Big Picture

Week 1-3: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are expected to
a. To recognize the breadth, depth, and scope of chemistry.
b. To identify the components of the scientific method
c. To perform mathematical operations in solving problems on measurement.

Big Picture in Focus: ULOa. To recognize the breadth, depth, and scope of
chemistry.

Metalanguage
In this section, the most essential term(s) relevant to the study and to demonstrate
ULOa will be operationally defined to establish a common frame of reference as to how
the texts work in your chosen field or career. You will encounter these term(s) as we go
through the study of this course. Please refer to these definitions in case you will
encounter throughout the course.

1. Chemistry - is the branch of science dealing with the structure,

composition, properties, and the reactive characteristics of matter.
Essential Knowledge
1. CHEMISTRY

Chemistry is researching matter — what it is, what its properties are, and how it
changes. Matter is all that has mass and takes up space — that's all that's physically true.
Some objects are easily recognized as matter — the screen you 're reading this book, for
instance. Others aren't clear. Because we move so easily through air, we sometimes
forget it's also matter. Chemistry is a discipline that has its hand in just about everything.
Being able to describe the ingredients in a cake and how they change when baked, for
instance, is chemistry!

Chemistry is a science branch. Science is the process of learning about the natural
world by studying, analyzing, and then constructing models that explain our observations.
Because the physical universe is so vast, science has many branches.

Thus, chemistry is the study of matter, biology is the study of living things, and
geology is rock and earth study. Mathematics is the language of science, so we'll use it
to express some of chemistry ideas.

Although we divide science into different fields, they overlap a lot. Of example,
some biologists and chemists work so much in both fields that they're called biochemistry.
Similarly, geology and chemistry converge in geochemistry. Figure above shows how
many of science fields are related. At some level, all these fields depend on matter
because they all involve "stuff;" that's why chemistry was called "central science," linking
them all together.
The Relationships between Some of the Major Branches of Science. Chemistry lies more or less in the
middle, which emphasizes its importance to many branches of science.
 2. AREAS OF CHEMISTRY

The study of modern chemistry has many branches, but can generally be broken
down into five main disciplines, or areas of study:

1. Physical chemistry: Physical chemistry is the study of macroscopic properties,

atomic properties, and chemistry phenomena. A physical chemist can study things
like rates of chemical reactions, energy transfers in reactions, or the physical
structure of materials at the molecular level.
2. Organic Chemistry: Organic Chemistry is studying carbon-containing chemicals.
Carbon is one of the most common elements on Earth and can shape a massively
large number of chemicals (over twenty million so far). Most chemicals found in all
living organisms are carbon-based.
3. Inorganic Chemistry: Inorganic Chemistry is the study of chemicals not
necessarily focused solely on carbon. Inorganic chemicals are common in rocks
and minerals. One current important field of inorganic chemistry deals with the
nature and properties of energy and IT materials.
4. Analytical chemistry: Analytical chemistry is studying matter composition. It
focuses on separating, identifying and quantifying chemicals in samples. An
analytical chemist may use complex tools to analyze unknown material to
determine its various components.
5. Biochemistry: Biochemistry is studying chemical processes in living things.
Research can range from basic cellular processes to understanding disease states
to developing better treatments.

In reality, chemical research is also not just one of five main disciplines. A particular
chemist may use biochemistry to isolate a specific chemical contained in the human body,
such as hemoglobin, the oxygen carrying red blood cells. He or she will then analyze the
hemoglobin using methods that apply to physical or analytical chemistry. Many chemists
specialize in areas that are key discipline combinations, such as bioinorganic chemistry
or physical organic chemistry.

3. HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY

Chemistry history is fascinating, demanding. Very early chemists were also inspired
by achieving a particular target or commodity. Creating perfume or soaps didn't require
much thought, just a decent recipe and attention to detail. There was no common way to
call materials (and no periodic table we could agree on). It's often hard to figure out exactly
what a person used. Science, however, evolved over the centuries through trial and error.

Major progress was made in putting chemistry on a solid foundation when Robert
Boyle (1637-1691) began his chemistry research Figure 1.1.3
. He developed simple theories about gas behaviour. He could describe gases
mathematically. Boyle also helped form the idea that small particles could form molecules.
John Dalton used these ideas for atomic theory many years later.
 Chemistry science started to grow rapidly in the 1700s. Joseph Priestley (1733-1804)
isolated several gases: nitrogen, carbon monoxide and nitrous oxide. Nitrous oxide
("laughing gas") was later found to act as an anesthetic. For this purpose, this gas was
first used during tooth extraction in 1844. Other gasses discovered were chlorine, by C.W.
Scheele (1742-1786) and Antoine Lavoisier's nitrogen (1743-1794). Many scholars
considered Lavoisier "father of chemistry." He discovered, among other achievements,
the role of oxygen in combustion and definitely formulated the law of matter conservation.

