MA 106 Linear Algebra

Sudhir R. Ghorpade

January 5, 2016

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Generalities about the Course
I NSTRUCTORS : Prof. Santanu Dey (D1 & D3) and
Prof. Sudhir R. Ghorpade (D2 & D4)

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Generalities about the Course
I NSTRUCTORS : Prof. Santanu Dey (D1 & D3) and
Prof. Sudhir R. Ghorpade (D2 & D4)
L ECTURES : D2: Mon 9.30, Tue 10.30, Thu 11.30.
D4: Mon, Thu 3.30 - 5 pm, all in LA 102
T UTS : Wed 3 - 4 pm in LT 004, 005, 006, 105, 106
(for D2) and LT 304, 305, 306, 205, 206 (for D4)

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Generalities about the Course
I NSTRUCTORS : Prof. Santanu Dey (D1 & D3) and
Prof. Sudhir R. Ghorpade (D2 & D4)
L ECTURES : D2: Mon 9.30, Tue 10.30, Thu 11.30.
D4: Mon, Thu 3.30 - 5 pm, all in LA 102
T UTS : Wed 3 - 4 pm in LT 004, 005, 006, 105, 106
(for D2) and LT 304, 305, 306, 205, 206 (for D4)
O FFICE : 106 B, First Floor, Maths Dept.
O FFICE H OURS : Tue, 12 - 1 pm or by appointment.

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Generalities about the Course
I NSTRUCTORS : Prof. Santanu Dey (D1 & D3) and
Prof. Sudhir R. Ghorpade (D2 & D4)
L ECTURES : D2: Mon 9.30, Tue 10.30, Thu 11.30.
D4: Mon, Thu 3.30 - 5 pm, all in LA 102
T UTS : Wed 3 - 4 pm in LT 004, 005, 006, 105, 106
(for D2) and LT 304, 305, 306, 205, 206 (for D4)
O FFICE : 106 B, First Floor, Maths Dept.
O FFICE H OURS : Tue, 12 - 1 pm or by appointment.
ATTENDANCE : Compulsory! Random name calling in
each class. We may not rely on biometric attendance.
E XAMS : 6 Quizzes in Tuts (Best 5 taken; no make up)
+ 1 Common Quiz + Final. Marks: 5 + 15 + 30 = 50.

2/44
Generalities about the Course
I NSTRUCTORS : Prof. Santanu Dey (D1 & D3) and
Prof. Sudhir R. Ghorpade (D2 & D4)
L ECTURES : D2: Mon 9.30, Tue 10.30, Thu 11.30.
D4: Mon, Thu 3.30 - 5 pm, all in LA 102
T UTS : Wed 3 - 4 pm in LT 004, 005, 006, 105, 106
(for D2) and LT 304, 305, 306, 205, 206 (for D4)
O FFICE : 106 B, First Floor, Maths Dept.
O FFICE H OURS : Tue, 12 - 1 pm or by appointment.
ATTENDANCE : Compulsory! Random name calling in
each class. We may not rely on biometric attendance.
E XAMS : 6 Quizzes in Tuts (Best 5 taken; no make up)
+ 1 Common Quiz + Final. Marks: 5 + 15 + 30 = 50.
B ONUS : 2.5 Extra Marks for 100 % Attendance;
However, −1 mark for each absentee.

2/44
Generalities about the Course
I NSTRUCTORS : Prof. Santanu Dey (D1 & D3) and
Prof. Sudhir R. Ghorpade (D2 & D4)
L ECTURES : D2: Mon 9.30, Tue 10.30, Thu 11.30.
D4: Mon, Thu 3.30 - 5 pm, all in LA 102
T UTS : Wed 3 - 4 pm in LT 004, 005, 006, 105, 106
(for D2) and LT 304, 305, 306, 205, 206 (for D4)
O FFICE : 106 B, First Floor, Maths Dept.
O FFICE H OURS : Tue, 12 - 1 pm or by appointment.
ATTENDANCE : Compulsory! Random name calling in
each class. We may not rely on biometric attendance.
E XAMS : 6 Quizzes in Tuts (Best 5 taken; no make up)
+ 1 Common Quiz + Final. Marks: 5 + 15 + 30 = 50.
B ONUS : 2.5 Extra Marks for 100 % Attendance;
However, −1 mark for each absentee.
M ORE INFO : See the Moodle page of the course or
www.math.iitb.ac.in/∼srg/106
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What is Linear Algebra

W IKIPEDIA D ESCRIPTION : Linear algebra is the

branch of mathematics concerning vector spaces and
linear mappings between such spaces. It includes the
study of lines, planes, and subspaces, but is also
concerned with properties common to all vector
spaces.

