Lecture8 D2 PDF

D ETERMINANTS
To every square matrix A, we can associate a scalar det A,

called the determinant of A.
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D ETERMINANTS

Determinants play an important and useful role in linear
algebra. They admit a nice geometric interpretation in
terms of volume (more on this later). As such, they arise
naturally and are useful in multivariable calculus.
Determinants of 2 × 2 or 3 × 3 matrices are easy to define:

a b
= det a b = ad − bc.
c d c d

a11 a12 a13
a21 a22 a23 = a11 a22 a23 −a12 a21 a23 +a13 a21 a22 .

a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a23
a31 a32 a33
Of course for a 1 × 1 matrix A = [a], one sets det A := a.
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D ETERMINANTS

Determinants play an important and useful role in linear
algebra. They admit a nice geometric interpretation in
terms of volume (more on this later). As such, they arise
naturally and are useful in multivariable calculus.
Determinants of 2 × 2 or 3 × 3 matrices are easy to define:

a b
= det a b = ad − bc.
c d c d

a11 a12 a13
a21 a22 a23 = a11 a22 a23 −a12 a21 a23 +a13 a21 a22 .

a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a23
a31 a32 a33
Of course for a 1 × 1 matrix A = [a], one sets det A := a.

Question: How to define det A for any n × n matrix A?
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G ENERAL D EFINITION OF D ETERMINANT
There are several ways to define the determinant of an arbitrary
square matrix.
Axiomatic Approach: Determine some basic properties
that the determinant function is expected to satisfy and
then show that there exists a unique function satisfying
these basic properties.
Recursive Method: Define the determinant for a 1 × 1
matrix first (this is trivial!). Then for n > 1, define the
determinant of a n × n matrix in terms of an expression
involving determinants of (n − 1) × (n − 1) matrices. We
see recursively that the determinant of a n × n matrix
A = (aij ) will be a sum of n! terms, each consisting of a
product of n entries of the matrix and each assigned a
positive or negative sign.
Permutation Expansion: The determinant of a n × n matrix
is defined at once as an expnasion involving n! terms
indexed by the n! permutations σ of {1, 2, . . . , n}.
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Axiomatic Approach
In what follows we shall use the symbol K to denote the set of
scalars. Thus K is either the set R of real numbers or the set C
of complex numbers. Recall that the rows of a n × n matrix
A = (aij ) are denoted by A1 , . . . , An . In the axiomatic approach,
we think of det A as a function D(A1 , . . . , An ) of the rows of A.
The basic properties we require of this function are as follows.
1. [Multilinearity] D is linear in each row, i.e., for any
i = 1, . . . , n, and any α, β ∈ K,
D(A1 , . . . , Ai−1 , αB + βC, Ai+1 , . . . , An )
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Axiomatic Approach
In what follows we shall use the symbol K to denote the set of
scalars. Thus K is either the set R of real numbers or the set C
of complex numbers. Recall that the rows of a n × n matrix
A = (aij ) are denoted by A1 , . . . , An . In the axiomatic approach,
we think of det A as a function D(A1 , . . . , An ) of the rows of A.
The basic properties we require of this function are as follows.
1. [Multilinearity] D is linear in each row, i.e., for any
i = 1, . . . , n, and any α, β ∈ K,
D(A1 , . . . , Ai−1 , αB + βC, Ai+1 , . . . , An )

= αD(A1 , . . . , Ai−1 , B, Ai+1 , . . . , An )
+ βD(A1 , . . . , Ai−1 , C, Ai+1 , . . . , An )
2. [Alternating] If Ai = Aj for some i 6= j, then

