EARTHSCI (di pa kasama sa book) a.

) Chemical – formed due to chemical

reactions
Rocks
b.) Clastic – formed due to natural
Rock Cycle – interaction of atmosphere and processes
land - Made up of existing rocks

1.) Igneous Rocks – volcanic rocks c.) Bioclastic – deceased animals and shells

a.) Intrusive: hardened magma

b.) Extrusive: hardened lava
3.) Metamorphic Rocks – altering an
 Texture depends on how fast it dries
existing rock through increase of
a.) Fine Texture – grains aren’t easily seen
temperature or pressure
b.) Coarse Texture – grains are easily seen
a.) Foliated: bonded appearance;
c.) Porphyritic Textures – both fine and
layered
coarse due to different rates of cooling
b.) Non-Foliated: elevated temperature
on different areas of the rock
d.) Rapid Cooling – glass smooth Regional Metamorphism – large pieces of
earth collide resulting to great heat and
Composition:
pressure (Foliated)
1.) Basaltic – dark colored; black
Contact Metamorphism – magma gets in
2.) Granitic – light colored
contact with rock layers (Non-Foliated)
3.) Andesitic – grey; mix of granitic and
basaltic MINERALS
4.) Ultramafic – reddish and brownish
 Rocks are made up of this
 Pure chemical composition
 Geometrical shapes, crystal habit or
2.) Sedimentary Rocks - formed by the
crystal form because of repeated
accumulation or deposition of small
arrangement of atoms
particles and subsequent cementation
 Definite volume and shape
of mineral or organic particles on the
 Never was alive
floor of oceans or other bodies of water
 Elements or compounds with unique
at the Earth's surface
chemical make-up
- Product of: weathering, erosion,
 Natural processes
deposition, compaction,
 Essential nutrients that humans and
cementation
other species need
Mineraloids – substances that fulfill all the
requirements but doesn’t have an internal
Breakage – how minerals break when pressure
ordered structure (pearl, amber, opal,
is applied
obsidian)
Minerology – study of minerals
Petrology – study of rocks
Physical Properties
1.) Crystal Habit – ideal shape of crystal
faces
- Ideal faces require ideal growth
conditions
c.) Poor
3.) Fracture – uneven breakage of a
mineral
- Doesn’t show cleavage when broken
a.) Irregular: irregular shaped,
jagged
b.) Conchoidal: shell shaped
concavity
4.) Luster – how minerals reflect light
a.) Metallic: shines like metal; looks like
metal
b.) Non-Metallic: doesn’t look like it’s
made of metal even if it’s shiny
5.) Color – depends on the amount of
elements
6.) Streak – color of a mineral in its
powdered form
7.) Hardness – resistance of mineral of
being scratched
- Mohs Scale: 10 is hardest, 1 is softest

2.) Cleavage – plane of weakness

- Tendency of a mineral to break
along planes of weakness
- Minerals break with flat surface and
repeated shapes

Quality of Breakages:

a.) Excellent – geometric; parallel

b.) Good – step-like
 Carbonates Carbonic ion Calcite,
and a dolomite
8.) Density – ratio of an object’s mass to its
positive ion
volume (m/v)
such as
a.) Specific Gravity – weight of mineral
calcium
relative to the weight of an equal
Oxides Metal cations Hematite
volume of water bonded to
b.) Heft – how heavy it feels on the oxygen
hand anions
9.) Magnetism – has electric charge Sulfides Metal cation Galena
bonded to
10.) Taste
sulfide
11.) Effervescence – addition of acid; Sulfates Metallic Barite
reaction of mineral to acid cation, sulfur,
and oxygen
12.) Feel – how it feels when touched
Halides Halogen ion Halite,
Ore – mineral or combination of minerals fluorite
form which a useful substance such as metal Native Single Gold, silver,
can be extracted and used to manufacture a Elements elements copper,
useful product Diamonds

