Appendix 11

Some of the More Important

Annual Meteor Showers

T his list includes only a few of the many annual showers. The dates given for the
beginnings and ends of the showers are only approximate.

Name Beginning End Naked-eye star Remarks

near radiant
QUADRANTIDS Jan. 3 Jan. 5 Beta Boötis Usually a sharp
maximum, Jan. 4.
LYRIDS Apr. 19 Apr. 22 Nu Herculis Moderate shower.
Swift meteors.
ETA AQUARIDS April 21 May 12 Eta Aquarii Long paths; very swift.
DELTA July 15 Aug. 10 Delta Aquarii Moderate shower.
AQUARIDS
PERSEIDS July 27 Aug. 17 Eta Persei A rich shower.
Meteors very
swift.
ORIONIDS Oct. 15 Oct. 25 Nu Orionis Moderate shower.
Swift meteors.
LEONIDS Nov. 14 Nov. 20 Zeta Leonis Not usually a rich
shower. Very
swift meteors.
ANDROMEDIDS Nov. 26 Dec. 4 Gamma Very slow meteors.
Andromedae Very weak
shower.
GEMINIDS Dec. 6 Dec. 19 Castor Very rich shower.
URSIDS Dec. 20 Dec. 22 Kocab Rather weak.

193
 Appendix 1

Mathematical Equations Used in Astronomy

(Freedman and Kaufmann, 2002; Hartmann, 2005)

A1.1 Astronomical Constants

Astronomical unit AU = 149!60 × 106 km Mass of a mn = 1!6749 × 10−27 kg
= 1!4960 × 1011 m neutron
12
Mass of a mH = 1!6735 × 10−27 kg
Light year ly = 9!4605 × 10 km hydrogen
= 9!4605 × 1015 m atom
= 63,240 AU Rydberg R = 1!0968 × 107 m−1
Year y = 365!2564 d constant
= 3!156 × 107 s Electron volt 1 eV = 1!6022 × 10−19 J
Solar mass M" = 1989 × 1030 kg
A1.3 Geometrical Relations
Solar radius R" = 6!9599 × 108 m
= 6!9599 × 105 km
Area of a rectangle A = a×b
Solar luminosity L" = 3!90 × 1026 W Volume of rectangular solid V = a×b×c
Speed of light c = 2!9979 × 108 m/s Hypotenuse of a right triangle c = #a2 + b2 $1/2
= 2!9979 × 1010 cm/s Circumference of a circle C = 2r%
= 2!9979 × 105 km/s Area of a circle A = r2 %
Surface of a sphere A = 4%r 2
4
A1.2 Physical Constants Volume of a sphere V = %r 3
3

Gravitational G = 6!6726 × 10−11 Nm2 /kg2

constant
Planck’s h = 6!6261 × 10−34 Js C
%= = 3!1415926536&
constant = 4!1357 × 10−15 eVs 2r
Boltzmann k = 1!3807 × 10−23 J/K r = radius of a circle
constant = 8!6174 × 10−5 eV/K
Stefan- " = 5!6705 × 10−8 Wm−2 k −4
Boltzmann A1.4 Units of Distance, Time,
constant and Mass
Mass of an me = 9!1094 × 10−31 kg
electron In Science the unit of length or distance is the
Mass of a mp = 1!6726 × 10−27 kg meter (m), the unit of time is the second (s), and
proton the unit of mass is the kilogram (kg).