D(A1 , . . . , An ) = 0.
3. [Normalization] D(e1 , . . . , en ) = 1. In other words,
determinant of the identity matrix should be 1.
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Consequences of Multilinearity and Alternating Property
Suppose D : Mn (K) → K is any multilinear and alternating

function (of rows), i.e., D satisfies properties 1 and 2 above.
Then we can easily see that:
If A ∈ Mn (K) has a row of zeros, i.e., if Ai = 0 for some i,
then D(A) = 0, i.e., D(A1 , . . . , An ) = 0.
[Proof: Write 0 = 0 + 0 in the i th coordinate and use
multilinearity.]
If A ∈ Mn (K) and B is obtained from A by interchanging
two rows, say the i th and j th rows, i.e., if Ai = 0 for some i,
then D(B) = −D(A).
[Proof: Consider the matrix obtained from A by replacing
both i th and j th rows by Ai + Aj , i.e., consider
D(. . . , Ai + Aj , . . . , Ai + Aj , . . . ) and use properties 1 and 2.]
The last observation implies that if B is obtained from
A ∈ Mn (K) by k row interchanges, then D(B) = (−1)k D(A).
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Determinant function
One has the following remarkable result.

Theorem
There exists a unique function det : Mn (K) → K satisfying
properties 1, 2 and 3 above. Moreover, if D : Mn (K) → K is any
multilinear alternating function (i.e., D satisfies 1 and 2), then
D(A) = D(e1 , . . . , en ) det A.
We omit the proof (but will be happy to explain to any interested

students outside regular class hour).
The existence part of the above thereom is usually proved by
exhibiting one explicit function that satisfies the desired
properties and here one takes recourse to the permutation
expansion. But first we need to review some facts about
permutation and in particular discuss the notion of sign of a
permutation.
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Permutations
Let n be a positive integer.
Definition
A permutation of the set {1, . . . , n} of the set of first n positive
integers is a one-one onto map of the set {1, . . . , n} onto itself.
We denote by Sn the set of all permutations of {1, . . . , n}.
Permutations can be written in one-line or two-line

notation; for example,

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
43125, ,
4 3 1 2 5 1 4 3 2 5
are examples of permutations of {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. The first
two represent the same permutation, while the third is a
“transposition” that interchanges 2 and 4 (and leaves othes
fixed).
Product of permutations is defined by composition:
στ := σ ◦ τ . Note that the product of permutations is also a
permutation. 6/26
Sign of a Permutation
To every σ ∈ Sn , we can associate a number sgn(σ) which
is either 1 or −1, called the sign of σ,and defined as
follows.
sgn(σ) := (−1)inv(σ) ,
where inv(σ) denotes the number of inversions in σ, i.e., it
is the number of pairs (i, j) such that:i < j, but σ(i) > σ(j).
Another way to describe sgn(σ) is by using the
corresponding permutation matrix Pσ . Namely,
sgn(σ) = (−1)k if Pσ is obtained from In by k row
interchanges. Equivalently,
sgn(σ) = (−1)k if σ is a product of k transpositions.
For any permutations σ, τ ∈ Sn , we have
sgn(στ ) = sgn(σ)sgn(τ ).
If D : Mn (K) → K is any multilinear alternating function,
then we see easily that
D(Aσ(1) , . . . , Aσ(n) ) = sgn(σ)D(A1 , . . . , An ) for any σ ∈ Sn .
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Existence of Determinant function
As remaked earlier, the existence of a normalized, multilinear,
alternating function det : Mn (K) → K can be shown by using
the following ‘definition’.
We may then use the uniqueness to show the equivalence of
these definitions and also to derive various properties.
Definition (Permutation Expansion)
For any n × n matrix A = (aij ), the determinant of A is the scalar
X
detA = sgn(σ) a1σ(1) a2σ(2) . . . anσ(n)
σ∈Sn
where the summation is over all permutations σ of {1, . . . , n}.
It is easy to deduce from this definition is that

det A = det AT for any A ∈ Mn (K).
As a consequence, det A is multilinear and alternating in the
columns of A as well.
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Properties of Determinants
Let A = (aij ) be a n × n matrix. For any i, j = 1, . . . , n, we let Aij
denote the (n − 1) × (n − 1) submatrix of A obtained from A by
removing the i th row and j th column. We define the (i, j)th
cofactor of A to be cofij (A) = (−1)i+j det Aij .
(Laplace Expansion Formula for Determinant) For any
i ∈ {1, . . . , n}, we have expansion along i th row:
n
X
det A = aij cofij (A),
j=1
and for any j ∈ {1, . . . , n}, we have expansion along j th