a.) Metallic
b.) Non-Metallic ENERGY RESEOURCES

Groups of Minerals 1.) Renewable Energy

Silicates Oxygen and Quart, Mica  Taken from renewable sources

silica a.) Solar Energy – energy from the sun
Major rock
Solar Collector – converts solar energy into
forming
electricity; photovoltaic
mineral
Non-Silicates 5% of Earth’s Gold, silver, Disadvantage:
crust include copper, iron,
- Produces toxic chemicals
of the most diamonds,
- Affects ecosystem as it requires a
important rubies
large area for the solar panels
minerals
b.) Nuclear Energy
  Nuclear Fission – nuclei of heavy atoms a.) Fossil Fuels – hydrocarbons that may be
such as uranium 235 are bombarded used as fuel
with neutrons - Oil, coal, and natural gas
- Uranium nuclei is split emitting - Made up of elemental carbon,
energy and heat hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and
sulfur
Disadvantages:
- Remains of plants
- Fuel rod should maintain certain
Coal Formation: compression and
temperature
carbonization
- Radioactive waste
c.) Wind Energy – groups of wind turbines 1.) Peat
- Built on shore in flat areas 2.) Lignite
(coastlines) 3.) Bituminous Coal
d.) Hydroelectric Energy – generated by 4.) Anthracite Coal (Metamorphic)
falling water  Amount of energy is proportion to
- Strong water flows that results drive amount of coal present
turbines and electric generators
Anticline – compressional stress
e.) Geothermal Energy – trapping natural
underground reservoirs of steam and - Common oil traps

hot water Peat – accumulation of partially decayed

f.) Biomass Energy – from living or vegetation of organic matter that is unique to
recently deceased organisms natural areas called peat lands and mires
- Dendrothermal, biogas (Agusan, Leyte)
- Garbage, wood, landfill gas, alcohol
Petroleum & Natural Gas
fuel, crops
- BIOMASS ETHANOL Petroleum – naturally occurring liquid
composed of complex hydrocarbons
Disadvantages:
- From planktons and algae
- Soil erosion, degradation,
- Kerogen: long chain of
desertification, eutrophication, fish
hydrocarbons
kills
- Catagenesis: cracking process
2.) Non-Renewable Energy
conversion of kerogens to
 Require millions of years to
hydrocarbons
replenish
 - Oil Windows: minimum temp =oil ;
max temp = gas
- Thermal Cracking: breakdown of
kerogen
Natural Gas – CH4 hydrocarbon
Formation of Mineral Deposits
 Most important mineral deposits,
igneous processes, and hydrothermal
solutions
Non-Metallic Mineral Resources
 Extracted for the non-metallic elements
they contain or for their physical and
chemical properties
Tar Sand & Oil Shale – substitute for
petroleum
 Decline of energy resources because of
population increase and energy
dependent lifestyles
SOIL
Pedosphere – Grk. Pedon = soil; sfaira = sphere
- Living skin of the earth which resulted from
the dynamic interaction among the
atmosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere, and
biosphere
Importance of Soil
 Arable land for agriculture
 Regulating and filtering water
 Nutrient cycling
 Foundation and support
 Mineral deposits
- Laterites: soils mined for their mineral
content; commonly formed in hot and wet
tropical areas
Components of Soil – 45% mineral (gravel, silt,
and clay), 25% air, 25% water, and 5% organic
matter
Weathering – breakdown of rocks
5 Factors That Affect Soil Formation
1.) Parent Material:
 Residual Soil – soils formed on the
site through the weathering of the
underlying rock
 Transported Soil – soils transported
from their source to another area
by agents of erosion and
transportation such as water, wind,
and ice
2.) Climate: temperature, rainfall, and moisture
affects the pattern and intensity of
weathering, leaching, transportation, and
distribution
- Affects biological activity around the area
3.) Topography: gradient of the slope affects
water flow and erosion
- Soils that form steep slopes tend to be
thinner
4.) Biological Factors: animals mix by
burrowing, root help weathering,
agriculture affects soil
5.) Time: 200-400 years to develop 1 cm of soil
- Rate is faster in tropical climate and slower
in cold climates
a.) Immature Soil – parent rock is weathered,
and fragments move upward
 b.) Young Soil – organic material accumulates - Always accompanies a loose consistence
as plants and other organisms die - Commonly found in sandy soils
c.) Mature Soil – greater amounts of organic
Soil Profile
material are present in mature soil
 Sequence of soil horizons from the surface
Soil Texture
down to the underlying bedrock
 Relative proportion of the particle sizes in
O Horizon – organic horizon; loose or partly
the soil – sand, silt, and clay
decayed organic matter
a.) Clay – smallest ( <0.002 mm )
b.) Silt – ( 0.002 – 0.005 mm ) A Horizon – surface horizon; mineral matter mixed

c.) Sand – largest ( 0.005-2.00 mm ) with some dark humus

d.) Gravel and Rock – ( >75.00 mm ) E Horizon – characterized by a significant loss of

