Science From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In its broadest sense, science (from the Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge") refers to any
systematic knowledge or practice. In its more usual restricted sense, science refers to a system
of acquiring knowledge based on scientific method, as well as to the organized body of
knowledge gained through such research.

This article focuses on the more restricted use of the word. Science as discussed in this article is
sometimes termed experimental science to differentiate it from applied science, which is the
application of scientific research to specific human needs, though the two are often
interconnected.

Science is the effort to discover and increase human understanding of how physical reality
works. Its purview is the portion of reality which is independent of religious, political, cultural,
or philosophical outlook. Using controlled methods, scientists collect data in the form of
observations, records of observable physical evidence of natural phenomena, and analyze this
information to construct theoretical explanations of how things work. Knowledge in science is
gained through research. The methods of scientific research include the generation of
hypotheses about how natural phenomena work, and experimentation that tests these
hypotheses under controlled conditions. The outcome or product of this empirical scientific
process is the formulation of theory that describes human understanding of physical processes
and facilitates prediction.

Exercise: Translate the following sentences.

i. When a resultant force acts on a body an acceleration is produced, its

value depending on the mass of the body.
ii. When a force is applied to the edge of a door it will turn, the hinge
forming a fulcrum for the door.
iii. The starter motor is switched off, the engine accelerating under its
own power.
iv. The human forearm is a lever, the effort being provided by the muscle
joining the upper arm to the forearm.
v. At the end of the process a solution of ammonium remains, the
sodium hydrogen carbonate having been precipitated out.
vi. Several solutions may be found, the seemingly best one being chosen.

Practical Task 1

Student Number:……………………….. Name:………………………..

Práctica: Estrategias de Vocabulario. Estrategia 1: Lenguaje Cognado.

En el siguiente texto:

1) Subraye las palabras parecidas al español (cognados) y arriesgue un equivalente

español para cada una de ellas (Underline words similar to Spanish words (cognates)
and risk a Spanish equivalent for each of them)

2) Recuerde el significado de palabras que ya conoce de la lectura anterior:

(Remind the meaning of words you know from the previous lesson)

i) field, como en “electric field”, “magnetic field”: :……………….

ii) knowledge:……………….

Organic chemistry
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Organic Chemistry is a discipline within chemistry

that involves the scientific study of the structure,
properties, composition, reactions, and preparation
(by synthesis or by other means) of carbon based
compounds, hydrocarbons, and their derivatives.
These compounds may contain any number of other
elements, including hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, the
5
halogens as well as phosphorus, silicon and sulfur.

Organic compounds are structurally diverse, and the

range of application of organic compounds is
enormous. They form the basis of, or are important
constituents of many products (plastics, drugs,
petrochemicals, food, explosives, paints, to name but
a few) and, with very few exceptions, they form the
10 basis of all earthly life processes.

Organic chemistry, like all areas of science, evolves

with particular waves of innovation. These Structure of the methane

molecule: the simplest

hydrocarbon compound

15
 innovations are motivated by practical considerations as well as theoretical innovations.
The area is, however, underpinned financially by the very large applications in polymer
20 science, pharmaceutical chemistry, and agrochemicals.

Since organic compounds often exist as mixtures, a variety of techniques have also been
developed to assess purity, especially important being chromatography techniques such
as HPLC and gas chromatography. Traditional methods of separation include distillation,
crystallization, and solvent extraction.

25

1. Answer the following questions on the text Organic Chemistry (Responder las siguientes
preguntas sobre el texto Organic Chemistry):

1. ¿Cómo se define a la Química Orgánica en el texto?

2. ¿Qué otros elementos pueden contener los compuestos mencionados en la línea 6?
3. Mencione por lo menos tres características de los compuestos orgánicos.
4. ¿Cuál es la razón del desarrollo de una variedad de técnicas para determinar la pureza
de los compuestos orgánicos?