column:
Xn
det A = aij cofij (A).
i=1
(Product Formula for Determinant) det AB = (det A)(det B)
for any A, B ∈ Mn (K). Consequently, if A is invertible, then
det A 6= 0.
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Properties of Determinants
Let A = (aij ) be a n × n matrix. For any i, j = 1, . . . , n, we let Aij
denote the (n − 1) × (n − 1) submatrix of A obtained from A by
removing the i th row and j th column. We define the (i, j)th
cofactor of A to be cofij (A) = (−1)i+j det Aij .
(Laplace Expansion Formula for Determinant) For any
i ∈ {1, . . . , n}, we have expansion along i th row:
n
X
det A = aij cofij (A),
j=1
and for any j ∈ {1, . . . , n}, we have expansion along j th

column:
Xn
det A = aij cofij (A).
i=1
(Product Formula for Determinant) det AB = (det A)(det B)
for any A, B ∈ Mn (K). Consequently, if A is invertible, then
det A 6= 0.
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Adjoints and Inverses and Cramer’s Rule
The adjoint of a matrix A, denoted adj(A) is defined to be the
transpose of the cofactor matrix of A.
Lemma
For any A ∈ Mn (K),
(adj A)A = A(adj A) = diag(det A, . . . , det A) = (det A)In .
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Lemma
Corollary
If det A 6= 0, then A is invertible and A−1 = (det A)−1 (adj A).
Sketch of Proof of Lemma: Given any square matrix A, let Mik

denote the matrix obtained by replacing the i th row of A by its
k th row.
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Lemma
Corollary

k th row. Clearly det Mik = 0 for i 6= k and det Mik = det A if
the other hand, expanding by i th row we see that
i = k . On P
det Mik = nj=1 akj cofij (A).
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Lemma
Corollary

k th row. Clearly det Mik = 0 for i 6= k and det Mik = det A if
i = k . On Pthe other hand, expanding th
n Pnby i row we see that
det Mik = j=1 akj cofij (A). Hence j=1 akj cofij (A) = det(A)δik ,
i.e., A adj(A) = det(A)In . Similarly, we can show that
adj(A)A = det(A)In . 10/26
Cramer’s Rule
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Cramer’s Rule
Theorem (Cramer’s Rule)

Given a system of linear equation Ax = b with an invertible
coefficient matrix A,
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Cramer’s Rule

coefficient matrix A, let Mj be the matrix obtained from A by
replacing the j th column by the column b.
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Cramer’s Rule

coefficient matrix A, let Mj be the matrix obtained from A by
replacing the j th column by the column b. Then
det Mj
xj = for j = 1, . . . , n.
det A
Sketch of Proof: Since A is invertible, the system Ax = b has
the unique solution x = A−1 b and det A 6= 0. From the last
corollary, A−1 = (det A)−1 adj(A), and so we see that
n n
1 X 1 X 1
xj = adj(A)jk bk = bk cofkj (A) = det Mj
det A det A det A
k =1 k =1
where the last step follows from the expansion of det Mj along
the j th column.
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GEM Applied to Compute the Determinant
One of the most efficient ways of calculating determinants is
using a variant of GEM.
First observe if the effect of an elementary row operation
on the determinant of a square matrix A of size n × n.
Ri ↔Rj
I. A −→ A0 ⇒ det A0 = − det A
cR
II. A −→i A0 ⇒ det A0 = c det A
Ri +c Rj
III. A −→ A0 ⇒ det A0 = det A
Thus if A0 is a REF of A and it is obtained by elementary