Chemists discovered new compounds in the 1800s. Science also developed a more
theoretical foundation. In 1807, John Dalton (1766-1844) put forward his atomic theory.
This idea helped scientists to think more systematically about chemistry. Amadeo
Avogadro (1776-1856) laid the foundations for a more systematic approach to chemistry
by measuring the amount of particles in a gas. Some work was made to research
chemical reactions. Such activities created new materials. Following Alessandro Volta 's
battery discovery (1745-1827), the field of electrochemistry (both theoretical and
applications) grew through significant contributions by Humphry Davy (1778-1829) and
Michael Faraday (1791-1867). Many subjects have advanced rapidly.

It would take a large book to cover chemistry developments in the 20th and up to
today. One major area of expansion was living process chemistry. Work in plant
photosynthesis, discovery and characterization of enzymes as biochemical catalysts,
elucidation of biomolecular structures such as insulin and DNA-these efforts resulted in
an explosion of biochemical information.

Charles Goodyear (1800-1860) invented the vulcanization process, enabling the

development of a durable rubber product for the tires of all automobiles we have today.
Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) used heat sterilization to remove harmful microorganisms in
wine and milk. Nobel (1833-1896) invented dynamite. After his death, the fortune he made
from this company was used to finance science and humanities' Nobel Prizes. J.W. J.W.
Hyatt (1837-1920) produced the first plastic. Leo Baekeland (1863-1944) developed the
first synthetic resin, widely used for cheap, sturdy dinnerware.

Today, chemistry remains essential to the development of new materials and

technologies, from electronic semiconductors to powerful new medicines and beyond.

Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you further
understand the lesson:
LibreTexts (2019). The Scope of Chemistry. Taken from https://chem.Libretexts.org/
Courses/PalomarCollege/PC%3A_CHEM100_Fundamentals_of_Chemistry/01%3A_Th
e_ Chemical_World/1.1%3A_The_Scope_of_ Chemistry. Retrieved last May 23, 2020
 Big Picture in Focus: ULOb. To identify the components of the scientific
method.

Metalanguage
In this section, the most essential term(s) relevant to the study and to demonstrate
ULOb will be operationally defined to establish a common frame of reference as to how
the texts work in your chosen field or career. You will encounter these term(s) as we go
through the study of this course.

1. Scientific Method – a step by step procedure in solving problem.

Essential Knowledge
1. SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Scientists search for answers to questions and problems using a procedure called
scientific method. Scientific Method is an systematic way to help scientists (or anyone!)
answer a question or start solving a problem. It usually has six parts.

1. Purpose/Question – What do you

want to learn? An example would
be, “What doorknob in school has
the most germs?” or “Do girls have
faster reflexes than boys?” or
“Does the color of a light bulb
affect the growth of grass seeds?”
2. Research – Find out as much as
you can. Look for information in
books, on the internet, and by
talking with teachers to get the
most information you can before
you start experimenting.
3. Hypothesis – After doing your
research, try to predict the answer
to the problem. Another term for
hypothesis is ‘educated guess’.
This is usually stated like” If I…(do
something) then…(this will occur)”

An example would be, “If I grow grass https://usercontent1.hubstatic.com/4306926.gif

seeds under green light bulbs, then they

will grow faster than plants growing under red light bulbs.”
 4. Experiment – The fun part! Design a test or procedure to find out if your
hypothesis is correct. In our example, you would set up grass seeds under a
green light bulb and seeds under a red light and observe each for a couple of
weeks. You would
also set up grass seeds under regular white light so that you can compare it
with the others. If you are doing this for a science fair, you will probably have
to write down exactly what you did for your experiment step by step.
5. Analysis – Record what happened during the experiment. Also known as
‘data’.
6. Conclusion – Review the data and check to see if your hypothesis was
correct. If the grass under the green light bulb grew faster, then you proved
your hypothesis, if not, your hypothesis was wrong. It is not “bad” if your
hypothesis was wrong, because you still discovered something!

A few other terms you may need to know:

Variable
It is any item, factor, or https://usercontent1.hubstatic.com/4306926.gif

condition that can be controlled or

changed.
There are three types of
variables in scientific experiments.

