  n m t ] Eqn 2.25
n  

Fourier transformation of eqn 2.25 gives the spectrum as

1 
V ( f )  A  J n (m) { f  ( f C  nf m )}   { f  ( f C  nf m )} Eqn 2.26
2 n
This yields a power spectrum

1 2  2
P( f )  A  J n (m) { f  ( f C  nf m )}   { f  ( f C  nf m )} Eqn 2.27
4 n
Comments
1. Unlike AM where there are only three frequencies (i.e. carrier and two
sidebands), the FM spectrum has an infinite number of sidebands as well as the
carrier. The sidebands are separated from the carrier by fm, 2fm, 3fm, - - - - .

22
2. The Jn coefficients decrease as n increases.
3. The sidebands at equal distances from fc have equal amplitudes so that their
distribution is symmetrical about the carrier frequency.
NOTE:
The attached table and figure from the textbook “Electronic Communications
System” second edition by George Kennedy, helps to read out required values.

2.5.2 Pre and De – Emphasis in FM Systems

The effect of noise on an FM signal is determined by the extent to which it changes the
frequency of the modulated signal. A single-noise frequency will affect the output of a receiver
only if it falls within its passband. The carrier and noise voltages will mix, and if the difference is
audible, it will naturally interfere with the reception of wanted signals. FM systems are
inherently immune to random noise. For noise to interfere in FM, it will have to modulate the
frequency somehow. But the noise is distributed uniformly in frequency and varies mostly in
amplitude. Hence, minimum interference is picked up in FM receivers. In FM system the higher
frequencies contribute more to the noise than the lower frequencies. Because of this all FM
systems adopt a system of Pre-emphasis where the higher frequencies are increased in
amplitude before being used to modulate the carrier.

2.5.2.1 Pre-Emphasis Network

The noise suppression ability of FM decreases with increase in the frequency. This increases the
relative strength or amplitude of the high frequency components of the message signal before
modulation. The booting of the higher modulating frequencies in accordance with a prearranged
curve is termed pre – emphasis. The fig. 2.4 below shows the circuit for pre-emphasis.

Rf H(f)

Rf/R

C 1/CR ω

Fig. 2.4: Pre – emphasis circuit and its transfer function

23
Pre-emphasis circuit is equivalent to a high pass filter (HPF) or differentiator which allows high
frequencies to pass. The pre-emphasis process is done at the transmitter end.

2.5.2.2 De-Emphasis Network

The compensation at the receiver to reverse the pre - emphasis processes is known as de-
emphasis and this is done by reducing the amplitude level of the received high frequency signal
by the same amount as the increase in pre-emphasis. Figure 2.5 shows a circuit of de-
emphasis.

1/CR ω

H(f)

Fig. 2.5: De – emphasis network

2.6 Advantages of AM Over FM Systems

i. AM transmission has wider coverage than FM because AM signals are reflected

back to earth by ionospheric layer.

ii. Line of sight receptivity is not required for AM but it is required for FM

iii. AM systems are less complex than FM thus making them cheaper

iv. The bandwidth of AM is twice the carrier frequency but that of FM is infinite.
Thus FM systems are more expensive.

v. AM demodulators are less complex than FM.

2.7 Disadvantages of AM Over FM Systems

i. Noise in AM system is higher than FM systems as most noise is amplitude based.

ii. Power is lost in the carrier of AM signals as most of the power is contained in the
carrier. Most of the power is an FM signal is contained in the side lands.

iii. For an AM system, there is interference between adjacent channels as no guard

band separates adjacent channels. But for an FM, a guard band separates
adjacent channels of different frequencies and there is no signal transmission
through this guard band. Therefore, there is hardly ever any interference in FM
systems.

24
iv. The major way of reducing noise in AM system is by increasing the power of the
transmitted signal thus increasing cost. For an FM, noise is reduced by increasing
the deviation frequency.

v. AM transmission efficiency is lower than that of FM because AM systems use

linear amplifiers. Non linear amplifiers can be used in FM.

25
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 AM AND FM DEMODULATION/DETECTION

The process of extracting or recovering the information from a modulated signal is known as
demodulation or detection. Demodulation of AM and FM signals require different methods
because of their different characteristics. However, in general, linear demodulation is essential
in both AM and FM systems in order to minimize signal distortion.

3.1 AM Detection

Two main types of linear detectors are the non-coherent or envelop detector and the coherent
or synchronous detector. The envelope detector is the most commonly used because of its
simplicity in AM systems. Synchronous detectors may also be used for AM signals but more
usually, they are employed for DSBSC or SSB signals. The synchronous detector is far more
critical in its operation than the envelope detector since it depends upon exact carrier
synchronization for its correct operation.