469
216 The Amateur Astronomer

Number Constellation Type Magnitude Remarks

24 Sagittarius Open cluster 4.6
25 Sagittarius Open cluster 6.5
26 Scutum Open cluster 9.3
27 Vulpecula Planetary 7.6 Dumbbell Nebula
28 Sagittarius Globular 7.3
29 Cygnus Open cluster 7.1
30 Capricornus Globular 8.4
31 Andromeda Spiral galaxy 4.8 Great Galaxy
32 Andromeda Elliptical galaxy 8.7 Satellite of M.31
33 Triangulum Spiral galaxy 6.7 Triangulum Spiral
34 Perseus Open cluster 5.5
35 Gemini Open cluster 5.3
36 Auriga Open cluster 6.3
37 Auriga Open cluster 6.2
38 Auriga Open cluster 7.4
39 Cygnus Open cluster 5.2
41 Canis Major Open cluster 4.6
42 Orion Nebula 4+ Great Nebula in Orion
43 Orion Nebula 9+ Part of Orion Nebula
44 Cancer Open cluster 3.7 Praesepe
45 Taurus Open cluster – Pleiades
46 Puppis Open cluster 6.0
49 Virgo Elliptical galaxy 8.6
50 Monoceros Open cluster 6.3
51 Canes Venatici Spiral galaxy 8.1 Whirlpool Galaxy
52 Cassiopeia Open cluster 7.3
53 Coma Berenices Globular 7.6
54 Sagittarius Globular 7.3
55 Sagittarius Globular 7.6
56 Lyra Globular 8.2
57 Lyra Planetary 9.3 Ring Nebula
58 Virgo Spiral galaxy 8.2
59 Virgo Elliptical galaxy 9.3
60 Virgo Elliptical galaxy 9.2
61 Virgo Spiral galaxy 9.6
62 Ophiuchus Globular 8.9
63 Canes Venatici Spiral galaxy 10.1
64 Coma Berenices Spiral galaxy 6.6
65 Leo Spiral galaxy 9.5
66 Leo Spiral galaxy 8.8
67 Cancer Open cluster 6.1 Famous old cluster
68 Hydra Globular 9.0
69 Sagittarius Globular 8.9
mathematical equations used in astronomy 471

P = sidereal period of an inferior planet (i.e., p= sidereal period in seconds,

the radius of its orbit is smaller than that a= semi-major axis of the orbit in meters,
of the Earth), m1 = mass of the first object in kilograms,
E = sidereal period of the Earth (1 year), m2 = mass of the second object in kilograms,
S = synodic period of an inferior planet. G= universal constant of gravitation (See
above).
A1.8b Superior Planet
A1.12 Tidal Force Exerted by the Earth
1 1 1 on the Moon
= − (A1.2)
P E S
P = sidereal period of a superior planet 2GM md
E = sidereal period of the Earth (1 year) Ftidal =
r3
S = synodic period of a superior planet
Note that all periods are expressed in multiples Ftidal =
tidal force in newtons (N)
of sidereal Earth years. G= 6!67 × 10−11 Nm2 /kg2
M= mass of the Earth = 5!974 × 1024 kg
m= small mass of 1 kg
A1.9 Kepler’s Third Law d= diameter of the Moon in meters
3!476 × 106 m
=
p2 = a 3 r=distance between the center of the Earth
and the center of the Moon in meters
p = period expressed in sidereal Earth years, = 3!844 × 108 m
a = semi-major axis of the orbit of a planet in 2#6!67 × 10−11 $#5!974 × 1024 $#1$#3!476 × 106 $
Ftidal =
the solar system expressed in astronomical #3!844 × 108 $3
units (AU) = 4!88×10−5 N#Freedman and Kaufmann%
This form of Kepler’s third law applies only to 2002% p!215$!
objects that orbit the Sun. It does not apply to
satellites that orbit planets in the solar system or A1.13 Tidal Bulge
planets that orbit a star other than the Sun.
The mass of the tidal bulge #mb $ is:

A1.10 Newton’s Law of Universal A

mb =
Gravitation r3
!m m " where A depends on the mechanical properties
1 2
F=G of the body that is being deformed.
r2
F = gravitational force between two objects in By substituting mb = A/r 3 into the formula for
newtons, the tidal force, we obtain the net tidal force that
m1 = the mass of the first object in kilograms, acts on the Moon:
m2 = the mass of the second object in kilograms, 2GMd A 2GMdA
r = distance between the centers of the objects Ftidal−net = × 3=
r3 r r6
in meters,
G = universal constant of gravitation = 6!67 × The ratio of the net tidal forces acting on the
10−11 newton m2 /kg2 . Moon at perigee and apogee is:
# $
Fper 2GMAd #rapo $6 rapo 6
A1.11 Newton’s Form of Kepler’s = =
Fapo #rperi $6 2GMAd rperi
Third Law
# $6
405% 500
= = 1!93 #Freedman and
4" 2 363% 300
p2 = a3
G#m1 + m2 $ Kaufmann% 2002% p! 216$!
470 appendix 1