Translate the following groups of words (Traduzca los siguientes grupos de palabras):

Organic chemistry (line 1)

carbon based compounds (line 5)

Organic compounds (line 10)

important constituents (12-13)

many products (line 13)

very few exceptions (line 15)

all earthly life processes (line 16)

all areas (line 17)

These innovations (lines 18-19)

practical considerations (line 19)

the very large applications (lines 20-21)

polymer science (line 21)

pharmaceutical chemistry (line 21)

chromatography techniques (lines 24-25)

gas chromatography (line 25)

traditional methods (line 25)

solvent extraction (line 26)

structurally diverse (line 10)

especially important (line 24)

Build a Glossary with other words that you have learnt in this lesson.

(construya un glosario con otras palabras que ha aprendido en esta lección)

GLOSSARY

English Word
Chemical compound
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Pure water (H2O), seen in the top image, is an example of a compound: the ball-and-
stick model of the molecule (above) shows how water consists of two
parts hydrogen and one part oxygen

A chemical compound is a pure chemical substance consisting of two or more different chemical
elements that can be separated into simpler substances by chemical reactions. Chemical compounds
have a unique and defined chemical structure; they consist of a fixed ratio of atoms that are held
together in a defined spatial arrangement by chemical bonds. Chemical compounds can be molecular
compounds held together by covalent bonds, salts held together by ionic bonds, intermetallic
compounds held together by metallic bonds, or complexes held together bycoordinate covalent bonds.
Pure chemical elements are not considered chemical compounds, even if. they consist of molecules
that contain only multiple atoms of a single element (such as H 2, S8, etc.), which are called diatomic
molecules or polyatomic molecules.

Chemical substance
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Steam and liquid water are two different forms of the same chemical substance, water.

In chemistry, a chemical substance is a form of matter that has constant chemical composition and
characteristic properties. It cannot be separated into components by physical separation methods, i.e.
without breaking chemical bonds. It can be solid, liquid, gas, or plasma.

Chemical substances are often called 'pure' to distinguish them from mixtures. A common example of
a chemical substance is pure water; it has the same properties and the same ratio of
hydrogen to oxygen whether it is isolated from a river or made in a laboratory. Other chemical
substances commonly encountered in pure form are diamond (carbon), gold, table salt(sodium
chloride) and refined sugar (sucrose). However, simple or seemingly pure substances found in nature
can in fact be mixtures of chemical substances. For example, tap water may contain small amounts of
dissolved sodium chloride and compounds containing iron, calcium and many other chemical
substances.

Chemical substances exist as solids, liquids, gases, or plasma and may change between
these phases of matter with changes in temperature or pressure. Chemical reactions convert one
chemical substance into another.

Forms of energy, such as light and heat, are not considered to be matter, and thus they are not
"substances" in this regard.

Harassment
Harassment refers to a wide spectrum of offensive behavior. The term commonly refers to
behavior intended to be disturbing, and, when the term is used in a legal sense, it refers to
behaviors which are found disturbing. Sexual harassment refers to persistent and unwanted
sexual advances, typically in the workplace, where the consequences of refusing are potentially
very disadvantageous to the victim.
Sexual harassment is harassment or unwelcome attention of a sexual nature. It includes a range
of behavior from mild transgressions and annoyances to serious abuses, which can even involve
forced sexual activity. (Dziech et al 1990, Boland 2002) Sexual harassment is considered a form
of illegal discrimination in many countries, and is a form of abuse (sexual and psychological).

An electroscope is an early scientific instrument that is used to detect the presence and
magnitude of electric charge on a body. It was the first electrical measuring instrument. The
first electroscope, a pivoted needle called the versorium, is an invention of the British
physician William Gilbert around 1600. The pith-ball electroscope and the gold-leaf
electroscope are two classical types of electroscope that are still used to demonstrate
electrostatics. A type of electroscope is also used in the quartz fiber radiation dosimeter.

Electroscopes detect electric charge by the motion of a test object due to the Coulomb
electrostatic force. The electric potential or voltage of an object equals its charge divided by its
capacitance, so electroscopes can be regarded as crude voltmeters. The accumulation of
enough charge to detect with an electroscope requires hundreds or thousands of volts, so
electroscopes are only used with high voltage sources such as static electricity and
electrostatic machines.