row operations of type I and III only (as is usually the
case), then det A = (−1)k det A0 where k is the total
number of row interchanges made.
In particular, if a REF A0 of A has a row of zeros, then
det A = 0. Otherwise A0 is upper triangular with the pivots
p1 , . . . , pn on the diagonal. In this case det A0 = p1 p2 · · · pn
and det A = (−1)k p1 p2 · · · pn . 12/26
More on computations of determinants
We already used the following fact for upper triangular matrices.
Fact: If A is a (lower or upper) triangular square matrix, then
det A is the product of its diagonal entries.
A proof of this is easily obtained using the recursive formula
(Laplace expansion) or the permutation expansion. More
generally, for block triangular matrices, we have the following:
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More on computations of determinants
We already used the following fact for upper triangular matrices.
Fact: If A is a (lower or upper) triangular square matrix, then
det A is the product of its diagonal entries.
A proof of this is easily obtained using the recursive formula
(Laplace expansion) or the permutation expansion. More
generally, for block triangular matrices, we have the following:
Theorem

A B
If M = is a square matrix in block upper triangular
0 D
form, where A, B, D are submatrices of appropriate sizes, then
det M = (det A)(det D).
Taking transpose, we obtain a similar result for block lower

triangular
matrices.
However, even when A, B, C, D are square
A B
blocks, need not equal (det A)(det D) − (det B)(det C).
C D
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Determinants and Area or Volume
The following facts may be taken as definitions or proved as
exercises using previously known definitions of area / volume.
If a = (a1 , a2 ) and b = (b1 , b2 ) are vectors in the plane R2 ,
then the area of the parallelogram with vertices at 0, a, b is
a1 a2
the absolute value of det A, where A = .
b1 b2
Likewise. if a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) and
c = (c1 , c2 , c3 ) are vectors in the 3-space R3 , then the
volume of the parallelopiped with vectors a, b, c
representing edges, is given by
 
a1 a2 a3
| det A| where A = b1 b2 b3  .
c1 c2 c3
In general, n × n determinants can be interpreted as the
hypervolume in the n-space Rn of a n-dimensional
parallelotope.
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3. V ECTOR S PACES
Throughout mathematics we come across many types

objects which can be added and multiplied by scalars to
arrive at similar types of objects.
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3. V ECTOR S PACES

We have observed these for R, C, Mm,n (R) and Mm,n (C). In
the last semester, you have come across with the space of
continuous functions, or the space of differentiable
functions etc.
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3. V ECTOR S PACES

functions etc.
What is the common property to all of these spaces?
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3. V ECTOR S PACES

functions etc.
This leads us to the abstract definition of a vector space
and its studies.
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3. V ECTOR S PACES