3.1.1 Synchronous (Product) Demodulation

This involves the multiplication of the incoming signal with a locally generated sinusoid from a
unit called the Local Oscillator (LO) and low – pass filtering the result in order to obtain the
message. This is as shown in fig. 3.1. For synchronous detection to be effective,
synchronization of the locally injected carrier must be exact. To ensure exact synchronization, a
pilot carrier of about 26dB below the normal value is transmitted along. At the receiver, the
pilot carrier is used to phase lock the local oscillator or alternatively, it may be amplified and
used as the local carrier signal.

VC(t) Multiplier Low Pass Filter Vout

LO
Fig. 3.1: Synchronous detection Block Diagram

26
3.1.2 Envelope Detection

This is the most common method of demodulating the standard AM wave and is achieved with
circuit connection of fig. 3.2a known as simple diode detector. The envelope of the standard AM
is independent of the carrier and phase. All that the envelope does is to extract this envelope
without any need for synchronization. The circuit behaves like a half wave rectifier. When the
carrier is positive, the diode conducts and charges the capacitor C1 and as the carrier level
decreases, the diode stops conducting because the voltage of C2 exceeds the carrier voltage.
However, during the negative cycle, the capacitor discharges through R1. The VC(t) starts
increasing until the next half cycle which causes the envelope to rise again. The sketch in fig.
3.2b illustrates the output voltage. The capacitor C1 is charged and discharged with a time
constant R1C1 which is so chosen as to effect the complete recovery of the signal. It is required
that the time constant be long enough compared with 1/fo.

The simple diode detector has the disadvantage that output voltage, in addition to being
proportional to the modulating voltage, also has a dc component. This dc component represents
the average envelope amplitude i.e. the carrier strength, and a small RF ripple. However, this
unwanted dc component of the wave is removed by the combination of C1 and C2 and the audio
signal appears across the resistor R2.

D C2

C R1 C1 R2

Fig. 3.2a: Envelope Detector Circuit

27
 Output voltage

Input Voltage

Fig. 3.2b: Input and Output Voltages

3.2 FM Detection (Frequency Discriminator)

Different types of discriminators have been devised, most of which operate on the principle of
converting frequency fluctuations to amplitude fluctuations by means of some frequency –
sensitive network and following this conversion by envelope detection. The amplitude changer
produces an output voltage which is linearly dependent on input frequency. Ideally, the circuit
should be insensitive to the amplitude changes in the incoming signal. This simplest form of
discriminator is as shown in fig. 3.3 and is referred to as the slope detector.

The use of an inductance

as an FM to AM conversion

Followed by envelope
detector

Fig. 3.3: FM Detection Circuit

This very simple form of discriminator is not widely used because, although it is highly linear, its
frequency – to – voltage conversion factor is very small. However, the discriminator conversion
factor may be substantially improved by employing an off – resonance tuned circuit as the
frequency sensitive element to replace the inductance in the first block of fig. 3.3. Also, use
may be made of the balanced slope detector, fig. 3.4, or discriminator which is much more
efficient and linear although it imposes more serious circuit problems.

28
 Input output

Fig. 3.4: Balanced slope detector

Some other common types of discriminators are:

1. Foster – Seeley Phase Shift Discriminator

2. The Ratio Detector
3. The Phase Locked Loop (PLL)
ASSIGNMENT
Make short handwritten notes on the operation of the following discriminators:
a. Balanced Slope Detector.
b. Foster – Seeley Phase Shift Discriminator.
c. The Ratio Detector.
The assignment will be submitted in the first week of resumption.

3.2.1 The Phase Locked Loop (PLL)

All the FM detectors/discriminators mention earlier suffer from the disadvantage of making use
of inductors or transformers. These components are bulky and costly, and are more
complicated and difficult to align in such a way as to produce a linear frequency – to – voltage
conversion characteristics. None are suitable for IC fabrication either. An economical and
convenient solution to this problem is found in a subsystem known as the Phase Locked Loop
(PLL). An FM detector using the PLL is as shown in fig. 3.5. The incoming modulated carrier
V(t) = ACCos[2fCt + φ(t)]
is multiplied by the voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) output
V1(t) = A1Sin[2fCt + φ1(t)]
to yield sum- and difference- frequency terms. The difference- frequency term is proportional to
Sin[φ(t) – φ1(t)]

and for small phase differences, this quantity may be expressed as

29
 φ(t) – φ1(t)

The difference which is the error signal is applied to the VCO in such a sense as to drive its
frequency towards “lock”. When in lock, φ(t) ≈ φ1(t) so that the input to the VCO which is a
frequency modulator, will be proportional to φ(t) and hence to Vm(t). It then follows that the
loop output is a close approximation to the modulating signal when lock has been attained.

