THEORY OF EQUATIONS

A dissertation submitted to the THIRUVALLUVAR UNIVERSITY

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE

IN

MATHEMATICS

By

S.GOPI

(Reg No: 40920U25031)

Under the guidance of

Prof.M.NADANASAPAPATHY., M.sc.,M.Phil., B.Ed.

Guest Lecturer of Mathematics

UG & RESEARCH DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

THIRU.A.GOVINDASAMY GOVERNMENT ARTS COLLEGE,

TINDIVANAM-604 307

MAY-2023
Prof.M.NADANASAPAPATHY.,M.sc.,M.Phil., B.Ed.,

Guest Lecture,

PG & Research Department of Mathematics,

Thiru. A. Govindasamy Government Arts College,

Tindivanam- 604 307.

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that disserted entitled, "THEORY OF EQUATIONS" Submitted to

Thiruvalluvar Unioversity, in partial fulfillment of the degree of BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN

MATHEMATICS, is a bonafide record of the work carried out by S.GOPI (Reg.

No:40920U25031) under my supervision and guidance.

I further certify that the project report represents independent work on the part of candidate.

Signature of Guide Signature of Head of the

Department

Place: Tindivanam

Date:
Submitted for the viva-voce examination on ……………………………………

Examiners:

1.

2.

DECLARATION

I, S.GOPI, hear by declare that the dissertation entitled "THEORY OF EQUATIONS"

has been prepared by me under the guidance of

Prof.M.NADANASAPAPATHY.,M.sc.,M.Phil.,B.Ed., Guest Lecturer of Mathematics, and that

it has not been submitted for the award of any other university.

S.GOPI

Place: Tindivanam

Date:
 ACKOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere and heartful thanks to

Prof.M.NADANASAPAPATHY.,M.sc.,M.Phil., B.Ed., Guest Lecturer, Department of

Mathematics, Thiru. A. Govindasamy Arts College, Tindivanam-604 307, for his untiring help

rendered to me in executing this project without whom the project will not be in the present shape.

I would like to thank Dr. T. ARIVUDAINAMBI., M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed., PGDCA.,

Ph.D., Principal, Thiru. A. Govindasamy Government College, Tindivanam-604 307, for

opportunity given to complete the project work successfully.

I want to express my sincere thanks to Prof. A. DHANDAPANI, Head & Assistant

Professor, PG & Reasearch Department of Mathematics, Thiru. A. Govindasamy

Government Arts College, Melpakkam, Tindivanam- 604 307, for providing facilities to carry

out my project work.

Lot of thanks owes to the faculty members of Mathematics for their constant encouragement

to fulfil this Bachelor of Science degree.

S.GOPI
 INDEX:

S.NO TITLE PAGE

NO
1. Introduction 1
2. Polynomial Functions 1
3. Relation Between the Roots and 6
Co-Efficient of a
Polynamial Equation

4. Symmetric Function of the Roots 11

5. Reciprocal Equations 23

6. Transportation of Equations 28
7. References 33
 1.0 Introduction

In this module, we will study about polynomial functions and various methods to find out

the roots of polynomial equations. 'Solving equations' was an important problem from the

beginning of study of Mathematics itself. The notion of complex numbers was first introduced

because equations like x²+1=0 has no solution in the set of real numbers. The "fundamental

theorem of algebra" which states that every polynomial of degree ≥1 has at least one zero was

first proved by the famous German Mathematician Karl Fredrich Gauss. We shall look at

polynomials in detail and will discuss various methods for solving polynomial equations.

1.1. Polynomial Functions

Definition:

A function defined by

f(x)=a0xn+a1xn-1+.....+a n, where a 0  0, n is a non negative integer and a i (i=0, 1. ....n) are

fixed complex numbers is called a polynomial of degree n in x. Then numbers a0,a1, .. ,an are

called the coefficients of f. If  is a complex number such that f()= 0, then a is called zero of the

polynomial.

1.1.1 Theorem (Fundamental Theorem of Algebra)

Every polynomial function of degree n≥1 has at least one zero.

Remark:

Fundamental theorem of algebra says that, if f(x)=a 0xn +a1xn-1+ . +an

where a 0 is the given polynomial of degree n ≥ 1, then there exists a complex

1
 n-1 =0.
number  such that a n
0x +a1x +
.......... +a
n

We use the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, to prove the following result.