Loam – ideal agricultural soil because of its good minerals (eluviation) and leaching

aeriation and drainage properties with nutrient B Horizon – subsoil; accumulated clay and other
retention and water-holding abilities nutrients from the layers above it

Nicolas L. Galvez – Dean of Filipino Soil Scientists C Horizon – substratum; partially altered parent

Soil Structures material

1.) Granular: looks like cookie crumbs R Horizon – not soil; regolith

- Usually less than 0.5 cm Neolith – layer of loose, heterogenous superficial

- Commonly found in surface horizons material covering the bedrock
where rots have been growing
2.) Blocky: irregular blocks that are usually 1.5-
5.0 cm
3.) Prismatic: vertical columns of soil that
might be a number of cm long
- Usually found in lower horizons
4.) Columnar: vertical columns of soil that
have a ____ cap at the top
- Found in soils of and climates (labo ng pic
d ko mabasa HAAHAHA)
5.) Platy: thin, flat plates of soil that lie
horizontally
- Usually found in compacted soil
6.) Single Grained: soil is broken into individual
particles that don’t stick together

Soil Orders
 Soil classification system developed by soil
scientists to identify, understand, and
manage soils
a.) Gelisols – frozen soils in the coldest regions
of earth
b.) Histosols – wet, high organic content
c.) Spodosols – sandy and acidic soils in moist
climates that often support dense forests
d.) Andisols – volcanic ash
e.) Oxisols – very weathered and common in
tropical climates
f.) Vertisols – claylike soil that shrink and swell
g.) Aridisols – very dry soils in arid regions
h.) Ultisols – weathered soils
i.) Mollisols – deep and fertile soils
j.) Alfisols – moderately weathered productive
soils in temperate and humid regions
k.) Inceptisols – slightly developed, young soils
in steep slopes and mountain ranges
l.) Entisols – newly-formed soils in steep rocky
lands
Human Activities that Degrade Soil Quality
1.) Soil Erosion – loss of topsoil and nutrients
in the soil
 Controlling Soil Erosion: planting rows of
trees called windbreaks, terracing hillsides,
plowing along the contours, rotating crops
2.) Soil Compaction – reduces the amount of
air, water, space available to roots and soil
organisms
3.) Desertification – irreversible change of the
land to such a state where it can no longer
be recovered for its original use
4.) Intense Agriculture – heavier machinery,
deforestation, and clearing of land for
cultivation
5.) Urbanization – significant loss of soil;
hinders the soil’s interaction with the
different spheres
Conservation of Soil Resources
1.) Increasing Soil Organic Matter – improves
soil structure and enhances water and
nutrient-holding abilities
2.) Keeping the Soil Covered and Vegetated –
protects the soil and provides habitats for
organisms
3.) Avoiding Excessive Tillage – avoids
loosening of surface soil and breaking up
of soil structure
4.) Managing Pests and Nutrient Efficiently –
applying only necessary chemicals at the
right time and place
5.) Promoting Crop Rotation – changing
vegetation over time allows the soil to
recover
6.) Reducing Erosion and Preventing Soil
Compacting – restricting human activities
to designated areas and pathways
Mining – removal of non-renewable resources
such as iron, copper, and coal from the land
Poor Soil Management
 Soil Erosion
 Nutrient Depletion
 Desertification
Land Restoration – process of restoring an area of Weathering – disintegration and decomposition of
land to a more natural, productive state rocks in situ, meaning no transportation involved;
produces regolith
- Smooth and replace strip mines with new
topsoil 1.) Physical or Mechanical Weathering –
- Plant grass disintegration and decay of rocks via
weather elements: high temperatures,
EXOGENOUS PROCESSES
extreme cold and freeze-thaw cycles
 Gradational Processes - No change in chemical composition of
 Degradation and Aggradation – they rocks
modify relief - Exfoliation: due to thermal
 A continuum of processes: Weathering – expansion/contraction and/or release of
mass wasting – erosion – transportation – pressure when buried rocks are uplifted
deposition and exposed
1.) Degradation Processes – denudation - Frost Wedging: water gets into the cracks
processes and once it freezes, it expands
a.) Weathering - Salt Wedging
b.) Mass Wasting
Processes and Agents
c.) Erosion
d.) Transportation  Frost wedging
2.) Aggradation Processes  Thermal expansion and contraction –
a.) Deposition – fluvial (rivers), eolian repeated heating and cooling of materials
(sand dunes), glacial glaciers), cause rigid substances to crack and
coastal (beaches) separate
 Abrasion by wind, water, or gravity –
moving sediments or rock sections can
break off pieces from a rock surface they
strike
 Plant growth