RF Mixer IF Phase – locked loop

Fig. 3.5: FM receiver incorporating a phase – locked loop demodulator

Note:

Not only is the PLL preferable to other FM discriminators for reasons of economy, its noise
performance is substantially better than that of the discriminators at low values of carrier – to –
noise ratio.

3.3 Comparison between Synchronous and Envelope Detection

Synchronous Detection Envelope Detection

i. Requires the carrier wave Carrier is not required. Only the envelop of the AM
signal is used

ii. Involves synchronization of Do not involve synchronization

signals

iii. Also requires an external input No external input is required

from a local oscillator

iv. Synchronous detections is Envelop detection is simple and very common. It is

complex the most widely used AM detector

30
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RADIO RECEIVERS

Over the years, different types of radio receivers have been designed. Of all of them, only two
have been of commercial value – The Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) and the Superheterodyne
receivers. These early radio receivers had poor performance compared to the ones in use today.
With advances in technologies like Digital Signal Processing (DSP) and high performance
semiconductors, very high performance radios are now common. They range from the more
traditional broadcast radio receivers to the professional communications receivers. In addition,
increase in cellular and wireless communications has meant that there are many different
receivers needed for different applications. In view of this, many different types of radio
receivers abound. However, we will be limiting ourselves to TRF and the Superheterodyne ones.

4.1 Tuned Radio Frequency

This type of radio receiver was used in the first generation of receivers and consists of a tuned
circuit and a detector. Tuning was provided by a combination of tuned coil and capacitor and
the signal presented to a simple diode detector where the modulated signal is recovered.
Typically, the TRF receiver consists of three main sections as shown in fig. 4.1.

Antenna

1st stage 2nd stage Detector Audio/Power Output

RF Amp. RF Amp. stage Amplifier Device

Ganged

Fig. 4.1: TRF Receiver

Radio Frequency (RF) Stage:

This consists of two or more radio frequency (RF) amplifying and tuning stages, all ganged to
select and amplify the incoming frequency and simultaneously to reject others.

Signal Detector Stage:

After the signal might have been amplified to a suitable level, it will be fed to the detector
stage. The detector enables the information signal from the modulated signal to be extracted.

31
Power Amplifier Stage:

The power amplifier provides the amplification to the required level to drive the output.

4.1.1 Operation of TRF

TRF receivers were popular in the 1920s as it provided sufficient gain and selectivity, and was
easy to design and align at broadcast frequencies, but presented some difficulties at higher
frequencies. The TRF receiver suffered from variations in bandwidth over the tuning range, as a
result, it was unable to achieve sufficient selectivity at high frequencies. This was partly as a
result of the enforced use of single – tuned circuits. However, attempts were made to overcome
these problems by the introduction of Ferranti ZN414, ZN415 and ZN416 integrated circuit
chips. Other commercially available ones include MK484, UTC 7642 and LA1050. The problem of
instability, insufficient adjacent frequency rejection and bandwidth variations in the TRF are all
solved by the use of superheterodyne receiver.

4.2 Superheterodyne Receiver

One of the most common forms of radio receivers is the superheterodyne radio receiver simply
called the “superhet”. Virtually, all broadcast radio receivers (AM, FM, SSB etc) as well as
televisions, radar systems and other commercial radios operate on the superhet principles.
Although more complicated than some other forms of radio set, the superhet offers many
advantages in terms of performance, particularly in selectivity. The superhet block diagram is as
shown in fig. 4.2.

Antenna Power Output

Amplifier Device
(fo - fs)

RF Amp. fs Mixer IF Amp. Detector

stage stage stage stage

AGC
fo

Local
Ganged tuning oscillator

Fig. 4.2: Superheterodyne receiver

32
RF Tuning and Amplification Stage:

This stage provides the initial tuning to remove the image signal. The Radio Frequency (RF)
circuit is used mainly to select the wanted frequency, to reject interference such as the image
frequency and to reduce the noise figure of the receiver.

Local Oscillator (LO) Stage:

The LO can be of free running type multivibrator or frequency synthesizers normally the Phase
Lock Loop (PLL) type. The LO provide much greater levels of stability and enable frequencies to
be programmed in a variety of ways.