functions etc.
This leads us to the abstract definition of a vector space
and its studies.
Having discussed enough about the model Rn you will see
that there is nothing strange in this somewhat abstract
approach.
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Definition
A nonempty set V of objects (called elements or vectors) is
called a vector space over K if the following axioms are
satisfied :
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Definition
satisfied :
I. Closure axioms:
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Definition
satisfied :
I. Closure axioms:
1. (closure under addition) For every x, y ∈ V there is a
unique x + y ∈ V .
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Definition
satisfied :
I. Closure axioms:
2. (closure under multiplication by reals) For every x ∈ V and
scalar α ∈ K there is a unique element αx ∈ V .
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Definition
satisfied :
I. Closure axioms:
II. Axioms for addition:
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Definition
satisfied :
I. Closure axioms:
3. (commutative law) x + y = y + x for all x, y ∈ V .
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Definition
satisfied :
I. Closure axioms:
4. (associative law) x + (y + z) = (x + y ) + z for all
x, y , z ∈ V .
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Definition
satisfied :
I. Closure axioms:
4. (associative law) x + (y + z) = (x + y ) + z for all
x, y , z ∈ V .
5. (existence of zero element) There exists a unique element
0 in V such that x + 0 = 0 + x = x for all x ∈ V .
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Definition
(contd...)
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Definition
(contd...)
6. (existence of inverse or negatives) For x ∈ V there exists a
unique element written as −x such that x + (−x) = 0.
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Definition
(contd...)
III. Axioms for multiplication by scalars
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Definition
(contd...)
7. (associativity) For all α, β ∈ K, x ∈ V ,
α(βx) = (αβ)x.
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Definition
(contd...)
α(βx) = (αβ)x.
8. (distributive law for addition in V ) For all x, y ∈ V and
α∈K
α(x + y ) = αx + αy .
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Definition
(contd...)
α(βx) = (αβ)x.
α∈K
α(x + y ) = αx + αy .
9. (distributive law for addition in K) For all α, β ∈ K and
x ∈ V,
(α + β)x = αx + βx
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Definition
(contd...)
α(βx) = (αβ)x.
α∈K
α(x + y ) = αx + αy .
9. (distributive law for addition in K) For all α, β ∈ K and
x ∈ V,
(α + β)x = αx + βx
10. (existence of identity for multiplication) For all x ∈ V ,
1x = x.
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Remark
The elements of the field K are called scalars. Depending upon
whether we take K = R, C, in the definition above, we get a real
vector space or a complex vector space.
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Remark
vector space or a complex vector space. The multiplication will
also be referred as scalar multiplication.
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Remark
Example:
1. V = R with usual addition and multiplication.
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Remark
Example:
2. V = C with usual addition of complex numbers and
multiplication by real numbers as multiplication. This
makes C as a real vector space.
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Remark
Example:
makes C as a real vector space. C is also a complex vector
space under usual addition and scalar multiplication being
multiplication of complex numbers.
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Remark
Example:
3. Rn = {(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) : a1 , . . . , an ∈ R}. We refer to Rn as
n-dimensional euclidean space. It is a real vector space.
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Remark
Example:
3. Rn = {(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) : a1 , . . . , an ∈ R}. We refer to Rn as
n-dimensional euclidean space. It is a real vector space.
Likewise Cn is a complex vector space.
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4. Let S be any set and F (S, K) denote the set of all functions
from S to K. Given any two functions f1 , f2 : S → K, and a
scalar α ∈ K we define f1 + f2 and αf1 by
(f1 + f2 )(x) = f1 (x) + f2 (x); (αf1 )(x) = αf1 (x), x ∈ S.
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Then it is easily verified that F (S, K) becomes a vector

space.
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space.
5. Let a < b be real numbers and
V = {f : [a, b] → R : f is continuous}.
If the sum and scalar multiplication are defined as in the
above example then we know that V becomes a vector
space.
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space.
space. This is denoted by C[a, b].
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space.
6. Let U be an open subset of Rn . For a positive integer r , let
C r (U) = {f : U → R : f has cont. derivatives of order r }.
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space.
6. Let U be an open subset of Rn . For a positive integer r , let
C r (U) = {f : U → R : f has cont. derivatives of order r }.
This is a real vector space under the operations of (4).

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... Indeed, we have
. . . ⊂ C r +1 (U) ⊂ C r (U) ⊂ . . . ⊂ C 1 (U)
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... Indeed, we have
. . . ⊂ C r +1 (U) ⊂ C r (U) ⊂ . . . ⊂ C 1 (U)
7. Let t be an indeterminate. The set
K[t] = {a0 + a1 t + . . . + an t n : a0 , a1 , . . . , an ∈ K}
is a vector space over K under usual addition of

polynomials and multiplication of polynomials with scalars
from K.
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... Indeed, we have
. . . ⊂ C r +1 (U) ⊂ C r (U) ⊂ . . . ⊂ C 1 (U)
K[t] = {a0 + a1 t + . . . + an t n : a0 , a1 , . . . , an ∈ K}

from K.
8. The set of all solutions to the differential equation
y 00 + ay 0 + by = 0 where a, b ∈ R form a real vector
space.
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... Indeed, we have
. . . ⊂ C r +1 (U) ⊂ C r (U) ⊂ . . . ⊂ C 1 (U)
K[t] = {a0 + a1 t + . . . + an t n : a0 , a1 , . . . , an ∈ K}