2.) Chemical Weathering – decomposes rocks

through a chemical change in its minerals
- Oxidation: important in iron-rich rocks;
reddish coloration like rust
- Hydrolysis: igneous rocks have much silica
which readily combines with water
 - Carbonation and Solution: carbon dioxide
dissolved in water reacts with carbonate
rocks to create a soluble product (calcium
bicarbonate)
- Dissolving (Dissolution): stalagmites and
stalactites
- Hydration: water is absorbed into the
crystal structure of the mineral, causing it
to expand
Factors
 Climate
 Time
 Plants and animals
 Mineral composition
3.) Biological Weathering – plants and animals
contribute to weathering
- Roots: physically break or wedge rocks
- Lichens: algae and fungi living as a single
unit remove minerals and weaken rock by
releasing acids
- Burrowing animals: can increase
weathering
Talus – pieces of rock at the bottom of a rock fall
Erosion – process of removing earth materials
from their original sites through weathering and
transport
Agents and Processes
a.) Flowing Water
- Fluvial Morphology: study of the form and
function of streams and the interaction
between streams and the landscape
around them
- Humid Regions: perennial streams and
entrenched tunnels, rapids, waterfalls,
plunge pools, potholes, meandering
streams, bank erosion, oxbow lakes
Transport Agents and Forces
 Water – rain, streams, rivers, ocean
dynamics, ice in glaciers
 Wind – carries fine, dry sediments over
long distances
 Gravity – transported downward as a slump
- Scree: loose sediments transported by
gravity
Stream Erosion and Deposition: the higher the
velocity of the water, the more erosion occurs.
Once the water slows down, sediments will be
deposited
Ocean Dynamics: tidal action and waves carry
away weathered materials
Glaciers: large ice fields that slowly flow downhill
over time
DEPOSITION
1.) Fluvial – Humid Regions: braided streams,
sand bars, floodplains, natural levees,
distributaries, deltas
- Arid Regions: alluvial fans, bajadas,
piedmont alluvial plains, playas, playa lakes,
Salinas
2.) Eolian – sand dunes, sand sheets
3.) Coastal – sea beaches and coral reefs
4.) Glacial – Alpine: glacial drifts, tills, moraines
- Continental: till plains, outwash plains,
drumlins, eskers, kames erratic
Eolian Deposits
Sand Sheets – occur in areas of lower wind  Buildup of land through the dropping off
velocity and larger grain size of sediments that are being carried by ice,
wind, water or gravity
- Grains are too large to move by saltation
 Constructive because it builds earth’s
- Miniature desert pavement
surface
- Moving portion of sheet is a few cm thick,
 Occurs when water’s velocity decreases
total is a few meters thick
(when water flows into a larger body of
- Small areas on margins of sand seas
water)
- Same much larger
Characteristics of the Sediments

1.) Size – larger particles will settle in first

- Dissolved materials may remain in solution
2.) Shape – spherical sediments settle in first
while flatter sediments will settle in last
3.) Density – higher density sediments settle in
first

Types of Sorting

1.) Vertical Sorting – the roundest, largest, and

densest particles settle at the bottom of a
layer
- Graded Bedding: occurs when an erosional
Deposition Formation – transported sediments are system stops abruptly
deposited in layers and generate strata like those
found in the Grand Canyon

Wind – Eolian Landscapes (deflation hollows,

ventifacts, yarding, etc.)

Tides and Waves – Coastal Morphology (sea cliffs,

sea caves, sea arches, sea stacks, wave-cut
beaches, etc.)