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What is Linear Algebra

W IKIPEDIA D ESCRIPTION : Linear algebra is the

branch of mathematics concerning vector spaces and
linear mappings between such spaces. It includes the
study of lines, planes, and subspaces, but is also
concerned with properties common to all vector
spaces.
M OREOVER : Linear algebra is classically related to
the study of:
Systems of linear equations and their solutions
Matrices
Determinants
...

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What is Linear Algebra

W IKIPEDIA D ESCRIPTION : Linear algebra is the

branch of mathematics concerning vector spaces and
linear mappings between such spaces. It includes the
study of lines, planes, and subspaces, but is also
concerned with properties common to all vector
spaces.
M OREOVER : Linear algebra is classically related to
the study of:
Systems of linear equations and their solutions
Matrices
Determinants
...
For a more specific decription, at least as far as this
course is concerned, see the official syllabus.

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Why Study Linear Algebra
S HORT A NSWER : Because it is beautiful!

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Why Study Linear Algebra
S HORT A NSWER : Because it is beautiful!
B UT ALSO BECAUSE IT IS :
One of the most important basic areas in all of
Mathematics, having an impact comparable to that of
Calculus.
Provides a vital arena where the interaction of
Mathematics and machine computation is seen.
Many of the problems studied in Linear Algebra are
amenable to systematic and even algorithmic
solutions, and this makes them implementable on
computers.
Many geometric topics are studied making use of
concepts from Linear Algebra.
Applications to Physics, Engineering, Probability &
Statistics, Economics and Biology.
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Cartesian coordinate space
R denotes the set of all real numbers

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Cartesian coordinate space
R denotes the set of all real numbers
The space Rn is the totality of all ordered n-tuples
(x1 , . . . , xn ) where x1 , . . . , xn vary over R. It is called
the n-dimensional Euclidean space or the
n-dimensional Cartesian coordinate space

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Cartesian coordinate space
R denotes the set of all real numbers
The space Rn is the totality of all ordered n-tuples
(x1 , . . . , xn ) where x1 , . . . , xn vary over R. It is called
the n-dimensional Euclidean space or the
n-dimensional Cartesian coordinate space
Elements of Rn are referred to as vectors when
n > 1. Elements of R may be referred to as scalars.

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Cartesian coordinate space
R denotes the set of all real numbers
The space Rn is the totality of all ordered n-tuples
(x1 , . . . , xn ) where x1 , . . . , xn vary over R. It is called
the n-dimensional Euclidean space or the
n-dimensional Cartesian coordinate space
Elements of Rn are referred to as vectors when
n > 1. Elements of R may be referred to as scalars.
For i = 1, . . . , n, the function πi : Rn → R defined by
πi ((x1 , . . . , xn )) = xi
is called the i th coordinate function or the i th
coordinate projection.

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Cartesian coordinate space
R denotes the set of all real numbers
The space Rn is the totality of all ordered n-tuples
(x1 , . . . , xn ) where x1 , . . . , xn vary over R. It is called
the n-dimensional Euclidean space or the
n-dimensional Cartesian coordinate space
Elements of Rn are referred to as vectors when
n > 1. Elements of R may be referred to as scalars.
For i = 1, . . . , n, the function πi : Rn → R defined by
πi ((x1 , . . . , xn )) = xi
is called the i th coordinate function or the i th
coordinate projection.
Given a function f : A → Rn and 1 ≤ i ≤ n, the
function fi : A → R defined by fi := πi ◦ f is called the
i th component function of f . These fi completely
determine f . And we may write f = (f1 , . . . , fn ).
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Algebraic structure of Rn
Addition: For x = (x1 , . . . , xn ), y = (y1 , . . . , yn ) define

x + y = (x1 + y1 , . . . , xn + yn )