from K.
8. The set of all solutions to the differential equation
y 00 + ay 0 + by = 0 where a, b ∈ R form a real vector
space.
9. Let V = Mm,n (K) denote the set of all m × n matrices with
entries in K. Then V is a vector space over K under usual
matrix addition and multiplication of a matrix by scalar.
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Subspaces and Linear Span
Definition
A nonempty subset W of a vector space V is called a subspace
of V if it is a vector space under the operations in V .
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Definition
Theorem
A nonempty subset W of a vector space V is a subspace of V
if W satisfies the two closure axioms.
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Definition
Theorem
Proof: Suppose now that W satisfies the closure axioms. We
just need to prove existence of inverses and the zero element.
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Definition
Theorem
Let x ∈ W . By distributivity
0x = (0 + 0)x = 0x + 0x.
Hence 0 = 0x. By closure axioms 0 ∈ W .
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Definition
Theorem
Let x ∈ W . By distributivity
0x = (0 + 0)x = 0x + 0x.
Hence 0 = 0x. By closure axioms 0 ∈ W . If x ∈ W then

−x = (−1)x is in W by closure axioms. 2
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Examples
1. R is a subspace of the real vector space C. But it is not a
subspace of the complex vector space C.
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Examples
2. C r [a, b] is a subspace of the vector space C s [a, b] for
s < r.
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Examples
s < r . All of them are subspaces of F ([a, b]; R).
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Examples
3. Mm,n (R) is a subspace of the real vector space Mm,n (C).
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Examples
4. The set of points on the x-axis form a subspace of the
plane.
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Examples
plane. More generally, the set of points on a line passing
through the origin is a subspace of R2 .
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Examples
through the origin is a subspace of R2 . Likewise the set of
real solutions of a1 x1 + . . . + an xn = 0 form a subspace of
Rn . It is called a hyperplane.
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Examples
through the origin is a subspace of R2 . Likewise the set of
real solutions of a1 x1 + . . . + an xn = 0 form a subspace of
Rn . It is called a hyperplane.
More generally, the set of solutions of a homogeneous
system of linear equations in n variables forms a subspace
of Kn . In other words, if A ∈ Mm,n (K), then the set
{x ∈ Kn : Ax = 0} is a subspace of Kn . It is called the null
space of A.
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Linear Span of a set in a Vector Space
Definition
Let S be a subset of a vector space V . The linear span of S is
the subset
Pn
L(S) = i=1 ci xi : x1 , . . . , xn ∈ S and c1 , . . . , cn are scalars .
We set L(∅) = {0} by convention.
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Definition
the subset Pn
L(S) = i=1 ci xi : x1 , . . . , xn ∈ S and c1 , . . . , cn are
Pscalars .
We set L(∅) = {0} by convention. A typical element ni=1 ci xi of
L(S) is called a linear combination of xi ’s. Thus L(S) is the set
of all finite linear combinations of elements of S. In case
V = L(S), we say that S spans V or generates V .
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Definition
the subset Pn
Pscalars .
Proposition
The smallest subspace of V containing S is L(S).
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Definition
the subset Pn
Pscalars .
Proposition
Proof: If S ⊂ W ⊂ V and W is a subspace of V then by

closure axioms, L(S) ⊂ W . If we show that L(S) itself is a
subspace of V , then the proof will be completed.
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Definition
the subset Pn
Pscalars .
Proposition
Proof: If S ⊂ W ⊂ V and W is a subspace of V then by

closure axioms, L(S) ⊂ W . If we show that L(S) itself is a
subspace of V , then the proof will be completed. It is easy to
verify that 0 ∈ L(S) and that L(S) is closed under addition as
well as scalar multiplication (exercise!). 2
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Remark
(i) Different sets may span the same subspace. For example
L({î, ĵ}) = L({î, ĵ, î + ĵ}) = R2 .
More generally, the standard basis vectors e1 , . . . , en span

Rn and so does any set S ⊂ Rn containing e1 , . . . , en
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Remark
L({î, ĵ}) = L({î, ĵ, î + ĵ}) = R2 .