Moving Ice – Glacial Morphology (glacial troughs

(U-shaped valleys), hanging valleys, glacial valleys

DEPOSITION

 Process by which sediments are released or

dropped from an erosional system
 Landscape features due to deposition by running
water

 Deltas – flat fan shaped piece of land at the

mouth of a river
- Alluvial Fans form when streams come out
of mountains onto flat land – velocity slows
and deposition occurs

2.) Horizontal Sorting – stream enters a large

body of water, the velocity decreases and
deposition occurs
- Larger sediments are deposited first
- Delta may form

River Mouth – water velocity decreases

 Unsorted Glacial Deposit

 Glacial till and outwash (deposited soil)

Erosion – wears down the earth’s surface

Causes of Erosion

1.) Glaciers – carry materials along as they

move forward
- Ice Erosion Effects:
a.) U Shaped valley
b.) Flat Plains
Erosion Deposition creates a beach
2.) Wind – carries (blows) sediments from one
creates a
place to another
or bar
cliff

- Effects:
a.) Reshaped surfaces
b.) Sandstorms
c.) Dust storms
3.) Water – carries sediments along as it
moves down stream
 - The faster the water, the more and the
heavier material it can carry
- Effects:
a.) Karst Landscape – area of land that’s
 The heaviest sediments are dropped first
EXOGENIC PROCESSES
Geomorphic Processes – physical processes which

mostly made of limestone and because create and modify landforms on the surface of the

of this usually has a lot of caves and earth

sinkholes - Ex: Rock Cycle

b.) River Valleys and Canyons
4.) Gravity – causes water and glaciers to
move downhill
- Effects:
a.) Mass movement (mud flows)

Deposition Non-Living Causes

 Glaciers deposit sediments as they begin to

melt (recede)
 When the water slows down, the heaviest
Endogenous Processes – large-scale landform
sediments are deposited first
building and transforming processes – they create
Effects of Deposition relief

(Ice): 1.) Igneous Processes

a.) Volcanism – volcanic eruptions
- Maraines
(Volcanoes)
- Lakes
b.) Plutonism – igneous intrusions
- Hills
2.) Tectonic Processes – also called
(Water): diastrophism

- Delta a.) Folding – anticlines, synclines,

- Sandbar mountains

- Beach b.) Faulting – rift valleys, graben,

- Floodplains escarpments

- Stalagmites (ground) c.) Lateral Faulting – strike-slip faults

- Stalactites (ceiling) Volcanism

Forces of Erosion & Deposition  Factors that determine the violence of an

 When the wind slows down, the sediments eruption

are deposited - Composition of magma

- Temperature of magma
 - Dissolved gasses in the magma - Higher viscosity
- Viscosity - Slightly cooler
2.) Gases
Magma Composition
3.) Pyroclastic Materials – particles produced
Composit Silica Viscosity Pyroclast Volcan
ion s in volcanic eruptions
o
Basaltic Least Least Least Shield,  Magma will be considered pyroclastic
(50%) Cinder material if it’s blasted int the air and
Cones, hardens
Basalt
a.) Volcanic Bombs – large, magma blobs
Plateau
b.) Volcanic Blocks – large pieces of solid rock
s
Andesitic Intermedi intermedi intermedi Compo
c.) Lapilli – little rocks

ate (60%) ate ate site d.) Volcanic Ash – Tuff

Cones
Anatomy of a Volcano
Rhyolitic Most Greatest Greatest Pyroclas
(70%) tic Volcano – mountain formed of lava and/or
Flows,
pyroclastic material
Volcani
c Crater – depression at the summit of a volcano or
Domes that which is produced by a meteorite impact

Volcanic Material

1.) Lava Flows – basaltic lavas are more fluid

a.) Pahoehoe: low vol. flow rate
- Low-flow front velocity
- Forms lava tubes
- Innumerable flow units
- Thin flow units (0.2-2m)
- Lower viscosity
- Slightly hotter
Lava Dome/Volcanic Dome – roughly circular
b.) Aa: rough, jagged blocks
mound-shaped protrusion
- High vol. flow rate
- High flow front velocity
- Forms large channels
- Few, large flow units
- Thick flow units (2-10m)
Caldera – formed by the collapse of a volcano How Does a Volcano Form?
into itself, making it a large, special form of
 They often form in the areas where
volcanic crater
tectonic plates make contact
Resurgent Dome – after the formation of a
4 Principal Settings Where Volcanism Occurs
caldera by collapse, magma is sometimes is
ejected into the area below the caldera 1.) Along divergent plate boundaries such
as ocean ridges or spreading centers