1.1.2 Theorem

Every polynomial of degree n has n and only n zeroes.

Proof:
Let f(x)= a0x n+a1x n-1+ ,where a 0 , be a polynomial of degree n ≥1. By fundamental
.......... +a
n

theorem of algebra, f(x) has at least one zero, let 1 be that zero. Then (x-1 ) is a factor of f(x)

Therefore, we can write:

f(x) = (x-1 )Q1(x) where Q1(x) is a polynomial function of degree n - 1

If n - 1 ≥1 , again by Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, Qn(x) has at least one zero, say 

Therefore, f(x) =(x-1 )(x-2) Q2(x) where Q2(x) is a polynomial function of degree n -

2Repeating the above arguments, we get

f(x)=(x-1 )(x-2)........(x-n) Qn(x) where Qn(x) is a polynomial function of degree n - n = 0,

ie.,Qn(x) is a constant.

Equating the coefficient of xn on both sides of the above equation, we get Qn(x)=

an. Therefore, f(x)=(x-1 )(x-2) .(x-n).

If  is any number other than n than f(x)  0.  is not a zero of f(x).

Hence f(x) has n and only n zeros, namely n

Note:

Let f(x)=a0x n+a1x n-1+ a 0 be an nth degree polynomial in x.

.......... +an
;
2
Then,a0xn+a1x n-1+ =0 ............(1)
.......... +a
n

is called a polynomial equation in x of degree n.

3
 A number  is called a root of the equation (1) if  is a zero of the polynomial f(x) .

A number  is called a root of the equation (1) if  is a zero of the polynomial f(x) .

Hence every polynomial equation of degree n has n and only n roots.

Solved Problems

1. Solve x 4 − 4x 2 + 8x + 35 = 0 , given 2 + i is a root.

Solution :

Given that 2 + i is a root of x 4 − 4x 2 + 8x + 35 = 0; since complex roots occurs in

conjugate pairs 2 − i is also a root of it.

 [x − (2 + i 3)][x − (2 − i 3)] = (x − 2)2 + 3 = x 2 − 4x + 7 is a factor of the given

polynomial.

Dividing the given polynomial by this factor, we obtain the other factor as
x 2 + 4x + 5 .

− 4  16 − 20 = −2  i .
The roots of x 2 + 4x + 5 = 0 are given by
2

Hence the roots of the given polynomial are 2 + i 3, 2 − i 3, − 2 + i and − 2 − i .

2. Solve x4 - 5x3 + 4x2 + 8x – 8 = 0, given that one of the roots is 1 − .

Solution:
Since quadratic surds occur in conjugate pairs as roots of a polynomial equation,

1+ is also a root of the given polynomial.

 [x − (1 − 5)][x − (1 + 5)] = (x − 1)2 − 5 = x 2 − 2x − 4 is a factor.

Dividing the given polynomial by this factor, we obtain the other factor as x2 – 3x +

2.Also, x2 – 3x + 2 = (x – 2) (x – 1)

Thus the roots of the given polynomial equation are 1 + 5,1 − 5,1, 2 .
4
3. Find a polynomial equation of the lowest degree with rational coefficients

having and 1 – 2i as two of its roots.

Solution:

Since quadratic surds occur in pairs as roots, − is also a root.

Since complex roots occur in conjugate pairs, 1 + 2i is also a root of the required
polynomial equation. Therefore the desired equation is given by

(x − 3) (x + 3)(x − (1 − 2i) (x − (1 + 2i)) = 0

i.e., x 4 − 2x 3 + 2x 2 + 6x − 15 = 0

4. Solve 4x5 + x3 + x2 – 3x + 1 = 0, given that it has rational

roots.Solution:
Let f(x) = 4x5 + x3 + x2 – 3x + 1.
6

5
1.2. Relation between the Roots and
Co-efficients of a Polynomial Equation

Consider the polynomial function f(x) = aoxn + a1xn-1 + …..+ an, a 0  0

Let 1,  2 , ..... , be the roots of f(x) = 0.

n

Then we can write f (x) = ao (x − 1 )(x −  2 )....(x −  n )