Independent Variable
This is the part of your
experiment that you will test (vary)
to answer your hypothesis. In the
example above, the independent
variable would be the different
colors of the light bulbs.

Dependent Variable
This is what occurs in
response to the changing
independent variable. In our
example the Dependent Variable
is how much the grass seeds grow.

Control
Control would be the
experiment part where you don't
have the Independent Variable. In
our example , white (uncolored)
bulb growing grass seed would be your control. Control lets you compare your
experiment results.
Metalanguage
In this section, the most essential term(s) relevant to the study and to demonstrate
ULOc will be operationally defined to establish a common frame of reference as to how
the texts work in your chosen field or career. You will encounter these term(s) as we go
through the study of this course.

1. Measurement – the act or process of measuring.

Essential Knowledge
1. SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENT

Accurate measurements of phenomena are key to success in experimental

sciences such as chemistry, physics, and biology. The metric system is used to describe
measurements of several quantities, such as length, density, volume, and temperature.

Measurement is a method of finding a number that indicates something.

The ongoing series is time. We can calculate in seconds, minutes, hours, days,
weeks, months, years. A clock and calendar help measure time.

The sum of matter a thing is called its weight. Calculating weight means measuring
something's heaviness. Weight in grams, kilograms, and pounds.

The amount of something measured along the longest side from end to end is
called its length. Measured in centimeters, meters, kilometers, feet, and miles.

Capacity or volume determine how much an item can carry. Power in liters and
gallons.

A thing 's temperature is measuring how hot or cold it's. Temperature in Celsius,
Fahrenheit and Kelvin.

2. UNIT CONVERSION

A conversion unit expresses the same property as another unit. For example, time
can be expressed in minutes instead of hours, while distance can be translated from miles
to kilometers, or feet, or other length measurements. Measurements are often provided
in one set of units, like feet, but are required in different units, such as chains. A
conversion factor is a numerical expression that transforms feet into chains as an equal
exchange.
 A conversion factor is a number used to add or divide one set of units. When a
conversion is necessary, the appropriate conversion factor must be used. For example,
the conversion value for inches to feet is 12 inches equal to 1 foot. The conversion value
for minutes to hour is 60 minutes equal to 1 hour.

A unit cancelation table is constructed using known units, conversion factors, and
the assumption that the same unit of measurement cancels the unit. The table is set to
cancel all units except the desired unit. To cancel a unit, the same unit must be in
numbered and denominator. If you subtract across the table, the top number is divided
by the bottom number, resulting in the answer in the desired units.

Example 1 - Ralph wants to know how many seconds are in 3 hours and 36
minutes.

Step 1. Change 3 hours and 36 minutes to the same units. This unit can be hours
or minutes. Using minutes is easier because the end time value will need to be in seconds.

The appropriate conversion factor is: 1 hour = 60 minutes.

3 hours and 36 minutes = 180 minutes plus 36 minutes = 216 minutes

Step 2. Set up the cancellation table so all units will cancel, except the desired
unit, seconds.

The appropriate conversion factor is: 1 minute = 60 seconds.

There are 12,960 seconds in 3 hours 36 minutes.

Note the hour units on top and bottom cancel with the minutes, leaving seconds
as the only unit.

Establishing a unit cancelation table helps keep units clear, even for the most
experienced skilled firefighter. These tables are especially important when the desired
unit needs more than one conversion unit. Answers will always include the correct number
of significant digits.
 Example 2 - How many pints are in a 5-gallon pail? How many cups are in a
5-gallon pail?

Step 1. Find the appropriate conversion factors: 1 gallon = 4 quarts, 1 quart = 2

pints, 1 pint = 2 cups

Step 2. Set up the cancellation table so all units will cancel, except the desired
unit, pints.

There are 40 pints in 5 gallons.

There are 80 cups in 5 gallons.

Note: When setting up the cancellation table, it is not important which conversion factor
is used. What is important is that the appropriate units cancel so that the correct end
result is achieved.
 https://i.pinimg.com/originals/5b/0b/db/5b0bdb8aaa2e95965e1958639d4738ab.gif

Note: For additional conversion factors you can refer or buy any conversion factor table in the
bookstore or in the internet.
 https://i.pinimg.com/originals/5b/0b/db/5b0bdb8aaa2e95965e1958639d4738ab.gif

Note: For additional conversion factors you can refer or buy any conversion factor table
in the bookstore or in the internet.
 https://i.pinimg.com/originals/5b/0b/db/5b0bdb8aaa2e95965e1958639d4738ab.gif

Note: For additional conversion factors you can refer or buy any conversion factor table
in the bookstore or in the internet.
 https://i.pinimg.com/originals/5b/0b/db/5b0bdb8aaa2e95965e1958639d4738ab.gif

Note: For additional conversion factors you can refer or buy any conversion factor table in the
bookstore or in the internet.
 In converting the temperature from Celsius to Fahrenheit the formula and vice
versa, the following are the formula:

Converting the Temperature from Celsius to Fahrenheit

Steps of converting from Celsius (°C) to Fahrenheit (°F)

Step I
Multiply the number of degrees by 9.