Atom

An atom is the smallest particle that

comprises a chemical element. An atom
consists of an electron cloud that
surrounds a dense nucleus. This nucleus
contains positively charged protons and
electrically neutral neutrons, whereas
the surrounding cloud is made up of
negatively charged electrons. When the
number of protons in the nucleus equals
the number of electrons, the atom is
electrically neutral; otherwise it is an
ion and has a net positive or negative
charge. An atom is classified according to
its number of protons and neutrons: the number of protons determines the chemical element
and the number of neutrons determines the isotope of that element. Relative to everyday
experience, atoms are minuscule objects with proportionately tiny masses that can only be
observed individually using special instruments such as the scanning tunneling microscope.
More than 99.9% of an atom's mass is concentrated in the nucleus; protons and neutrons have
about equal mass. In atoms with too many or too few neutrons relative to the number of
protons, the nucleus is unstable and subject to radioactive decay. The electrons surrounding the
nucleus occupy a set of stable energy levels, or orbitals, and they can transition between these
states by the absorption or emission of photons that match the energy differences between the
levels. The electrons determine the chemical properties of an element, and strongly influence
an atom's magnetic properties.

Capacitor
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of
conductors separated by a dielectric. When a voltage potential difference exists between
the conductors, an electric field is present in the dielectric. This field stores energy and
produces a mechanical force between the plates. The effect is greatest between wide, flat,
parallel, narrowly separated conductors.

An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, which is

5 measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential
difference between them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small
amount of leakage current. The conductors and leads introduce an equivalent series
resistance and the dielectric has an electric field strength limit resulting in a breakdown
voltage.

The properties of capacitors in a circuit may determine the resonant frequency and quality
factor of a resonant circuit, power dissipation and operating frequency in a digital logic
10 circuit, energy capacity in a high-power system, and many other important system
characteristics.
Electricity (from the Greek word ἤλεκτρον, (elektron), meaning amber, and finally from New
Latin ēlectricus, "amber-like") is a general term that encompasses a variety of phenomena
resulting from the presence and flow of electric charge. These include many easily recognizable
phenomena such as lightning and static electricity, but in addition, less familiar concepts such
as the electromagnetic field and electromagnetic induction.

In general usage, the word 'electricity' is adequate to refer to a number of physical effects.
However, in scientific usage, the term is vague, and these related, but distinct, concepts are
better identified by more precise terms:

 Electric charge – a property of some subatomic particles, which determines their

electromagnetic interactions. Electrically charged matter is influenced by, and produces,
electromagnetic fields.
 Electric current – a movement or flow of electrically charged particles, typically
measured in amperes.
 Electric field – an influence produced by an electric charge on other charges in its
vicinity.
 Electric potential – the capacity of an electric field to do work, typically measured in
volts.
 Electromagnetism – a fundamental interaction between the magnetic field and the
presence and motion of an electric charge.

Electricity's extraordinary versatility as a source of energy means it can be put to an almost

limitless set of applications which include transport, heating, lighting, communications, and
computation. The backbone of modern industrial society is, and for the foreseeable future can
be expected to remain, the use of electrical power.

Electromagnetic force

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

In physics, the electromagnetic force is the force that the electromagnetic field exerts on
electrically charged particles. It is the electromagnetic force that holds electrons and protons
together in atoms, and which hold atoms together to make molecules. The electromagnetic
force operates via the exchange of messenger particles called photons and virtual photons. The
exchange of messenger particles between bodies acts to create the perceptual force whereby
instead of just pushing or pulling particles apart, the exchange changes the character of the
particles that swap them.
most important (CONCLUSIONS)are:

1. All atoms of the same chemical element have the

same chemical properties. Atoms of different elements
have different chemical properties.

2. Atoms of the same chemical element, as it occurs

naturally, have a definite average mass that is
characteristic of the element. Individual atoms of any
element, however, may differ slightly in mass.

3. Atoms of different naturally occurring elements have

different average masses. Individual atoms of different
elements may have very nearly identical masses,
however.

4. Atoms cannot be subdivided by ordinary chemical

means.