Equating the two expressions for f(x), we obtain:

ao x n + a1 xn−1 + .... + a n = (x − 1 ) (x −  2 )...(x −  n )
ao

Dividing both sides by a0 ,

n  a1  n−
1  an 

x +  x + .... +   = (x −  1 ) (x −  2 ) .... (x −  n )
 ao   ao 

= x n − S1 xn−1 + S 2 xn − 2 −.....+ (−1)n S n

where Sr stands for the sum of the products of the roots 1, ... , taken r at a
n
time.
Comparing the coefficients on both sides , we see that

− a1 a a
S = S = 2 S = (−1)n n .
1 n
, ,.... ao
2
ao ao

6
 School of Distance Education, University of Calicut
Special Cases c
 =
− a
If  and  are the roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0, (a  0) , then  +  = and
b
a

−b
If  and  and  are the roots of ax3+ bx2+cx +d = 0, (a  0) , then  +  + = ,
a

and  +  +  =
c −d
and = .
a a
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Examples:

1. If the roots of the equation x3 + px2 + qx + r = 0 are in arithmetic

progression,show that 2p3 – 9 pq + 27r = 0.

Solution:
Let the roots of the given equation be a – d, a, a + d.
−p
Then S1 = a – d + a + a + d = 3a = -p  a =
3
Since a is a root, it satisfies the given polynomial

p.− q.−  + r = 0
3 2
 −  
 +
  +
  
 

On simplification, we obtain 2p3 – 9pq + 27r = 0.

2. Solve 27x3 + 42x2 – 28x – 8 = 0, given that its roots are in geometric
progression.Solution:
a
Let the roots be , a, ar
r
a 8 2
Then , .a.ar = a 3 = a=
r 27 3

2
Since a = is a root, 
x −  is a factor. On division, the other factor of the
2

 
3  3
− 60  Its
polynomial is 27x2 + 60x + roots −2
12. are =
2 7 9
27
or − 2

8
3.Solve the equation 15x3 – 23x2 + 9x – 1 = 0 whose roots are in harmonic
progression.

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut

Solution:

[Recall that if a, b, c are in harmonic progression, then 1/a, 1/b, 1/c are in
arithmetic
2ac
progression and hence b = ]
a+c
Let ,,  be the roots of the given polynomial.

9
Then  +  +  = ……….. (1)
15

1
 = ………. (2)
15

2
Since  ,  ,  are in harmonic progression,  =
 +

  +  = 2

.9  3 = 9
Substitute in (1), 2 +  =
15 15

3
  = .
15

3 1
Substitute in (2), we obtain =
15 15
1
 = is a root of the given polynomial.
3

1 1
Proceeding as in the above problem, we find that the roots are , 1, .
3 5
9
 3. Show that the roots of the equation ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0 are in

geometricprogression, then c3a = b3d.

Solution:

Suppose the roots are k

, k, kr
r
k −d
Then .k.kr =

r a
−d
i.e., k 3 =
a

Since k is a root, it satisfies the polynomial equation,

ak3 + bk2 + ck + d = 0
−d 
a + bk 2 + ck + d = 0

 
 a 

 bk 2 + ck = 0

 bk 2 = −ck

10
  (bk 2 )3 = (−ck )3 i.e., b 3 k 6 = −c3k 3

2 3 d 3 − d 

b 2 = −c  
a  a 
b 3 d = c 3  b3d = c 3 a .

a

4. Solve the equation x3 - 9x2 + 14x + 24 = 0, given that two of whose roots are
inthe ratio 3: 2.
Solution:
Let the roots be 3 , 2 , 
Then, 3 + 2 +  = 5 +  = 9 ………………. (1)
3 .2 + 2 .  + 3 .  = 14

i.e., 6 2 + 5 = 14 ……………… (2)

and 3 .2 .  = 6 2  = −24

 2  = −4 ……………… (3)
From (1),  = 9 − 5 . Substituting this in (2), we obtain

6 2 + 5 (9 − 5 ) = 14

7
i.e., 19 2 − 45 + 14 = 0 . On solving we get  = 2 or .
19

7 136
When  = , from (1), we get  = . But these values do not satisfy (3).
19 19

So,  = 2 , then from (1), we get  = −1

Therefore, the roots are 4, 6, -1.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1.3. Symmetric Functions of the Roots

( +  ) ( +  ) ( −  ) . Each of these expressions is a function of  ,  ,  with the

11
  ,  ,  are interchanged, the function remains

property that if any two of

unchanged.