A1.4.1 Distance (m) A planet on a circular orbit around the Sun has
a constant speed but it is continually accelerated
10−2 m = 1 centimeter (cm) because of the change in direction.
10−3 m = 1 millimeter (mm)
10−6 m = 1 micrometer #'m$ A1.6 Newton’s Laws of Motion
10−9 m = nanometer (nm)
103 m = 1 kilometer (km) 1. A body at rest remains at rest, a body in
149!6 × 106 km = 1 astronomical unit (AU) motion continues to move in a straight line at
9!46 × 1012 km = 1 lightyear #ly$ = 63,240 (AU) a constant speed unless it is acted upon by a
net outside force.
A1.4.2 Time (s) 2. The acceleration of an object is proportional
to the net outside force that is acting on it.
60 s = 1 minute (min) If a net force (F) acts on body of mass of mass
3600 s = 1 hour #h$ = 60 min (m), the body will experience an acceleration (a)
86&400 s = 1 day #d$ = 24 h such that:
3!156 × 107 s = 1 year#y$ = 365!256 d
F = ma
A1.4.3 Mass (kg)
F = net outside force acting on the body
3
1 kg = 10 gram#g$ (newtons),
1000 kg = 1 metric tonne (t) m = mass of the object (kg),
1!99 × 1030 kg = solar mass (M") a = acceleration#m/s2 $.
3. Whenever one body exerts a force on a second
body, the second body exerts an equal and
A1.5 Speed, Velocity, and Acceleration opposite force on the first body.z
Speed is a measure of how fast a body is moving
expressed in terms of the ratio: A1.7 Mass and Weight

distance The mass of a body depends on the amount of

speed =
time
103 m/s = 1 km/s
1!609 × 103 m/s = 1 mi/s
Velocity differs from speed because it includes
the direction in which a body is moving. For
example, a car moving north at 100 km/h and
a car moving south at 100 km/h have the same
speed but different velocities.
Acceleration is the rate at which the velocity
of a body in motion is changing either because of
a change in its speed or because of a change in its
direction. Acceleration occurs when the speed of
a body in motion increases or decreases, or when
the direction of motion is changing. When an
apple falls out of a tree, its speed increase from
zero to 9.8 m/s during the first second, to 19.6 m/s
during the next second, and to 29.4 m/s during
the third second. In other words, the speed of the
apple in free fall on the Earth increases by 9.8 m/s
for each second that elapses. Therefore, the accel-
eration of the apple is 9.8 m/s/s or 9!8 m/s2 .
material it contains and is expressed in grams or
kilograms. The mass of a body does not depend
on its location in the Universe.
The weight of a body is the magnitude of the
gravitational force that acts on it. Since weight
is a force, it is expressed in newtons or pounds
where:
1 newton = 0!225 pounds
A1.8 Sidereal and Synodic Periods
The sidereal period of a planet is the time
required for the planet to complete one orbit. The
synodic period of a planet is the time between
two successive identical configurations.
A1.8a Inferior Planet
1 1 1
= + (A1.1)
P E S
Messier’s Catalogue 217