Step II
Divide the product by 5.

Step III
Add 32 to the result

For Example:

1. Convert 40 °C to the Fahrenheit scale.

Solution:
Step I: Multiply the number of degree by 9.

= 40° × 9
= 360°

Step II: Divide the product by 5.

= 360° ÷ 5
= 72°

Step III: Add 32 to the result.

= 72 + 32
= 104° F

Therefore, 40° C = 104° F

Converting the Temperature from Fahrenheit to Celsius

The steps of converting from Fahrenheit to Celsius are reversed here.

 Step I
Subtract 32 from the degrees.

Step II
Multiply the result by 5

Step III
Divide the product by 9

For Example:

1. Convert 86°F to the Celsius scale.

Solution:
Step I: Subtract 32 from the degrees.

= 86° - 32
= 54°

Step II: Multiply the result by 5.

= 54° × 5
= 270°

Step III: Divide the product by 9.

= 270° ÷ 9
= 30° C

Therefore, 86° F = 30° C

3. SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
The word significant figures refer to the number of essential single digits (0-9
inclusive) in the scientific notation expression coefficient. The number of significant
figures in an expression indicates the confidence or precision with which an engineer or
scientist declares a quantity.
Rules for Determining If a Number Is Significant or Not
a. All non-zero digits are considered significant.
Example: 91 has two significant figures (9 and 1), while 123.45 has five
significant figures (1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).
b. Zeros appearing between two non-zero digits (trapped zeros) are significant.
Example: 101.12 has five significant figures: 1, 0, 1, 1, and 2.
c. Leading zeros (zeros before non-zero numbers) are not significant.
For example, 0.00052 has two significant figures: 5 and 2.
 d. Trailing zeros (zeros after non-zero numbers) in a number without a decimal are
generally not significant (see below for more details).
For example, 400 has only one significant figure (4). The trailing zeros do
not count as significant.
e. Trailing zeros in a number containing a decimal point are significant.
For example, 12.2300 has six significant figures: 1, 2, 2, 3, 0, and 0. The
number 0.000122300 still has only six significant figures (the zeros before the 1
are not significant).
In addition, 120.00 has five significant figures since it has three trailing zeros. This
convention clarifies the precision of such numbers.
For example, if a measurement that is precise to four decimal places (0.0001) is
given as 12.23, then the measurement might be understood as having only two decimal
places of precision available. Stating the result as 12.2300 makes it clear that the
measurement is precise to four decimal places (in this case, six significant figures).
f. The number 0 has one significant figure. Therefore, any zeros after the decimal point
are also significant.
Example: 0.00 has three significant figures.
g. Any numbers in scientific notation are considered significant.
For example, 4.300 x 10-4 has 4 significant figures.

4. ROUNDING OFF NUMBERS

Rules for Rounding

Here's the general rule for rounding:

a. If the number you are rounding is followed by 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9, round the number up.
Example: 38 rounded to the nearest ten is 401

b. If the number you are rounding is followed by 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4, round the number

down. Example: 33 rounded to the nearest ten is 30

What Are You Rounding to?

When rounding a number, you first need to ask: what are you rounding it to?
Numbers can be rounded to the nearest ten, the nearest hundred, the nearest thousand,
and so on.

Consider the number 4,827.

4,827 rounded to the nearest ten is 4,830

4,827 rounded to the nearest hundred is 4,800
4,827 rounded to the nearest thousand is 5,000
 All the numbers to the right of the place you are rounding to become zeros. Here
are some more examples:

34 rounded to the nearest ten is 30

6,809 rounded to the nearest hundred is 6,800
1,951 rounded to the nearest thousand is 2,000

5. SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

Often, particularly when using a calculator, you can find a very long number.
Maybe it's a major number like 2,890,000,000. Or a small number, like 0.0000073.

Scientific notation makes dealing with these numbers simpler. In scientific notation,
you shift the decimal position to a number between 1 and 10. Then you add a ten-power
that tells how many places the decimal moved.