Such functions are called symmetric functions

11

12
 Generally, a function f (1, 2 , ..... , n ) is said to be a symmetric function of

 1 , 2 , ..... ,n if it remains unchanged by interchanging any two of  1 , 2 , ..... , n .

Remark:

The expressions S1, S2, ….., Sn where Sr is the sum of the products of
 1 , 2 , ..... ,n taken r at a time, are symmetric functions. These are called elementary

symmetric functions.
Now we discuss some results about the sums of powers of the roots of a given
polynomial equation.
1.3.1. Theorem

The sum of the rth powers of the roots of the equation f(x) = 0 is the
xf (x) in descending powers of x.
coefficient of x–r in the expansion of
f (x)
Proof:

Let f(x) = 0 be the given nth degree equation and let its roots be
 1 , 2 , ..... ,n then, f(x) = a0 (x − 1 )(x −  2 )... (x −  n ) where a0 is some constant.

Taking logarithm, we obtain

log f (x) = log a0 + log(x − 1 ) +.....+ log(x −  n )

Differentiating w.r.t. x, we have:

f 1 (x) 1 1
= + ....... +
f (x) x−
1 x −
n

Multiplying by x, x
+ ....... +
x f 1 (x) x
=
f (x) x− x − n
1−
1 −1
  
 

1 − 1  + .... + 1 − n

= x  13   2
  x      2 
1 + +
1 1  
+ .... + ........ + 1 + n
+ n
+ .....
 x x2   x2 
=    
x

2 −2
= n + (  i )x + (  i )x + ...... + ......
−1

Therefore  r xf (x)
i is the coefficient of x–r in the expansion of in
f (x)

descending powers of x.

12

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 School of Distance Education, University of Calicut
1.3.2. Theorem (Newton’s Theorem on the Sum of the Powers of the Roots)
If  , ,....., are the roots of the equation x n + P xn−1 + P xn − 2 + .....+ P = 0 ,
1 2 n 1 2 n

and S =  r + .... +  r . Then, S + S P + ..... + S P + rP = 0, if r  n.

r 1 r r −1 1 r −1 r
n 1

and Sr + Sr −1 P1 + Sr −2 P2 + ... + Sr −n Pn = 0 if r > n .

Proof:

We have x n + P xn−1 + P x n − 2 + .... + P = (x −  )(x −  ).....(x −  )

1 n 1 2 n
2
Put
1
x=
y

1 1 1 1
 + P1 P2
+ + Pn = ( −  )( −  ).....( −  ) ,
+ y1 y2 n
y n y n−1 y n y
−2

and then multiplying by yn, we obtain:

1 + P y + P y 2 + .... + P y n = (1 −  y)(1 −  y).....(1 −  y)
1 2 n 1 2 n
Taking logarithm and differentiating w.r.t y, we get
P + 2P 3P y 2 + ...... + nP yn−1 − − −
1 2 y + 32 nn = 1 + 2 +...+ n
1 + P y + P y + ...... + P y 1−  y 1−  y 1−  y
1 2 n 1 2 n

=
−  1 (1 −  1 y)−1 −  2(1 −  2y) −1 − ...... −  n(1 −  ny) −1

=
− (1 +  y +  2 y 2 + .... ) −  (1 +  y +  2 y 2 + .... ) −
1 2
1 2 2

...... −  n (1 + y +  2 y 2 + .... )
n
n

= − S 1 − S 2 y − S 3 y 2 − ..... − S r +1 y r − ...
15
Cross – multiplying, we get
P + 2P y + 3P y 2 + ...... + nP yn−1 = −(1 + P y + P y 2 + .... + P y n)
1 2 3 n 1 2 n

[S + S y + ..... + S + y r + ..... ]
1 2 r 1

Equating coefficients of like powers of y, we see that

P1 = −S1  S1 + 1.P1 = 0

2P2 = −S2 − S1P1  S2 + S1P1 + 2P2 = 0

3p3 = −S3 − S2 P1 − S1P2  S3 + S2 P1 + S1P2 + 3P3 = 0 , and so on .