Number Constellation Type Magnitude Remarks

70 Sagittarius Globular 9.6
71 Sagitta Globular 9.0
72 Aquarius Globular 9.8
73 Aquarius Four faint stars – Not a cluster
74 Pisces Spiral galaxy 10.2
75 Sagittarius Globular 8.0
76 Perseus Planetary 12.2
77 Cetus Spiral galaxy 8.9
78 Orion Nebula 8.3
79 Lepus Globular 7.9
80 Scorpio Globular 7.7
81 Ursa Major Spiral galaxy 7.9
82 Ursa Major Irregular galaxy 8.8
83 Hydra Spiral galaxy 10.1
84 Virgo Spiral galaxy 9.3
85 Coma Berenices Spiral galaxy 9.3
86 Virgo Elliptical galaxy 9.7
87 Virgo Elliptical galaxy 9.2 Radio source
88 Coma Berenices Spiral galaxy 10.2
89 Virgo Elliptical galaxy 9.5
90 Virgo Spiral galaxy 10.0
92 Hercules Globular 6.1
93 Puppis Open cluster 6.0
94 Canes Venatici Spiral galaxy 7.9
95 Leo Barred spiral galaxy 10.4
96 Leo Spiral galaxy 9.1
97 Ursa Major Planetary 12.6 Owl Nebula
98 Coma Berenices Spiral galaxy 10.7
99 Coma Berenices Spiral galaxy 10.1
100 Coma Berenices Spiral galaxy 10.6
101 Ursa Major Spiral galaxy 9.6
103 Cassiopeia Open cluster 7.4
104 Virgo Spiral galaxy 8.4 “Sombrero Hat” Galaxy
Various forms of the Messier catalogue have been given, notably by Owen Gingerich
(Sky and Telescope, Vol. XIII, p. 158 [1954]) and R.H. Garstang (BAA Handbook, p. 63
[1964]). Five additions were made, all objects observed by the French astronomer
Méchain, and these are often included in the catalogue: M.105 (elliptical galaxy in Leo),
M.106 (spiral galaxy in Canes Venatici), M.107 (globular in Ophiuchus), and M.108 and
109 (spiral galaxies in Ursa Major).
M.40 is not identifiable; it may simply be a couple of faint stars, or it may have been a
comet. M.91 is also an absentee, and this too may have been a comet, though Gingerich
suggests that it may be identical with M.58. There is grave doubt about the identities of
M.47 and M.48; it has been suggested that M.47 is an open cluster in Argo Navis (Puppis)
and M.48 an open cluster in Hydra. M.102 may have been identical with M.101, or it
may possibly have been a faint spiral galaxy in Draco. Finally, M.73 consists of four faint,
unconnected stars and is not a true cluster or nebular object.
472 appendix 1

A1.14 Roche Limits #F − 32$ 5

C= (A1.10)
9
Two touching particles:
9C
! "1/3 F= + 32 (A1.11)
( 5
rR = 2!5 M R (A1.3)
(m #K − 273!15$ 9
F= + 32 (A1.12)
Liquid (or zero-strength) spherical body: 5

! "1/3 #F − 32$ 5
( K= + 273!15 (A1.13)
rR = 2!44 M R (A1.4) 9
(m
C = temperature on the Celsius scale,
rR = Roche limit K = temperature on the Kelvin scale,
)m = density of a body of mass M f = temperature on the Fahrenheit scale.
)m = density of body of mass m
R= radius of the body of mass M (km)
(Hartmann, 2005, p.60) A1.17 Wien’s Law for Blackbody
Radiation

A1.15 Frequency and Wavelength The relation between the temperature of a

of Electromagnetic Radiation
c
*= (A1.5)
+ +max =
, = frequency of an electromagnetic wave in
hertz (Hz)
c = speed of light in meters per second
- = wavelength of the wave in meters
The frequency of a wave of any kind is the
number of wave crests that pass a given point in
one second.
1 F = .T4
*= (A1.6)
p
where p = the time between successive wave
crests that pass a given point. The speed of
light, or the speed of any wave, is equal to the
wavelength divided by the period.
radiating body and the wavelength of the most
intense radiation it emits is:
0!0029
T
+max = wavelength of the most intense radiation
in meters,
T = temperature of the object in kelvins.
A1.18 Stefan-Boltzmann Law
for Blackbody Radiation
F = flux of energy in units of J/m2 /s at the
surface of the radiating body,
. = 5!67 × 10−8 W/m2 /T4 (or W m−2 T−4 ),
T = temperature of the object in kelvins.

+ A1.19 Surface Temperature of the Sun

c= (A1.7)
p
The wavelength of the most intense radiation
emitted by the Sun is 500 nm (Freedman and
A1.16 Temperature Scales Kaufmann, 2002, p. 103). Therefore, Wien’s
Law yields a temperature of:
C = K − 273!15 (A1.8) 0!0029 0!0029
T= = = 5800 K
K = C + 273!15 (A1.9) +max 500 × 10−9
 Appendix 23

Messier’s Catalogue

M essier’s famous catalogue of nebular objects includes most of the brightest

nebulae and clusters visible in England. It is therefore useful to give his list,
as most of the objects can be found by means of the star maps in Appendix 25 and
can be picked up by means of small telescopes.