(ii) The vector space R[t] is spanned by {1, t, t 2 , . . . , t n , . . .}
and also by {1, (1 + t), . . . , (1 + t)n , . . .}.
24/26
Remark
L({î, ĵ}) = L({î, ĵ, î + ĵ}) = R2 .

and also by {1, (1 + t), . . . , (1 + t)n , . . .}.
(iii) The linear span of any non zero element in a field K is the
field itself.
24/26
Remark
L({î, ĵ}) = L({î, ĵ, î + ĵ}) = R2 .

and also by {1, (1 + t), . . . , (1 + t)n , . . .}.
field itself.
(iv) While talking about the linear span or any other vector
space notion, the underlying field of scalars is understood.
If we change this we get different objects and relations.
24/26
Remark
L({î, ĵ}) = L({î, ĵ, î + ĵ}) = R2 .

and also by {1, (1 + t), . . . , (1 + t)n , . . .}.
field itself.
(iv) While talking about the linear span or any other vector
space notion, the underlying field of scalars is understood.
If we change this we get different objects and relations.
For instance, the real linear span of 1 ∈ C is R where as
the complex linear span is the whole of C.
24/26
Linear Dependence
Definition
Let V be a vector space. A subset S of V is called linearly
dependent (L.D.) if there exist distinct elements v1 , . . . , vn ∈ S
and αi ∈ K, not all zero, such that
n
X
αi vi = 0. (∗)
i=1
25/26
Linear Dependence
Definition
n
X
αi vi = 0. (∗)
i=1
S is called linearly independent (L.I.) if it is not linearly

dependent.
25/26
Linear Dependence
Definition
n
X
αi vi = 0. (∗)
i=1

dependent.
Remark
(i) Thus a relation such as (∗) holds in a linearly independent
set S with distinct vi ’s iff all the scalars αi = 0.
25/26
Linear Dependence
Definition
n
X
αi vi = 0. (∗)
i=1

dependent.
Remark
(ii) Any subset which contains a L.D. set is again L.D.
25/26
Linear Dependence
Definition
n
X
αi vi = 0. (∗)
i=1

dependent.
Remark
(iii) The singleton set {0} is L.D. in every vector space.
25/26
Linear Dependence
Definition
n
X
αi vi = 0. (∗)
i=1

dependent.
Remark
(iii) The singleton set {0} is L.D. in every vector space.
(iv) Any subset of a L.I. set is L.I.
25/26
Examples
(i) The set {ei = (0, . . . , 1, . . . , 0) : 1 ≤ i ≤ n} is L.I. in Kn .
26/26
Examples
This can be shown easily by taking dot product with ei with
a relation of the type (∗).
26/26
Examples
(ii) The set S = {1, t, t 2 , . . . , t n , . . . } is L.I. in K[t]. This follows
from the definition of a polynomial (!). Alternatively, if we
think of polynomial functions (from K to K) defined by the
polynomials, then linear independence can be proved by
evaluating a dependence relation as well as its derivatives
of sufficiently high orders at t = 0.
26/26
Examples
(iii) In the space C[a, b] for a < b ∈ R consider the set
S = {1, cos2 t, sin2 t}.
26/26
Examples
S = {1, cos2 t, sin2 t}. The familiar formula
cos2 t + sin2 t = 1 tells us that S is linearly dependent.
What about the set {1, cos t, sin t}?
26/26
Examples
S = {1, cos2 t, sin2 t}. The familiar formula
cos2 t + sin2 t = 1 tells us that S is linearly dependent.
What about the set {1, cos t, sin t}?
(iv) If Eij denotes the m × n matrix with 1 in (i, j)th position and
0 elsewhere, then the set {Eij : i = 1, . . . , m, j = 1, . . . , n}
is linearly independent in the vector space Mm,n (K).
26/26

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D ETERMINANTS

To every square matrix A, we can associate a scalar det A,

To every square matrix A, we can associate a scalar det A,

Of course for a 1 × 1 matrix A = [a], one sets det A := a.