Scientific notation makes 2,890,000,000 2,89 x 109. How? How?

Remember to write any number with a decimal point. E.g.: 2,890,000,000 =

2,890,000,000.0

Now move the decimal place until you have 1-10 number. When you keep pushing
the decimal point left in 2,890,000,000, you get 2,89.

First, count how many times the decimal point traveled. You had to transfer it to
the left for 2.890,000,000 to 2.89. You can demonstrate that you moved it 9 places to the
left, noting that it should be multiplied by 109

a. x 109 = 2.89 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10

2.89 x 109 = 2,890,000,000

Scientific notation can be used to turn 0.0000073 into 7.3 x 10 -6.

First, move the decimal place until you have a number between 1 and 10. If you
keep moving the decimal point to the right in 0.0000073 you will get 7.3.

Next, count how many places you moved the decimal point. You had to move it
6 places to the right to change 0.0000073 to 7.3. You can show that you moved it 6 places
to the right by noting that the number should be multiplied by 10-6.

7.3 x 10-6 = 0.0000073

Remember: in a power of ten, the exponent—the small number above and to

the right of the 10—tells which way you moved the decimal point.
 A power of ten with a positive exponent, such as 105, means the decimal was
moved to the left.
A power of ten with a negative exponent, such as 10 -5, means the decimal
was moved to the right.

Big Picture in Focus: ULOa. Classify matter according to its properties

Metalanguage
In this section, the most essential term(s) relevant to the study and to demonstrate
ULOa will be operationally defined to establish a common frame of reference as to how
the texts work in your chosen field or career. You will encounter these term(s) as we go
through the study of this course.

1. Matter – is anything that occupies space.

Essential Knowledge
1. MATTER AND ITS STATE

Matter typically exists in one of three: solid, liquid, or gas. The condition a material
experiences is indeed a physical property. Some substances exist at room temperature
(oxygen and carbon dioxide), while others exist as liquids, like water and mercury metal.
Most metals are room temperature solids. Both substances can exist in these three
states.

SOLID
Solids are defined by the following characteristics:
- Definite shape (rigid)
- Definite volume
- Particles vibrate around fixed axes

LIQUID
Liquids have the following characteristics:
- No definite shape (takes the shape of its container)
- Has definite volume
- Particles are free to move over each other, but are still attracted to each
other

A familiar liquid is mercury metal. Mercury is an anomaly. It is the only metal we

know of that is liquid at room temperature. Mercury also has an ability to stick to itself
(surface tension) - a property all liquids exhibit. Mercury has a relatively high surface
tension, which makes it very unique.
 GAS

Gases have the following characteristics:

- No definite shape (takes the shape of its container)
- No definite volume
- Particles move in random motion with little or no attraction to each other
- Highly compressible

2. CHANGES OF MATTER

PHYSICAL CHANGES

As an ice cube melts, its shape changes as it can flow. But its composition doesn't
change. Melting exemplifies a physical transition. A physical change is a change to a
sample of matter in which some material properties change, but the material identity
doesn't. Physical changes can be considered reversible or irreversible. The melted ice
cube may be refrozen, so melting is a physical change. Physical changes including state
transition are all reversible. Other changes are vaporization (liquid to gas), freezing (liquid
to solid), and condensation (gas to liquid). Dissolution
 Another reversible physical change. Dissolving salt into water is believed to have
reached the aqueous state. Boiling off the water, leaving the salt behind, can recover the
salt.

Once a piece of wood is ground into sawdust, the transition is permanent because
the sawdust cannot be reconstituted into the same piece of wood it was before. Cutting
grass or spraying rock will be other permanent physical changes. Firewood also reflects
an permanent physical transition, as fragments cannot be reassembled to form the tree.

CHEMICAL CHANGES

When exposed to air, an iron object will eventually rust. As the rust forms on the
iron surface, it flakes off to expose more iron to rust. Rust is simply an iron-different
material. Rusting exemplifies a chemical transition.

A chemical property defines a substance's ability to undergo a chemical transition.

A chemical property of iron is that it can combine iron oxide, the chemical name of rust,
with oxygen. Corrosion is a more general term for rusting and similar processes. Other
terms widely used in chemical change definitions include fire, rot, burst, and ferment.
Chemical properties are useful to identify substances. Like physical properties, however,
chemical properties can only be detected as the material is transforming into another
substance.