Mixer Stage:

The incoming signal and the output of the LO are multiplied in the mixer section to convert the
wanted signal to the intermediate frequency.

Intermediate Frequency (IF) Stage:

The IF stage provides the majority of gain and selectivity needed for optimum performance.

Demodulation Stage:

This stage extracts the information bearing signal from the baseband signal.

Power Amplifier Stage:

Once demodulated, the recovered signal is applied to the power amplifier block to be amplified
to a level that can drive the output device.

4.2.1 Principle of Operation

Signal from the antenna is fed to the RF amplifier where they are tuned to remove the image
signal. The signal is then applied to the mixer along with the LO output where the wanted
signal is converted down to the intermediate frequency. Here significant levels of amplification
are applied and the signals are filtered. The advantage of IF filter over RF filtering is that the
filter can be designed for a fixed frequency. This allows for much better tuning. Once filtered,
the signal is fed to the demodulator. This could be for amplitude modulated, single sideband,
FM or any other form of modulation. It is also possible to switch different demodulators in
accordance to the mode being received. The final block which is the power amplifier amplifies
the signal to a level suitable to drive the output device.

33
The superhet operates by mixing the incoming frequency with a locally generated signal to
convert it down to a frequency where the required signal can be extracted via filtering. Mixing
in this context is non – linear, that is frequency multiplication that enables frequencies to be
changed or translated.

4.3 Other Receivers in Use

1. Regenerative Receivers:

Regenerative receivers significantly improve the gain and the selectivity obtainable. They use
+ve feedback and operate at the point just before oscillation occurs. In this way, significant
multiplication in the level of “Q” of the circuit is obtained. They are only useful for AM, SSB and
Morse receptions.

2. Super Regenerative Receivers:

The super regenerative radio receiver takes the concept of regeneration a step further thereby
achieving gain levels of over a million times.

3. Direct Conversion Receivers:

This type of receivers converts the signal directly down to the baseband frequency and is widely
used in digital communications. It is widely employed in PSK and QAM.

4.4 Definition of Terms

A. Sensitivity

The sensitivity of a superheterodyne radio receiver is its ability to amplify weak signals. It is
often regarded as that voltage that must be applied to the receiver input terminals to give a
standard output power. Sensitivity is expressed in microvolts or in decibels below one volt. The
most important factors determining the sensitivity of a superhet receiver are the gain of the IF
amplifier(s) and that of the RF amplifier.

B. Selectivity

This is the ability of the receiver to reject unwanted (adjacent) signals.

C. Image Frequency and its Rejection

In a standard receiver, the local oscillator frequency is made higher than the incoming signal
frequency. It is usually equal to the signal frequency plus the intermediate frequency.

34
Thus

fo = fs + fi or fs = fo – fi

Where fo = Local Oscillator frequency

fs = Signal frequency

fi = Intermediate frequency

When fo and fs are mixed in the frequency changer (mixer), the difference frequency which is
one of the byproducts, is equal to fi. It is only this frequency which is passed and amplified by
the IF stage.

If a frequency, say fu, manages to reach the mixer such that fu = fo + fi, that is, fu = fs +2 fi,
then this frequency will also produce fi when mixed with fo. Unfortunately this spurious IF signal
will also be amplified by the IF stage and will therefore cause interference. This has the effect
of two stations being received simultaneously and is undesirable. fu is called the image
frequency and is defined as the signal frequency plus twice the intermediate frequency. Image
frequency rejection depends on the front – end selectivity of the receiver and must be achieved
before the IF stage. Once the spurious frequency enters the first IF amplifier stage, it becomes
impossible to remove it from the wanted signal.

35
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 NOISE IN COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Noise in communications system can be attributed to external sources as discussed in chapter

one or from components constituting the subsystems making up the entire communications
system itself. The later is known as internally generated noise and this chapter will only
consider this type of noise.

Internally generated noise arises from the random motion of charged carriers within the system
components and can be categorized as flicker noise, shot noise and thermal noise. Shot
noise is due to the motion of charge carriers through a junction such as the junction between p-
and n- type materials of a semiconductor diode. Flicker noise, on the other hand, is
characterized by increasing intensity with decreasing frequency and is sometimes referred to as
1/f noise. Thermal noise (also known as Johnson noise) is due to the random motion of charge
carriers within resistive materials and is often treated in terms of noise figure (F) and noise
temperature (T). We will be limiting ourselves to the treatment of thermal noise in this
course.