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Algebraic structure of Rn
Addition: For x = (x1 , . . . , xn ), y = (y1 , . . . , yn ) define

x + y = (x1 + y1 , . . . , xn + yn )

Usual laws of addition hold. We set:

0 = (0, . . . , 0), −x = (−x1 , . . . , −xn )

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Algebraic structure of Rn
Addition: For x = (x1 , . . . , xn ), y = (y1 , . . . , yn ) define

x + y = (x1 + y1 , . . . , xn + yn )

Usual laws of addition hold. We set:

0 = (0, . . . , 0), −x = (−x1 , . . . , −xn )

Scalar multiplication: For α ∈ R and x ∈ Rn , define

αx := (αx1 , . . . , αxn ).

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Algebraic structure of Rn
Addition: For x = (x1 , . . . , xn ), y = (y1 , . . . , yn ) define

x + y = (x1 + y1 , . . . , xn + yn )

Usual laws of addition hold. We set:

0 = (0, . . . , 0), −x = (−x1 , . . . , −xn )

Scalar multiplication: For α ∈ R and x ∈ Rn , define

αx := (αx1 , . . . , αxn ).

The following properties clearly hold:

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Algebraic structure of Rn
Addition: For x = (x1 , . . . , xn ), y = (y1 , . . . , yn ) define

x + y = (x1 + y1 , . . . , xn + yn )

Usual laws of addition hold. We set:

0 = (0, . . . , 0), −x = (−x1 , . . . , −xn )

Scalar multiplication: For α ∈ R and x ∈ Rn , define

αx := (αx1 , . . . , αxn ).

The following properties clearly hold:

Associativity: α(βx) = (αβ)x for all α, β ∈ R, x ∈ Rn

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Algebraic structure of Rn
Addition: For x = (x1 , . . . , xn ), y = (y1 , . . . , yn ) define

x + y = (x1 + y1 , . . . , xn + yn )

Usual laws of addition hold. We set:

0 = (0, . . . , 0), −x = (−x1 , . . . , −xn )

Scalar multiplication: For α ∈ R and x ∈ Rn , define

αx := (αx1 , . . . , αxn ).

The following properties clearly hold:

Associativity: α(βx) = (αβ)x for all α, β ∈ R, x ∈ Rn
Distributivity: α(x + y) = αx + αy ∀ α ∈ R, x, y ∈ Rn

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Algebraic structure of Rn
Addition: For x = (x1 , . . . , xn ), y = (y1 , . . . , yn ) define

x + y = (x1 + y1 , . . . , xn + yn )

Usual laws of addition hold. We set:

0 = (0, . . . , 0), −x = (−x1 , . . . , −xn )

Scalar multiplication: For α ∈ R and x ∈ Rn , define

αx := (αx1 , . . . , αxn ).

The following properties clearly hold:

Associativity: α(βx) = (αβ)x for all α, β ∈ R, x ∈ Rn
Distributivity: α(x + y) = αx + αy ∀ α ∈ R, x, y ∈ Rn
1x = x for all x ∈ Rn
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2. L INEAR M APS ON E UCLIDEAN S PACES
AND M ATRICES

Definition
A map f : Rn → Rm is said to be a linear if

f (αx + βy) = αf (x) + βf (y) ∀ α, β ∈ R, x, y ∈ Rn .

Examples:
Projection map πi : Rn → R; inclusion map
Rn → Rn+t ; multiplication by a fixed scalar

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2. L INEAR M APS ON E UCLIDEAN S PACES
AND M ATRICES

Definition
A map f : Rn → Rm is said to be a linear if

f (αx + βy) = αf (x) + βf (y) ∀ α, β ∈ R, x, y ∈ Rn .

Examples:
Projection map πi : Rn → R; inclusion map
Rn → Rn+t ; multiplication by a fixed scalar
dot product by a fixed vector in Rn gives a linear map
from Rn to R; what about the converse?