Since atoms make up molecules, atoms are usually

smaller than molecules. The smallest atom, an atom of
hydrogen, has a diameter of about 0.6 Ǻ. The largest
atoms are a little more than 5 Ǻ in diameter. The
hydrogen atom is also the lightest atom. It has a mass of
1.67339 × 10-27 kg. The uranium atom, which one of the
heaviest atoms, has a mass of 3.95268 × 10-25 kg. There
is about a tenfold range in the diameters of atoms and
about a 250-fold range in their masses.

Even with the use of exponential notation, it is

difficult to express the masses of individual atoms
conveniently. Consequently, scientists usually express
the atomic mass of an atom in atomic mass units (amu).
One amu is equal to 1.660 × 10-27 kg, which is exactly
1/12th of the mass of carbon-12, the most abundant
form of the element carbon. In other words, scientists
use carbon-12 as the standard of mass for atoms.

In atomic mass units, the atomic mass of the most

abundant form of hydrogen is 1.007825 while that of
the most abundant form of uranium is 238.0508. The
integer nearest to the atomic mass is called the mass number of an
atom. The mass number is represented by the symbol. A.
thus, for the common hydrogen atom, A = 1, while for
the common uranium atom, A = 238. Of the 103
elements known at the present time, the one with the
greatest mass is lawrencium 8A = 2579.
 Even though direct photographs of atoms have not
been taken, a special instrument called the field ion
microscope has made it possible to photograph the
arrangement of atoms in metals. In addition to such
evidence, the existence of atoms has been a useful
concept in the study of chemical reactions. When
substances interact chemically, atoms are rearranged to
form new substances, but the number of the various
kinds of atoms does not change during the interaction.

Hydrogen
From Wikipedia

Hydrogen (IPA: /ˈhaɪdrə(ʊ)dʒən/), is a chemical element represented by the symbol H and

an atomic number of 1. At standard temperature and pressure it is a colorless, odorless,
nonmetallic, tasteless, highly flammable diatomic gas (H2). With an atomic mass of
1.00794 g/mol, hydrogen is the lightest element.

Hydrogen is the most abundant of the chemical elements, constituting (AND IT

CONSTITUTES) roughly 75% of the universe's elemental mass. Stars in the main sequence
are mainly composed of hydrogen in its plasma state. Elemental hydrogen is relatively rare
on Earth, and is industrially produced from hydrocarbons such as methane.

For each of the following texts specify:

1. Type of Text
2. Social Purpose
3. Schematic Structure
4. Lexico-Grammatical Features
5. Schematic Representation

Text 1: CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

Most substances can be classified into two groups. The first group contains materials
with many electrons that are free to move. These materials are called conductors
because they readily conduct electric currents. Metals and graphite are examples of
conductors. The second group contains materials with very few freely-moving electrons.
These materials are called nonconductors. They are very poor conductors of electricity.
Nonconductors can be used to prevent charge from going where it is not wanted. Hence
they are also called insulators. Some common insulators are glass, rubber, plastic and
air. There are a few materials, such as germanium and silicon, called semiconductors.
Their ability to conduct electricity is intermediate between conductors and insulators.
Semiconductors have played an important role in modern electronics.

Text 2: Atom

An atom is the basic unit that makes up all matter.

Atoms themselves are made up of three kinds of
smaller particles, called
protons, neutrons and electrons.
The protons and neutrons are in the middle of the
atom. They are called the nucleus. The nucleus is
surrounded by a cloud of electrons with a
negative charge which are bound to the nucleus by
an electromagnetic force.
Protons and neutrons are made up of even smaller
Lithium atom model
particles called quarks. Electrons are elementary or
Showing nucleus with four neutrons (blue),
fundamental particles; they cannot be split into
three protons (red) and,
smaller parts. orbited by three electrons (black).
The number of protons, neutrons and electrons that
Classification:
an atom has determines what element it is.
Hydrogen, for example, has one proton, no Smallest recognised division of a chemical element
neutrons and one electron; the element sulfur has
Properties
16 protons, 16 neutrons and 16 electrons.
Mass: 1.66 x 10(−27) to 4.52 x 10(−25) kg

Electric charge: zero

Text 3: Periodic Table

The periodic table

BBC.jpg

The periodic table is a table of the chemical elements in which the elements are
arranged by order of atomic number in such a way that the periodic properties
(chemical periodicity) of the elements are made (become) clear. The standard form
of the table includes periods (usually horizontal in the periodic table) and groups
(usually vertical). Elements in groups have some similar properties to each other.
There is no one single or best structure for the periodic table but the form used here
is very useful. The periodic table is a masterpiece of organised chemical
information. The evolution of chemistry's periodic table into the current form is an
astonishing achievement with major contributions from many famous chemists and
other eminent scientists.
Text 4: Splitting light

Discover how to split white light into a rainbow of colours, just as Sir Isaac
Newton did hundreds of years ago.