If r < n, equating coefficients of yr–1 on both sides,

rPr = −Sr − Sr−1P1 − Sr−2 P2 − − S1Pr−1

13

16
  Sr + Sr−1P1 + Sr−2 P2 + ...... + S1Pr−1 + rPr = 0

If r > n, then r–1 > n–1.

Equating coefficients of yr–1 on both sides,

0 = −Sr − Sr−1 P1 − Sr −2 P2 − − Sr −n Pn

i.e., Sr + Sr−1P1 + Sr−2 P2 + ...... + Sr−n Pn = 0

Remark: 1
x=
To find the sum of the negative powers of the roots of f(x) = 0, put y

and find the sums of the corresponding positive powers of the roots of the new

equation.
equation

Examples

1. If ,,  are the roots of the equation x3 + px2 + qx + r = 0, find the value of the

following in terms of the coefficients.

1 1
(i)  (ii)  (iii)   2
 

Solution:
Here  +  +  = −p,  +  +  = q,  = −r

(i)  +  + −p p
1
=
1
+
1
+
1 = = =

     −r r

(ii)  +  +  q q
1
=
1
+
1
+
1 = = =−

 −r r

(iii)   2 =  2 +  2  +  2 +  217
+  2  + 2  = ( +  +  )( +  +
 )− 3
 = (q . –p) – 3 (- r ) = 3r – pq .

2. If  is an imaginary root of the equation x 7 − 1 = 0 form the equation whose

roots are  +  6 ,  2 +  5 ,  3 +  4 .

Solution:

Let a =  + 6 b =  2 + 5 c =  3 +  4

14

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 School of Distance Education, University of Calicut
The required equation is (x – a) (x – b) (x – c) = 0

i.e., x3 – ( a+b+c )x2 + ( ab+bc+ac )x – abc = 0 ..................... (1)

1− 
a + b + c = +  2 + 3 +  4 + 5 + 6 = ( − 1) =  −  =
6 7
= −1
 −1  −1  −1

( Since  is a root of x7 – 1 = 0, we have  7 =1 )

Similarly we can find that ab + bc + ac = –2, abc = 1.
Thus from (1), the required equation is

x3 + x2 – 2x – 1 = 0

3. If  , ,  are the roots of x3 + 3x2 + 2x + 1 = 0, find 2

  3 and   .
Solution:

Here  +  +  = - 3,  +  +  = 2,  = −1

Using the identity a3+b3+c3 – 3abc = (a+b+c) ( a2+ b2 + c2 – ab – bc – ac ), we find

that

3 = ( +  +  )  2 +  2 +  2 − ( +  +  )+ 3



 
= ( +  +   +  +  ) 2 − 2 ( +  +  )] − ( +  +  ) + 3
) [(


= −3[(9 − 4) − 2] − 3

= −9 − 3 = −12

−2 1 1 1  2 2 +  2 2 +  2 2
Also,  = + + =
 2  2  2  2  2 2

( +  + )2 − 2   2

= …………….. (1)
 22 
2
We have:

  2 = ( +  + ) = −3 −1 = 3

(1)   2 = 4 − 2.3 = −2

1 19
4. Find the sum of the 4th powers of the roots of the equation x4 – 5x3 + x – 1 =
0.Solution:

Let f(x) = x4 – 5x3 + x – 1 =

0Then f1 (x) = 4x3 – 15x2 + 1

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 School of Distance Education, University of Calicut
xf 1 (x)
Now, can be evaluated as follows :
f (x)

4 + 5 + 25 + 122 + 609 +.....

1 − 5 + 0 + 1 − 1 4 − 15 + 0 + 1 + 0
4 − 20 + 0 + 4 − 4
5 +0 − 3 + 4
5 − 25 + 0 + 5 − 5
25 − 3 − 1 + 5
25 −125 + 0 + 25 − 25
122 − 1 − 20 + 25
122 − 610 + 0 + 122 − 122
609 − 20 − 97 + 122
609 − 3045 + 0 + 609 − 609
............................

Therefore,
5 25 122
+ 2 + +
|
xf (x) x x 3 609 + ......
= 4+ x
f (x)
x4

Sum of the fourth powers of the roots = coefficient of x–4.