To every square matrix A, we can associate a scalar det A,

Of course for a 1 × 1 matrix A = [a], one sets det A := a.

D(A1 , . . . , Ai−1 , αB + βC, Ai+1 , . . . , An )

D(A1 , . . . , Ai−1 , αB + βC, Ai+1 , . . . , An )

2. [Alternating] If Ai = Aj for some i 6= j, then

Suppose D : Mn (K) → K is any multilinear and alternating

One has the following remarkable result.

D(A) = D(e1 , . . . , en ) det A.

We omit the proof (but will be happy to explain to any interested

Permutations can be written in one-line or two-line

where the summation is over all permutations σ of {1, . . . , n}.

It is easy to deduce from this definition is that

and for any j ∈ {1, . . . , n}, we have expansion along j th

and for any j ∈ {1, . . . , n}, we have expansion along j th

(adj A)A = A(adj A) = diag(det A, . . . , det A) = (det A)In .

(adj A)A = A(adj A) = diag(det A, . . . , det A) = (det A)In .

Sketch of Proof of Lemma: Given any square matrix A, let Mik

(adj A)A = A(adj A) = diag(det A, . . . , det A) = (det A)In .

Sketch of Proof of Lemma: Given any square matrix A, let Mik

(adj A)A = A(adj A) = diag(det A, . . . , det A) = (det A)In .

Sketch of Proof of Lemma: Given any square matrix A, let Mik

Theorem (Cramer’s Rule)

Theorem (Cramer’s Rule)

Theorem (Cramer’s Rule)

Thus if A0 is a REF of A and it is obtained by elementary

det M = (det A)(det D).

Taking transpose, we obtain a similar result for block lower

Throughout mathematics we come across many types

Throughout mathematics we come across many types

Throughout mathematics we come across many types

Throughout mathematics we come across many types

Throughout mathematics we come across many types

(f1 + f2 )(x) = f1 (x) + f2 (x); (αf1 )(x) = αf1 (x), x ∈ S.

(f1 + f2 )(x) = f1 (x) + f2 (x); (αf1 )(x) = αf1 (x), x ∈ S.

Then it is easily verified that F (S, K) becomes a vector

(f1 + f2 )(x) = f1 (x) + f2 (x); (αf1 )(x) = αf1 (x), x ∈ S.

Then it is easily verified that F (S, K) becomes a vector

(f1 + f2 )(x) = f1 (x) + f2 (x); (αf1 )(x) = αf1 (x), x ∈ S.

Then it is easily verified that F (S, K) becomes a vector

(f1 + f2 )(x) = f1 (x) + f2 (x); (αf1 )(x) = αf1 (x), x ∈ S.

Then it is easily verified that F (S, K) becomes a vector

C r (U) = {f : U → R : f has cont. derivatives of order r }.

(f1 + f2 )(x) = f1 (x) + f2 (x); (αf1 )(x) = αf1 (x), x ∈ S.

Then it is easily verified that F (S, K) becomes a vector

C r (U) = {f : U → R : f has cont. derivatives of order r }.

This is a real vector space under the operations of (4).

is a vector space over K under usual addition of

is a vector space over K under usual addition of

is a vector space over K under usual addition of

Hence 0 = 0x. By closure axioms 0 ∈ W .

Hence 0 = 0x. By closure axioms 0 ∈ W . If x ∈ W then

Proof: If S ⊂ W ⊂ V and W is a subspace of V then by

Proof: If S ⊂ W ⊂ V and W is a subspace of V then by

L({î, ĵ}) = L({î, ĵ, î + ĵ}) = R2 .

More generally, the standard basis vectors e1 , . . . , en span

L({î, ĵ}) = L({î, ĵ, î + ĵ}) = R2 .

More generally, the standard basis vectors e1 , . . . , en span

L({î, ĵ}) = L({î, ĵ, î + ĵ}) = R2 .

More generally, the standard basis vectors e1 , . . . , en span