Astronomers are able to determine the composition of the the Sun by studying its
light, with a technique known as spectroscopy. This technique can also be used to
determine the chemicals elements present in a star or planet's atmosphere.

Wh at you n eed

To do this activity you will need:

 sunlight
 a piece of card with a one millimetre wide slit cut into the middle
 a straight-sided glass filled with water
 a sheet of white A4 paper.

What to d o

1. Fill a straight-sided glass with water and tape the card onto the side of the
glass.
2. Place the white sheet of paper close to a window where sunlight is entering.
3. Stand the glass on the paper with the slit facing towards the Sun.
The sunlight should pass through the slit and split into its colour components
as it enters the glass. The colours should appear on the paper.
Text 5: Niels Bohr
Adapted from: http://www.lucidcafe.com/library/95oct/nbohr.html

Niels Bohr was born on October 7, 1885 in Copenhagen, Denmark. Bohr made
numerous contributions to our understanding of the structure of properties of atoms.
He won the 1922 Nobel Prize for physics, chiefly for his work on atomic structure.

Bohr received his doctorate in physics from the University of Copenhagen in 1911
and then traveled to Manchester, England to study under Ernest Rutherford.

In 1913, Bohr published a theory about the structure of the atom based on an earlier
theory of Rutherford's. Rutherford had shown that the atom consisted of a positively
charged nucleus, with negatively charged electrons in orbit around it. Bohr expanded
upon this theory by proposing that electrons travel only in certain successively larger
orbits. He suggested that the outer orbits could hold more electrons than the inner
ones, and that these outer orbits determine the atom's chemical properties.

Bohr also described the way atoms emit radiation by suggesting that when an electron
jumps from an outer orbit to an inner one, it emits light. Later other physicists
expanded his theory into quantum mechanics. This theory explains the structure and
actions of complex atoms.

Bohr became a professor of physics at the University of Copenhagen in 1916. In

1920, he was named director of the newly constructed Institute of Theoretical
Physics at the University. Bohr became a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in
1926, receiving the Royal Society Copley Medal in 1938.

During World War II, Bohr fled Copenhagen to escape from the Nazis. He traveled to
Los Alamos, New Mexico to advise the scientists developing the first atomic bomb.
He returned to Copenhagen after the war and later promoted the peaceful use of
atomic energy. He died in Copenhagen in November 18th, 1962.
 Text 6: Clinical Consequences of Radiation Exposure Type of
Radiation and Dose Rates
At a molecular level, the primary consequence of radiation exposure is DNA damage.
This damage will be fully repaired or innocuous or will result in dysfunction,
carcinogenesis, or cell death. The clinical effect of radiation exposure will depend on
numerous variables, including the type of exposure (total or partial body exposure vs.
internal or external contamination), the type of tissue exposed (tissue that is sensitive to
radiation vs. tissue that is insensitive), the type of radiation (e.g., gamma vs. beta), the
depth of penetration of radiation in the body (low vs. high energy), the total absorbed
dose, and the period over which the dose is absorbed (dose rate). The type of radiation
and the dose rates that are involved in a reactor accident would typically be very
different from those seen in the detonation of a nuclear bomb, which is why the biologic
consequences of these events may differ substantially.
Radiation exposure can potentially result in short-term and long-term effects in every
organ system in the body. Comprehensive reviews of the literature on radiation
exposure have been produced by the International Atomic Energy Agency and the
World Health Organization. In this review, we focus on the two potential outcomes of
radiation exposure that have garnered much of the media attention in the wake of the
ongoing crisis in Fukushima: acute radiation sickness and increased long-term cancer
risks.
Acute Radiation Sickness and Its Treatment: When most or all of the human body is
exposed to a single dose of more than 1 Gy of radiation, acute radiation sickness can
occur.
Increased Long-Term Cancer Risks: Although exposure to nuclear-reactor fallout does
not cause acute illness, it may elevate long-term cancer risks.