Number Constellation Type Magnitude Remarks

1 Taurus Wreck of supernova 8.4 Crab Nebula (radio source)
2 Aquarius Globular 6.3
3 Canes Venatici Globular 6.4
4 Scorpius Globular 6.4
5 Serpens Globular 6.2
6 Scorpio Open cluster 5.3
7 Scorpius Open cluster 4.0
8 Sagittarius Nebula 6.0 Lagoon Nebula
9 Ophiuchus Globular 7.3
10 Ophiuchus Globular 6.7
11 Scutum Open cluster 6.3 Wild Duck Cluster
12 Ophiuchus Globular 6.6
13 Hercules Globular 5.7 Great globular cluster
14 Ophiuchus Globular 7.7
15 Pegasus Globular 6.0
16 Serpens Nebula and embedded
cluster 6.4
17 Sagittarius Nebula 7.0 Omega or Horseshoe
Nebula
18 Sagittarius Open cluster 7.5
19 Ophiuchius Globular 6.6
20 Sagittarius Nebula 9.0 Trifid Nebula
21 Sagittarius Open cluster 6.5
22 Sagittarius Globular 5.9
23 Sagittarius Open cluster 6.9

215
474 appendix 1

k = 1!38 × 10−23 J/K, A1.24 Retention of Molecular Oxygen

T = temperature of the gas in kelvins, in the Atmosphere of the Earth
m = mass of the atom or molecule in kilograms.
The mass of a molecule of oxygen #O2 $ is 5!32 ×
10−26 kg. Therefore the average speed of oxygen
A1.23 Escape Speed from Planetary molecules at 20 # C (293 K) is (Freedman and
Surfaces Kaufmann, 2002, p. 160):
# $ % &1/2
The escape speed is the minimum speed an object 3 1!38 × 10−23 #293$
at the surface of a planet must have in order to "= = 478 m/s
5!32 × 10−26
permanently leave the planet:
= 0!478 km/s
! "1/2
2GM
"e = Since the escape speed from the Earth is
r
11.2 km/s, oxygen cannot escape from the
The escape speed of planets in km/s is: atmosphere of the Earth. In general, atoms and
molecules cannot escape in cases where the
Mercury 4!3 escape speed from the surface of the planet is
Venus 10!4 more than six times higher than the average speed
Earth 11!2 of the atom or molecule under consideration.
Moon 2!4
Mars 5!0
Jupiter 59!5 A1.25 References
Saturn 35!5 Freedman RA, Kaufmann III WJ (2002) Universe: The solar
Uranus 21!5 system. Freeman, New York
Neptune 23!4 Hartman WK (2005) Moons and planets, 5th edn.
Pluto 1!3 Brooks/Cole, Belmont, CA
 Appendix 14

Stars of the First Magnitude

T he 21 brightest stars are recognized as being of the first magnitude. The values
given here are the latest determinations and differ somewhat from earlier
values.

Star Name Mag. Spectrum Distance, Luminosity,

lt-yrs Sun 1
Alpha Canis Majoris Sirius –1.44 A1 8.6 26
Alpha Carinae Canopus –0.62 F0 310 15,000
Alpha Centauri –0.27 G2+K1 4.4 1.7 + 0.45
Alpha Boötis Arcturus –0.05 K2 37 115
Alpha Lyrae Vega 0.03 A0 25 52
Alpha Aurigae Capella 0.08 G8+G0 42 90 + 70
Beta Orionis Rigel 0.18 B8 770 40,000
Alpha Canis Minoris Procyon 0.40 F5 11 8
Alpha Eridani Achernar 0.45 B5 144 1000
Alpha Orionis Betalgeux 0.45 M2 430 11,000
Beta Centauri Agena 0.61 B1 530 10,000
Alpha Aquilae Altair 0.76 A7 16.8 10
Alpha Crucis Acrux 0.77 B0+B1 320 3200 = 2000
Alpha Tauri Aldebaran 0.87 K5 65 140
Alpha Virginis Spica 0.98 B1+B2 260 2200
Alpha Scorpii Antares 1.08 M1 600 9000
Beta Geminorum Pollux 1.16 K0 35 33
Alpha Piscis Australis Fomalhaut 1.17 A3 25 14
Alpha Cygni Deneb 1.25 A2 1800 60,000
Beta Crucis Mimosa 1.25 B0 300 260,000
Alpha Leonis Regulus 1.36 B7 78 125

Next in order of brightness come Epsilon Canis Majoris (Adhara) 1.50, Alpha
Geminorum (Castor) 1.58, Gamma Orionis 1.59 and Lambda Scorpii (Shaula) 1.62.