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2. L INEAR M APS ON E UCLIDEAN S PACES
AND M ATRICES

Definition
A map f : Rn → Rm is said to be a linear if

f (αx + βy) = αf (x) + βf (y) ∀ α, β ∈ R, x, y ∈ Rn .

Examples:
Projection map πi : Rn → R; inclusion map
Rn → Rn+t ; multiplication by a fixed scalar
dot product by a fixed vector in Rn gives a linear map
from Rn to R; what about the converse?
f : Rn → Rm linear ⇔ fi linear for each i = 1, . . . , m.

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2. L INEAR M APS ON E UCLIDEAN S PACES
AND M ATRICES

Definition
A map f : Rn → Rm is said to be a linear if

f (αx + βy) = αf (x) + βf (y) ∀ α, β ∈ R, x, y ∈ Rn .

Examples:
Projection map πi : Rn → R; inclusion map
Rn → Rn+t ; multiplication by a fixed scalar
dot product by a fixed vector in Rn gives a linear map
from Rn to R; what about the converse?
f : Rn → Rm linear ⇔ fi linear for each i = 1, . . . , m.
Distance travelled is a linear function of time when
velocity is constant. So is the voltage as a function of
resistance when the current is constant.
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2. L INEAR M APS ON E UCLIDEAN S PACES
AND M ATRICES

Definition
A map f : Rn → Rm is said to be a linear if

f (αx + βy) = αf (x) + βf (y) ∀ α, β ∈ R, x, y ∈ Rn .

Examples:
Projection map πi : Rn → R; inclusion map
Rn → Rn+t ; multiplication by a fixed scalar
dot product by a fixed vector in Rn gives a linear map
from Rn to R; what about the converse?
f : Rn → Rm linear ⇔ fi linear for each i = 1, . . . , m.
Distance travelled is a linear function of time when
velocity is constant. So is the voltage as a function of
resistance when the current is constant.
|x|, x n (n > 1), sin x, etc. are not linear
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Exercise:
(i) Show that if f : Rn → Rm is a linear map then
k
X k
X
f( αi xi ) = αi f (xi ) ∀ xi ∈ Rn and αi ∈ R.
i=1 i=1

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Exercise:
(i) Show that if f : Rn → Rm is a linear map then
k
X k
X
f( αi xi ) = αi f (xi ) ∀ xi ∈ Rn and αi ∈ R.
i=1 i=1

(ii) Show that the projection on a line L passing through

the origin defines a linear map of R2 to R2 and its
image is equal to L.

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Exercise:
(i) Show that if f : Rn → Rm is a linear map then
k
X k
X
f( αi xi ) = αi f (xi ) ∀ xi ∈ Rn and αi ∈ R.
i=1 i=1

(ii) Show that the projection on a line L passing through

the origin defines a linear map of R2 to R2 and its
image is equal to L.
(iii) Show that rotation through a fixed angle θ is a linear
map from R2 → R2 .

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Exercise:
(i) Show that if f : Rn → Rm is a linear map then
k
X k
X
f( αi xi ) = αi f (xi ) ∀ xi ∈ Rn and αi ∈ R.
i=1 i=1

(ii) Show that the projection on a line L passing through

the origin defines a linear map of R2 to R2 and its
image is equal to L.
(iii) Show that rotation through a fixed angle θ is a linear
map from R2 → R2 .
(iv) By a rigid motion of Rn we mean a map f : Rn → Rn
such that
d(f (x), f (y)) = d(x, y) ∀ x, y ∈ Rn .

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Exercise:
(i) Show that if f : Rn → Rm is a linear map then
k
X k
X
f( αi xi ) = αi f (xi ) ∀ xi ∈ Rn and αi ∈ R.
i=1 i=1

(ii) Show that the projection on a line L passing through

the origin defines a linear map of R2 to R2 and its
image is equal to L.
(iii) Show that rotation through a fixed angle θ is a linear
map from R2 → R2 .
(iv) By a rigid motion of Rn we mean a map f : Rn → Rn
such that
d(f (x), f (y)) = d(x, y) ∀ x, y ∈ Rn .
Show that a rigid motion of R3 which fixes the origin
is a linear map.
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