Text 7: Fatigue of a material

In materials science, fatigue is the weakening of a material caused by repeatedly applied loads.
It is the progressive and localized structural damage that occurs when a material is subjected to
cyclic loading. The nominal maximum stress values that cause such damage may be much less
than the strength of the material typically quoted as the ultimate tensile stress limit, or the yield
stress limit.
Fatigue occurs when a material is subjected to repeated loading and unloading. If the loads are
above a certain threshold, microscopic cracks will begin to form at the stress concentrators such
as the surface, persistent slip bands (PSBs), and grain interfaces.[1] Eventually a crack will reach
a critical size, the crack will propagate suddenly, and the structure will fracture. The shape of
the structure will significantly affect the fatigue life; square holes or sharp corners will lead to
elevated local stresses where fatigue cracks can initiate. Round holes and smooth transitions or
fillets will therefore increase the fatigue strength of the structure.
Text 8: Causes of Corrosion

Corrosion in the distribution system is a very complex situation which is influenced by

many water characteristics, by the metals used, and by any stray electrical current. We
will briefly describe the influence of each characteristic in the following sections. You
may want to refer to the explanation of the chemistry behind corrosion in order to
understand some of these factors better.

Primary Water Characteristics

The chemical characteristics of the water flowing through a pipe will influence whether
the water is stable and will also affect the extent of any corrosive reaction. Primary
factors include alkalinity, hardness, and pH, but oxidizing agents, carbon dioxide, and
dissolved solids can also influence corrosion.

Alkalinity, hardness, and pH interact to determine whether the water will produce scale
or corrosion or will be stable.

In general, corrosion is the result of water with a low pH. Acidic waters have lots of H+
ions in the water to react with the electrons at the cathode, so corrosion is enhanced. In
contrast, water with a higher pH (basic water) lowers the solubility of calcium carbonate
so that the calcium carbonate is more likely to precipitate out as scale.

Scaling tends to be the result of water with a high hardness. Hard water typically
contains a lot of calcium compounds which can precipitate out as calcium
carbonate. However, if the hardness in the water is primarily noncarbonate, the chlorate
and sulfate ions will tend to keep the calcium in solution and will prevent scale
formation.

Alkalinity is a measure of how easily the pH of the water can be changed, so it can be
considered to be a mitigating influence with regards to pH. Water with a high alkalinity
is more likely to be scale-forming even at a relatively low pH. In contrast, low alkalinity
waters lack the buffering capacity to deal with acids, so they can easily become acidic
and corrosive.
 The graph above is known as the Baylis Curve. It shows the relationship
between pH, alkalinity, and water stability. Water above the lines is
scale-forming while water below the lines is corrosive. Stable water is
found in the white area between the lines.

Other Factors

Factors other than water characteristics can also influence corrosion. Characteristics of
the metal pipe and electrical currents are common causes of corrosion.

Metals higher on the galvanic series tend to be more corrosive while metals further apart
on the series are more likely to cause galvanic corrosion. In galvanic corrosion, the size
of the cathode in relation to the anode has a large influence on corrosion as well. Larger
cathodes tend to promote corrosion by speeding the electrical current's flow. When a
system has very small anodes and large cathodes, corrosion is so rapid at the anodes that
pinholes tend to form all the way through the metal.

Stray electrical current can cause electrolytic corrosion. Electrolysis usually causes
problems on the outsides of pipes.