= 609.
5. If  +  +  = 1,  2 + 2 +  2 = 2, 3 + 3 +  3 = 3. Find  4 + 4 +  4 .

Solution:
,,  , then
Let x3 + P1x2 + P2x + P3 = 0 be the equation whose roots
are

 +  +  = −P1  P1 = −1

By Newton’s theorem,

S2 + S1P1 + 2P2 = 0

i.e., 2 + 1. (– 1) + 2 P2 = 0  P2 = –1/2
Again, by Newton’s theorem
S3 + S2P1 + S1P2 + 3P3 =

0 i.e., 3 + 2. – 1 + 1.–1/2 + 3.P3

21
=0
  P3 = –1/6
Also S4 + S3P1 + S2P2 + S1P3 = 0 (By Newton’s theorem for the case r

< n)Substituting and simplifying, we obtain S4 = 25/6

25
Thus  +  +  =
4 4 4

6. Calculate the sum of the cubes of the roots of x4 + 2x + 3 = 0

16

22
 RECIPROCAL EQUATIONS

Let α be a solution of the equation.

2x6 - 3x5 + √2x4 + 7x3 + √2x2 - 3x + 2 = 0 . (1)

Then α ¹ 0 (why?) and

2α6 - 3α5 + √2α4 + 7α3 + √2α2 - 3α + 2 = 0.

Substituting 1/α for x in the left side of (1), we get

Thus 1/α is also a solution of (1). Similarly we can see that if α is a solution of theequation

x5 + 3x4 - 4x3 + 4x2 - 3x – 2 = 0 (2)

then 1/α is also a solution of (2).

Equations (1) and (2) have a common property that, if we replace x by 1/x in the equation and
write it as a polynomial equation, then we get back the same equation. The immediate question
that flares up in our mind is “Can we identify whether a given equation has this property or not
just by seeing it?” Theorem 3.6 below answers this question.

23
Definition 3.1

A polynomial P(x) of degree n is said to be a reciprocal polynomial if one of thefollowing

conditions is true:

1 1 
(i) P(x) = x'' P (ii)P(x) = −x '' P
  x 
 x 

A polynomial P(x) of degree n is said to be a reciprocal polynomial of Type Iif P(x) =

called a reciprocal equation of Type I.

A polynomial P(x) of degree n is said to be a reciprocal polynomial of Type IIif P(x) = -

called a reciprocal equation of Type II.

Theorem

A polynomial equation an xn + an−1 xn−1 + an−2 xn−2 +….+ a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 = 0 ,

(an≠ 0) is a reciprocal equation if, and only if, one of the following two statements is true:

(i) an = a0 , an-1 = a1 , an-2

= a2 …. (ii) an = - a0 , an-1 = - a1 ,

an-2 = - a2 , …

Proof

Consider the polynomial equation

P(x) = an xn + an-1 xn-1 + an-2 xn-2 +...+ a2 x2 + a1 x + a0

=0. … (1)

Replacing x by 1/x in (1), we get

24
Multiplying both sides of (2) by xn, we get

Now, (1) is a reciprocal equation ⇔ P(x) = ± xn P (1/x) ⇔ (1) and (3) are same .

Let the proportion be equal to λ. Then, we get an/a0 = λ and a0/an = λ . Multiplying these
equations, we get λ2 = 1. So, we get two cases λ = 1 and λ = -1 .

Case (i) :

λ = 1 In this case, we have an = a0 , an−1 = a1 , an−2 = a2 , …..

That is, the coefficients of (1) from the beginning are equal to the coefficients fromthe end.

Case (ii) :

λ = −1 In this case, we have an = −a0 , an−1 = −a1 , an−2 = −a2 , …..

That is, the coefficients of (1) from the beginning are equal in magnitude to thecoefficients
from the end, but opposite in sign.

Note

Reciprocal equations of Type I correspond to those in which the coefficients fromthe beginning
are equal to the coefficients from the end.

For instance, the equation 6x5 + x4 − 43x3 − 43x2 + x + 6 = 0 is of type I.

Reciprocal equations of Type II correspond to those in which the coefficients from the beginning
are equal in magnitude to the coefficients from the end, but opposite in sign.