Chemical changes are also called chemical reactions. A chemical reaction occurs
when one or more substances are transformed into one or more new substances. Zinc (
Zn) is a silver-gray material that can be powdered. If zinc is mixed with powdered sulfur (
S) at room temperature, a bright yellow element, the result is a mixture of zinc and sulfur.
No chemical reaction. However, if the mixture receives energy as heat, the zinc will
chemically react with the sulfur to form the compound zinc sulfide (ZnS).

The reaction between zinc and sulfur can be depicted in something called a
chemical equation. In words, we could write the reaction as:
zinc+sulfur→zinc sulfide

A more convenient way to express a chemical reaction is to use the symbols and
formulas of the substances involved:
Zn+S→ZnS

The substance(s) to the left of the arrow in a chemical equation are called
reactants. A reactant is a substance that is present at the start of a chemical reaction.
The substance(s) to the right of the arrow are called products. A product is a substance
that is present at the end of a chemical reaction. In the equation above, zinc and sulfur
are the reactants that chemically combine to form zinc sulfide as a product.

3. RECOGNIZING CHEMICAL REACTIONS

 How can you tell if a chemical reaction is taking place? Certain visual clues indicate
that a chemical reaction is likely (but not necessarily) occurring, including the following
examples:

- A change of color occurs during the reaction.

- A gas is produced during the reaction.
- A solid product, called a precipitate, is produced in the reaction.
- A visible transfer of energy occurs in the form of light as a result of the
reaction.

https://st4.depositphotos.com/10957306/20938/v/1600/depositphotos_209382208-stock-illustration-physical-chemical-changes-matter-infographic.jpg

4. CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

PURE SUBSTANCES AND MIXTURES

A pure chemical material is a matter of fixed chemical composition and properties.

For example, oxygen is a pure chemical, colorless, odorless gas at 25 ° C. Very few
samples of matter consist of pure substances; instead, most are mixtures, which are
combinations of two or more pure substances in variable proportions where each
substance retains its identity. Air, tap water, milk, bread and dirt are all mixtures. If all
parts of a material are in the same state, have no clear borders, and are all identical, the
material is homogeneous.

Homogeneous mixtures are the air we breathe, and the tap water we drink.
Homogenous mixtures are called solutions. So, air is a solution of nitrogen, oxygen, water
vapor, carbon dioxide, and several other gasses; tap water is a solution of small amounts
of several water substances. However, the specific compositions of both solutions are not
fixed, but depend on both source and location; for example, tap water composition in
Boise, Idaho, is not the same as tap water composition in Buffalo , New York. Although
most solutions are liquid, solutions can also be solid. The gray substance still used by
some dentists to fill tooth cavities is a complex solid solution containing 50% mercury and
50% powder containing mostly silver, tin and copper, with small amounts of zinc and
mercury. Strong two or more metal solutions are generally called alloys.

If a material's composition isn't completely uniform, it's heterogeneous (e.g.

chocolate chip cookie dough, blue cheese, and dirt). Mixtures that appear homogeneous
are also found heterogeneous after microscopic analysis. Milk, for example, seems
homogeneous, but when examined under a microscope, it clearly consists of tiny fat and
protein globules dispersed in water. Components of heterogeneous mixtures may
typically be isolated easily

Homogeneous mixtures (solutions) can be separated into their component

substances by physical processes that rely on differences in some physical property, such
as differences in their boiling points. Two of them are distillation and crystallization.
Distillation makes use of differences in volatility, a measure of how easily a substance is
converted to a gas at a given temperature. A simple distillery to separate a substance
mixture, at least one of which is a liquid. First, the most volatile component boils and is
condensed back to a water-cooled condenser liquid from which it flows into the receiving
flask. For example, if a salt-water solution is distilled, the more volatile component, pure
water, collects in the receiving flask while the salt remains in the distillation flask.

Most mixtures can be separated into pure substances, which may be either
elements or compounds. An element, such as brown, metallic sodium, is a component
that cannot be broken down into simpler by chemical changes; a compound, such as
white, crystalline sodium chloride, comprises two or more components and has chemical
and physical properties that are generally different from those of the compound elements.
With only a few exceptions, whatever its source or history, a particular compound has the
same elemental composition (the same elements in the same proportions). A substance's
chemical composition is altered in a process called chemical change. Conversion to a
chemical compound, sodium chloride, of two or more elements, such as sodium and
chlorine, is an example of a chemical change, often called a chemical reaction.
 https://chem.libretexts.org/@api/deki/files/136366/1.11.jpg?revision=1
SUMMARY ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF MATER