2.) In areas of continental extension (that

may become divergent plate
boundaries in the future)
3.) Along converging plate boundaries
where subduction is occurring

Lava Plateaus – formed by highly fluid (runny)

basaltic lava during numerous successive
eruptions through numerous vents without
violent explosions (quiet eruptions)
 4.) In hot spots that are usually located in Stress – force per unit area acting on a solid
the interior of plates, away from plate
Strain – change in shape or volume of a body
margins
of rock as a result of stress

Temperature and Pressure

a.) Brittle Deformation – fracturing of an

object once its strength is exceeded
b.) Ductile Deformation – type of solid
state flow that produces a change in
the size and shape of an object without
fracturing the object

Rock Type

 Mineral composition and texture of a

rock also greatly affect how it will
Origin of Magma
deform
 Geologists conclude that magma
Time
originates when essentially solid rock,
located in the crust and upper mantle,  Forces that are unable to deform rock

partially melts first applied may cause rock to flow if

 The most obvious way to generate the force is maintained over a long

magma from solid rock is to raise the period of time

temperature above the level at which

the rock begins to melt
Types of Stress
MOUNTAIN BUILDING (Tectonic Processes)

Rock Deformation

 Factors that influence the strength of a

rock and how it will deform include
temperature, confining pressure, rock
type, and time

Deformation – refers to all changes in the

original shape and/or size of a rock body
Folds Normal Fault – the hanging wall slips down
relative to the footwall
 Bend in a rock
 3 Characteristics: Joints - cracks or fracture present in the rocks
1.) Results from compression along which there has been no displacement
2.) Shortens the horizontal distances in
Types of Mountains
a rock
3.) Occurs as part of a group of many 1.) Folded Mountains – classified by the

similar folds dominant processes that have formed

then
- Orogenesis: collection of processes that
result in the forming of mountains
- Mountains that are formed primarily by
folding
2.) Convergent Boundary Mountains
a.) Ocean-Ocean Convergence

b.) Ocean-Continental Convergence

Faults
 3.) Non-Boundary Mountains
 Formed by hotspots or regional
c.) Continental-Continental
extension or stretching
Convergence
EARTHQUAKES

 Perceptible shaking of the

surface of the Earth, resulting
from the sudden release of
energy in the Earth’s crust that
creates seismic waves

d.) Mountain Building by Continental

Accretion

Aftershocks – small earthquakes that follows

the main earthquake

Foreshocks – small earthquakes that often

precedes a major earthquake

Seismic Waves

 Energy released in an
earthquake travels in waves
1.) Primary Waves
a.) P Waves – compression waves
- Squeeze and stretch rock (push and
pull)
- Can travel through any material
- Travels the fastest
 Measuring Earthquakes

b.) S Waves  Seismographs

Locating Earthquakes

 Because P Waves and S Waves

travel at different speeds, the
difference in their arrival times
can be used to determine the
distance away an earthquake
occurred

Measurements
2.) Surface Waves – travel along the
Earth’s surface 1.) Magnitude – one per earthquake

- Cause the most damage - Related to the energy released

a.) Love Waves – side to side - Richter or Moment Scale
2.) Intensity – many for each earthquake
- Measure of effects
- Mercalli Scale

Alfred Wegener – young German scientist

who noticed that the African and South
American coastlines seemed to fit

- Formulated the term Pangea, Laurasia,

b.) Rayleigh Waves
and Gondwanaland

Plate Tectonics – the earth’s crust and upper

mantle are broken into sections called plates
 - Plates move around on top of the
mantle like rafts
- 12 major plates

Tectonic – refers to the deformation of the

crust as a consequence of plate interaction

Plate Boundaries – where 2 different plates

meet

- Fracture that separates one plate from

another
a.) Divergent – plates move apart
- Asthenosphere moves up
- Mid-ocean ridges, rift valleys, fissure
volcanoes
b.) Convergent – plates that collide
- Denser plate sinks
c.) Transform – plates slide past each other
- Earthquakes along faults

Plates:

1.) Ocean Plates – plates below the ocean

2.) Continental Plates – plates below the
continents