25
For instance, the equation 6x5 − 41x4 + 97x3 − 97x2 + 41x − 6 = 0 is of Type II.

Remark

(i) A reciprocal equation cannot have 0 as a solution.

(ii) The coefficients and the solutions are not restricted to be real.

(iii) The statement “If P(x) = 0 is a polynomial equation such that whenever α is a root, 1/α is also
a root, then the polynomial equation P ( x) = 0 must be a reciprocalequation” is not true. For
instance 2x3 − 9x2 + 12x − 4 = 0 is a polynomial equation whose roots are 2, 2,1/2.

Note that x3 P( 1/x) ≠ ± P(x) and hence it is not a reciprocal equation. Reciprocal equations
are classified as Type I and Type II according to an-r = ar or an-r = -ar , r = 0, 1, 2,...n. We
state some results without proof :

· For an odd degree reciprocal equation of Type I, x = −1 must be a solution.

· For an odd degree reciprocal equation of Type II, x = 1 must be a solution.

· For an even degree reciprocal equation of Type II, the middle term must be 0Further x = 1
and x = −1 are solutions.

• For an even degree reciprocal equation, by taking x + (1/x) or x – (1/x) as y , we can obtain
a polynomial equation of degree one half of the degree of the given equation ; solving this
polynomial equation, we can get the roots of the given polynomial equation.

As an illustration, let us consider the polynomial equation6x6 -

35x5 + 56x4 - 56x2 + 35x - 6 = 0

which is an even degree reciprocal equation of Type II. So 1 and -1 are two solutions of the equation
and hence x2 -1 is a factor of the polynomial. Dividing the polynomial by the factor x2 -1, we
get 6x4 - 35x3 + 62x2 - 35x + 6 as a factor. Dividing this factor by x2 and

rearranging the terms we get . Setting u = ( x + 1/x) it

becomes a quadratic polynomial as 6 (u - 2) - 35u + 62 which reduces to 6u2 - 35u + 50 .
2
Solving we

26
obtain u = 10/3 , 5/2 . Taking u = 10/3 gives x = 3, 1/3 and taking u = 5/2 gives x =2, 1/2. So the
required solutions are +1, -1, 2, 1/2 , 3, 1/3 .

Example

Solve the equation 7x3 − 43x2 = 43x − 7.

Solution

The given equation can be written as 7x3 - 43x2 - 43x + 7 = 0.

This is an odd degree reciprocal equation of Type I. Thus -1 is a solution andhence x +1 is a

factor.

Dividing the polynomial 7x3 - 43x2 - 43x + 7 by the factor x +1,we get 7x2 - 50x + 7 as a
quotient.

Solving this we get 7 and 1/7 as roots. Thus -1, 1/7 , 7 are the solutions of thegiven
equation.

Example

Solve the following equation: x4 −10x3 + 26x2 −10x +1 = 0.

Solution

This equation is Type I even degree reciprocal equation. Hence it can be rewrittenas

Let y = x + [1/x] . Then, we get

27
(y2 - 2) -10 y + 26 = 0 ⇒ y2 -10 y + 24 = 0 ⇒ ( y -6)( y - 4) = 0 ⇒ y = 6 or y =
4

Case (i)

y=6⇒ x + (1/x) = 6 ⇒ x = 3 + 2√2, x = 3 -√2 .Case

(ii)

y = 4 ⇒ x + (1/x) = 4 ⇒ x = 2 + √3, x = 2 -√3Hence,

the roots are 3 ± 2√2, 2 ±√3

1.4. Transformations of Equations

Let f(x) = 0 be a polynomial equation. Without explicitly knowing the roots of

f(x) = 0, we can often transform the given equation into another equation whose roots
are related to the roots of the first equation in some way. Now we discuss some
important such transformations.
1. To form an equation whose roots are k-times the roots of a given equation.
Let f (x) = a x n + a xn−1 + .... + a ----------- (1)

o 1 n

Suppose that 1 ,  2 , ... , are the roots of f(x) = 0

n

Then f (x) = a o (x − 1 )(x −  2 )........(x −  n ) ..................(2)

Put y = kx in (2), we obtain:

y y
f =a −   y −   y − 

  o 1  2 ...... n
k k  k   k 

Thus the roots of f ( y / k ) = 0, are k1, ..... , kn

Therefore the required equation is

ny  y n−1
 y
f   = a o   + a1  + ...... + a n = 0
 k k k

     

i.e., a o y n + ka 1 yn−1 + k 2a 2 y n − 2 + ...... + k n a n =0

28
Thus; to obtain the equation whose roots are k times the roots of a given equation,
we have to multiply the coefficients of x n , x n − 1 , ..... , x and the constant term by 1, k,

k2,……kn-1 and kn respectively.