204
 Appendix 17

Stellar Spectra

Surface temp.
Type (degrees C) Colour Typical star Remarks
W 36,000+ Greenish white Gamma Velorum, Wolf-Rayet. Many
WC7 bright lines; helium
prominent
O 36,000+ Greenish white Zeta Puppis, Wolf-Rayet. Helium
O5 prominent
B 28,600 Bluish Spica, B1 Helium prominent
A 10,700 White Sirius, A1 Hydrogen lines
prominent
F 7,500 Yellowish Beta Cassiopeiae, Calcium lines
F2 prominent
G (giant) 5,200 Yellow Epsilon Leonis,
G0 {Metallic lines very
numerous
G (dwarf) 6,000 Yellow Sun, G2
K (giant) 4,230 Orange Arcturus, K2
{Hydrocarbon bands
K (dwarf) 4,910 Orange Epsilon Eridani, appear
K2
M (giant) 3,400 Orange-red Betelgeux, M2 {Broad titanium
M (dwarf) 3,400 Orange-red Wolf 359, M6 oxide and calcium
bands or flutings
R 2,300 Orange-red U Cygni Carbon bands
N 2,600 Red S Cephei, Ne Carbon bands. Reddest
of all stars
S 2,600 Red R Andromedae Some zirconium
oxide bands. Mostly
long-period
variables
Types R and N are often combined as Type C. The coolest stars are now given as Types L
and T. A separate class, Q, has been reserved for novae.

208
mathematical equations used in astronomy 473

The luminosity (L) of the Sun is L = 3!90 × A1.21 Doppler Effect

1026 W. Given that 1 Watt = 1 J/s, the Sun
radiates 3!90 × 1026 J every second. The energy 0+ *
flux (F) is obtained by dividing the total =
+o c
luminosity by surface area (A) of the Sun where
A = 4%R2 and R is the radius of the Sun 0+ = measured change in wavelength in
(Freedman and Kaufmann, 2002, p. 103): nanometers,
+ = wavelength in nanometers when the
L 3!90 × 1026 source is not moving,
F= =
4/R2 4 × 3!14#6!96 × 108 $2 * = velocity of the source measured along the
line of sight (i.e., the radial velocity) in
= 6!41 × 107 W/m2 km/s,
c = speed of light #3!0 × 105 km/s$.
We can also calculate the surface temperature of If 0- is negative, the source is approaching the
the Sun from the Stefan-Boltzmann Law: Earth (i.e., blue shift). If 0- is positive, the
source is receding from the Earth (i.e., red shift).
F 6!41 × 107
T4 = = = 1!13 × 1015
. 5!67 × 10−8 A1.22 Kinetic Energy and Speed
log 1!13 × 10 15
15!0530 of Atoms and Molecules in a Gas
log T = = = 3!7632
4 4 The kinetic energy of an object is:
T = 5797 K
1
which rounds to 5800 K. KE = m *2 (A1.17)
2
m = mass of the object in kilograms,
A1.20 Energy of Photons * = speed in meters per second,
KE = kinetic energy in Joules (J).
The average kinetic energy of an atom or
hc molecule in a gas is:
E= (A1.14)
+
3
E = energy in electron volt (eV) where 1 eV KE = kT (A1.18)
2
= 1!60210−19 J,
h = Planck’s constant = 6!625 × 10−34 Js, k = Boltzmann constant = 1!38 × 10−23 J/K,
c = speed of light, T = temperature in kelvins,
+ = wavelength of light. KE = average kinetic energy of a single atom or
One photon of red light having a wavelength molecule in Joules.
+ = 633 nm carries an energy of: The average speed of an atom or molecule in a
gas depends on its mass.
6!625 × 10−34 × 3!00 × 108
E= = 3!14 × 10−19 J
633 × 10−9 1 3
m* 2 = kT
2 2
The energy of a photon can also be expressed in ! "1/2
terms of the frequency #*$ where 3kT
*= (A1.19)
m
c
*= (A1.15)
+
* = average speed of an atom or molecule in a
E = h* (A1.16) gas in m/s,