Source: water.me.vccs.edu/concepts/corrosioncauses.html

Text 9: How Boilers Work

Both gas and oil fired boilers use controlled combustion of the fuel to heat water. The
key boiler components involved in this process are the burner, combustion chamber,
heat exchanger, and controls.
The burner mixes the fuel and oxygen together and, with the assistance of an ignition
device, provides a platform for combustion. This combustion takes place in the
combustion chamber, and the heat that it generates is transferred to the water through
the heat exchanger. Controls regulate the ignition, burner firing rate, fuel supply, air
supply, exhaust draft, water temperature, steam pressure, and boiler pressure.
Hot water produced by a boiler is pumped through pipes and delivered to equipment
throughout the building, which can include hot water coils in air handling units, service
hot water heating equipment, and terminal units. Steam boilers produce steam that flows
through pipes from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure, unaided by an
external energy source such as a pump. Steam utilized for heating can be directly
utilized by steam using equipment or can provide heat through a heat exchanger that
supplies hot water to the equipment.
The discussion of different types of boilers, below, provides more detail on the designs
of specific boiler systems.

Figure 1: Firetube boiler

Text 10: Basics of Magnetism

Magnetism is a force that acts at a distance and is caused by a magnetic field. The
magnetic force strongly attracts an opposite pole of another magnet and repels a like
pole. The magnetic field is both similar and different than an electric field.
Magnetic force

The magnetic field of an object can create a magnetic force on other objects with
magnetic fields. That force is what we call magnetism.

When a magnetic field is applied to a moving electric charge, such as a moving proton
or the electrical current in a wire, the force on the charge is called a Lorentz force.

Attraction

When two magnets or magnetic objects are close to each other, there is a force that
attracts the poles together.

Force attracts N to S

Magnets also strongly attract ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel and cobalt.

Repulsion

When two magnetic objects have like poles facing each other, the magnetic force pushes
them apart.
 Force pushes magnetic objects apart

Magnets can also weakly repel diamagnetic materials. (See Magnetic Materials for
more information.)

Text 11:

Mobile Phones and Health

Public concerns about risks to health and safety from mobile phone use can be
grouped under three main headings. They are:

Handsets - potential risks to the health of the individual

from regular use of mobile phones.

Masts - potential risks to the health of local communities

where masts or base stations are erected.

Distraction - potential risks to the safety of the

individual when use of a mobile phone causes a distraction: for example, when
driving.
Handsets

Mobile phones emit and receive radio waves which are a form of
electromagnetic radiation or microwave. There have been reports
which link the absorption of microwaves by the human body to a
range of health problems. These include; increased susceptibility to
headaches and allergies, and the development of various forms of
cancer. The current position of the UK government reflects the findings of the
Stewart Group which reported on health risks associated with mobile phones in
May 2000. Whilst accepting that there is no evidence of a link between mobile
phone use and serious health problems, the Department of Health suggests a
'precautionary approach'. There is evidence that brain activity may be modified
and the Department recommends controlled use, especially by children.

Masts

Masts are tall steel structures which support antennas at a

height where they can send and receive radio waves. Base
stations are transmitters and receivers located in cabins or
cabinets and connected, by cable, to the antennas. There have
been numerous campaigns directed against the siting of transmitters in communities
or near public buildings, especially schools or other places used by children. Heating
of the body by microwaves has been put forward as a danger, also the supposed risk
from magnetic fields. The Stewart Group looked at the risks from transmitters and
concluded that ' there is no general risk to the health of people living near base
stations'. The Department of Health warns that, because of patterns of radio wave
transmission, higher concentrations of waves can occur at ground level at some
distance from the mast, however, such concentrations should be well within
internationally agreed safe levels.

Distraction

'Results of research (in Canada).... suggest that mobile

phone use quadruples the risk of a collision during the
period of a call and that the enhanced hazard period
extends for several minutes afterwards'.
In the UK, the cause of road accidents is not recorded in official statistics, so it is
not possible to say how many accidents are a direct result of mobile phone use.
However, a report from RoSPA (Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents) has
listed 19 cases, reported in their press between 1988 and 2001, in which a fatal
accident occured as a result of the use of a mobile whilst driving. Motoring
organisations and the Federation of Communication Services (FCS) which
represents the UK's mobile phone industry, recognise that the use of hand-held
mobiles whilst driving is not safe. The Department of Transport also advises against
the use of hands-free phones as these will also affect the driver's concentration. The
Department has stated that it would be impractical to ban hands-free use: but
legislation has been introduced, banning the use of hand-held mobiles.