29
 School of Distance Education, University of Calicut
Remark:
To form an equation whose roots are the negatives of the roots of a given

equation of degree n, multiply the coefficients of xn, xn-1, . . . . by 1, -1, 1, -1, …

respectively.
2. To form an equation whose roots are the reciprocals of the roots of a given
equation.
Consider, f (x) = a x n + a xn−1 + ...... + a = 0 ………….. (1)

o 1 n

Let 1, 1, ........ , be the roots of the equation. Then,

n

f (x) = a o (x − 1 ) (x −  2 ).. (x − n ………….. (2)

)

1 1
In (1), put y = i.e., x =
x y

1 1  1  1 
Then f   = a o  − 1  −  2  ....  −  n 
y  y  y  y 
1 1 ,...... 1
The roots of this equation are ,
1  2 n

n1  1 n−1
 1
But from (1) , f   = a o   + a1  + ...... + a n = 0
y y y
     
i.e., a o + a 1y + a oy 2 + ...... + a ny n = 0

Therefore, the required equation is a n y n + a n−1 yn−1 + ...... + a 1y + a o = 0

3. To form an equation whose roots are less by ‘h’ then the roots of a given
equation. ( i.e., Diminishing the roots by h )
Let f (x) = a x n + a xn−1 + ...... + a = 0 …………. (1)

o 1 n

Suppose that 1,  2 , ...... , are the roots of f(x) = 0

n
30
 f (x) = a o (x − 1 )(x −  2 ).......(x −  n ) ................. (2)
Therefore,

Put y = x – h so that x = y + h
From (2), f (y + h) = a o (y + h − 1 )(y + h −  2 )..... (y + h −  n )
= a o (y − (1 − h))(y − ( 2 − h))......(y − (n − h))

The roots of f (y + h) = 0 are 1 − h,....., n − h .

By (1), we obtain,

a o (y + h)n + a1 (y + h) n −1 + ...... + an = 0
Expanding using binomial theorem and combining like terms, we get an equation of
the form
b o y n + b1 yn−1 + ...... + b n = 0 18 .……… (3)

Replacing y = x – h, we get

b o (x − h)n + b1 (x − h)n−1 + ........ +nb .……… (4)

=0

Now, equation (1) and (4) represents the same equation.

Dividing equation (4) continuously by (x – h), we obtain the remainders as
b n , bn−1 , .. , bo

Substituting these in (3), we obtain the required equation.

Remark:
Increasing the roots by h is equivalent to decreasing the roots by –h.
4. To form an equation in which certain specified terms of the given equation are
absent.
Consider the equation a x n + a xn−1 + ...... + a = 0 ……… (1)

o 1 n

Suppose it is required to remove the second term of the equation (1). Diminish the
roots of the given equation by h.
For this, put y = x − h i.e., x = y + h in (1), we obtain the new equation as

a o (y + h)n + a1 (y + h)n−1 + ...... +na =0

31
ie a y n + (na h + a )yn−1 + ...... + a =0
o o 1 n
 nao h + a1 = 0
Now to remove the second term of the equation (1), we must have

i.e., we must have h = − a1 na .

o

Thus to remove the second term of the equation (1), we have to diminish its roots by

h = a1 na
o

32
 Reference Books:

1. P.Kandasamy, K.Thilagavathy (2004), Mathematics

for B.Sc. Vol-I, II, III & IV, S.Chand& Company Ltd., New Delhi-55.

2. S.Arumugam (2003) Algebra. New Gamma Publishing House, Palayamkottai.

3. P.R.Vittal, V.Malini, Algebra and Trigonometry, Margham Publications,

Chennai.

S.Sudha(1998) Algebra and Trigonometry, Emerald Publishers, Chennai

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