5.1 Noise Figure (F)

The noise figure (F) of a device or subsystem is defined as the ratio of signal – to – noise power
ratio at the input of the device to the signal – to – noise power ratio at the output.

 Si 
 N 
F  i No
 Eqn 5.1
 So  G  Ni
 N 
 o

Where measurements are made at the standard temperature of T0 = 290K and

(Si/Ni) = signal – to – noise power ratio at input

(So/No) = signal – to – noise power ratio at output

Ni = available noise power at input

No = available noise power at output

G = system power gain = So/Si

Consider a typical system shown in figure 5.1

36
 Rs
Device

Es Ri Ro Rg

Fig. 5.1: Characterization of thermal noise

Ri = input resistance
Ro = output resistance
Rs = internal resistance of the source
Rg = load resistance

For maximum power to be transferred, there must be matched conditions, that is Rs = Ri and Ro
= Rg . The mean – square thermal noise voltage produced by Rs is given as

V2rms = 4kTBRs Eqn 5.2

Where k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K

T = Absolute temperature in Kelvin

B = Bandwidth of operation

Available noise power across Rs

 12 Vrms 2 Vrms 4kTBRS

Pa     kTB Eqn 5.3
RS 4 RS 4 RS

This implies that the available noise power is independent of the source resistance if T = TO =
290K. From Eqn 5.1, the noise figure of a device can be viewed as a measure of the
degradation in signal – to – noise ratio imposed by the device or subsystem under
consideration. Better still, it can be viewed as a measure of the increase in output noise power
over input noise power due to the internal noise added by the device under consideration. In
equation form

kT0 BG  N N
F  1 Eqn 5.4
kT0 BG kT0 BG

37
Where G is the available power gain of the subsystem and ΔN is the internally generated noise
power of the subsystem.

5.2 Noise Figure of a Cascaded System

Consider a typical communications receiver subsystems in equivalent circuit form cascaded as

shown in fig. 5.2.
Te
Noiseless Noiseless Noiseless
Ta = 0 Noise O/P
RF stage down IF stage
Power ΔN
gain G1 converter gain G3
gain G2

T1 T2 T3

Fig. 5.2: Typical communications receiver subsystems in cascaded form

Let G1, G2, . . . . . . . Gn be their respective available power gains and ΔN1, ΔN2, . . . . ΔNn be
their internally generated noise powers. Considering the first two cascades, their contributions
to the output noise power is given as

kT0BG1G2 = available noise power at the input amplifier by the cascade and
appearing at the output.

ΔN1G2 = internally generated noise of the first subsystem of the cascade ,

amplified by the second subsystem and appearing at the output of
the cascade.

ΔN2 = internally generated noise of the second subsystem of the cascade

and appearing at its output.

The overall noise figure of the cascade from Eqn 5.4 is the total noise power appearing at its
output divided by the available noise power at its input amplified by the subsystems.

kT0 BG1G2  N1G2  N 2

F
kT0 BG1G2

N1 1  N 2 
 1  1   1
kT0 BG1 G1  kT0 BG 2 

38
 F2  1
 F1  Eqn 5.5
G1

Therefore, for n cascaded subsystems

F2  1 F3  1 Fn  1
F  F1    Eqn 5.6
G1 G1G2 G1G2  Gn1

Eqn 5.6 is known as Friis’s formula. This shows that it is important that the first stage in the
cascade have a low noise figure and a large gain for a low overall noise figure. Since F is
dimensionless, it follows from Eqn 5.4 that the quantity ΔN/kBG has the dimensions of
temperature.

Accordingly, the effective noise temperature of a device or subsystem is defined as

N
Te  Eqn 5.7
kBG

This allows the noise figure to be written as

Te
F  1 Eqn 5.8
T0

Which when solved for Te gives

Te = (F – 1)T0 Eqn 5.9

For cascaded subsystems with noise temperatures T1, T2, . . . . . Tn and available power gains
G1, G2, . . . . Gn, the effective noise temperature of the cascade is

T2 T Tn
Te  T1   3  Eqn 5.10
G1 G1G2 G1G2    Gn1

NOTE:

It is important that the receiver factors in the effects of noise generated by the antenna or
intercepted by the antenna as a result of hot bodies within its field of view such as the sun,
stars, etc. If we denote this antenna temperature as Ta, then the System Noise Temperature
Tsys will be given as

Tsys = Ta + Te Eqn 5.11

39
It is also very important to make sure that the first stage of any cascaded subsystems is not an
attenuator for the noise figure of an attenuator of loss factor L =1/G is simply

Fatt = L Eqn 5.12

40