Professional Documents
Culture Documents
in its relation with philosophy, psychology, economics, anthropology and other social
sciences.
02 Literal Meanings of The word Jurisprudence is derived from the Latin Term, JURIS which means legal
English Jurisprudence and PRUDENTIA means Knowledge. Therefore Jurisprudence is Science which
gives us knowledge about law
04 Scope and applications of The Scope of Jurisprudence is very wide and vast and it includes all concepts of
English Jurisprudence human order and human conduct. Jurisprudence applies on social, moral, economic
and religious values of human beings. Jurisprudence consists of the study of the
nature of law and its related ideas. Austin has distinguished the laws from morality
and theology. Jurisprudence is about the nature of law and justice. It embraces
studies and theories from a range of disciplines such as history, sociology, political
science, philosophy, psychology and even economics.
07 Practical value of English Jurisprudence is the eye of law and it has very great practical value.
Jurisprudence
i. Jurisprudence provides the legal terminology to legislature.
ii. It provides skeleton to the constitution.
iii. Jurisprudence fills the gaps of law or removes legal mistakes or
fallacies.
iv. It gives detailed interpretation to statue of laws.
v. Jurisprudence helps judges and lawyers in understandings the true
meanings of laws framed by the legislatures.
vi. Jurisprudence has great educational value in logical conclusion or
analysis of legal concepts.
vii. The study of jurisprudence helps the students in adjusting themselves in
society without causing injuries to the interests of other citizens.
Analytical Jurisprudence:-
The branch of jurisprudence gives analysis to basic principles of civil and their
interpretation.
The most important questions of analytic jurisprudence are: "What are laws?";
"What is the relationship between law and power/sociology?"; and, "What is the
relationship between law and morality?"
Ethical Jurisprudence:
The branch of jurisprudence deals with basic principles of ethics and moral values.
Ethical jurisprudence is a branch of legal philosophy which approaches the law from
the viewpoint of its ethical significance and adequacy. It deals with the law as it
ought to be an ideal state. This area of study brings together moral and legal
philosophy.
10 Conclusion It is rightly said that jurisprudence is science of laws. Jurisprudence has very close
relationship with all social sciences like sociology, history, economics, ethics, and
politics. It has practical educational and legal value with a lot of purpose.
What is civil Justice and Criminal Justice? What are differences between them?
01 Introduction Justice means proper administration of laws and its strict enforcement. Without enforcement of law a
secure, safe and balance life is not possible. Good administration of justice shows the good efficiency of
the Government. It is the duty of the Government to implement justice and rule of law. There are two
kinds of justice civil and criminal. Civil justice deals with private wrongs, whereas criminal justice deals
with public wrongs. Although both are kinds of justice but still there is a lot of difference between them
on the basis of nature and object.
02 Aspects of Justice There are three aspects of justice.
i. fair procedure of law
It means everyone should be treated in same way and there should be no discrimination on
the basis of gender, creed or wealth.
ii. balance of interest
It is the duty of state and justice to keep balance of interests of public like freedom of
speech, life, property etc.
iii. Equality in decisions
It means everyone is equal before law and there should not be any discrimination on the
basis of standards.
03 Definition of Justice Justice means proper administration of law, justice is an important ingredient of law.
04 Kinds of Justice There are two kinds of justice
a. Civil Justice b. Criminal Justice
a. Civil Justice:- Civil Justice means such justice which addresses rights of private and civil
nature.
05 Object of civil
Justice Object of civil justice is ensure and enforce the infringe rights of private and civil nature.
Examples:- 1. All the civil wrongs or infringement of civil and private rights.
2. Breach of contract:- Non payment of debt and non payment of rent
07 Criminal Justice By criminal justice means such justice deals with public wrongs and punishments.
Q. Define Punishments. What are different theories of Punishments and which theory is most suitable for society?
01 Introduction For balance, safe and secure society some theories of the punishments have been introduced. Theories
of the Punishments has been remain the subject of debate for many centuries. With the passage o time,
the various theories have been proposed with special reference to the contemporary legal system and
each theory having its particular merits and demerits. There is no single theory which is considered as
the most suitable and idle for the country or for the society to implement in letter and spirit.
02 Definitions of the Law Lexicon:- Punishment is penalty for Transgression of the Law.
Punishment Black’s Law Dictionary: Any fine, penalty or confinement inflicted upon a person by the authority of
law as a result of the judgement and sentence on account of the crime or offence which he has
committed proved during prosecution.
03 Characteristics of It must be involve pain/injury or any other consequences to the victim which are not pleasant or
Punishments harmful to the victim. It must be an offence and should against the legal rules and falls under the
definition or section of PPC.
The offence must be against public or state.
04 Objective of the The object/purpose of the punishment is to prevent the society from the crimes.
Punishment b. To prevent the person who has committed any offence from repeating the same acts or omission or
offence again.
d. to prevent the other members of the community from committing similar crimes on the part of the
offenders.
e. creation of peaceful and law and order in the society.
05 Approaches towards Reaction to crimes has been different at different stages of human civilization and even at a given
crimes time.
ii. It has been different in different societies. However there are three approaches or reactions
towards the crimes.
a. Punitive Approach-
In this approach the punishment is inflicted with the object to protect the society from the offender to
repeat his crime.
ii. In this category the punishment of imprisonment is awarded who has committed serious or rigorous
offences.
b. Therapeutic approach:-
in this approach, the criminal considered as sick person and require treatment.
ii. In this case the circumstances of the criminal or offender is considered which is product or cause him
to commit any offence and those circumstances are treated which compel him to commit any
crime.
c. Preventive Approach:-
In this approach, instead of giving punishments to the offenders, those conditions are eliminated
which are responsible which compel him to commit crime or offence.
All the above mentioned approaches not exist independently but they overlap each other.
06 Theories of the Following are some theories of the punishments
Punishment i. Retributive Theory
ii. Deterrent Theory.
iii. Preventive Theory
iv. Reformative Theory.
v. Compensation Theory
07 Retributive Theory According to this theory, punishment means, repairing an injustice or making a wrong into right. In this
principle of tooth for tooth, eye for an eye. In primitive societies the punishment was retributive. The
victim or family of the victim was allowed to take revenge. Islamic punishments are of also retributive
type.
Comments/Criticism
Kent argues that it is the responsibility of the society to punish the person who commits any crime. He
is of the opinion that principle of the justice requires that we must punish the blameworthy. Benthen is
against the retributive theory. He says that retributive theory is based upon the assumption of revenge
and revenge remains unsatisfied through such type of punishments. Most ancient law developed on the
base of retributive theory. Laws are based on tit for tat or life for life. Retributive theory of punishment
creates the passion of hate towards law. This theory sometimes base on very cruel punishments. Not
applicable in modern days. Punishment is not itself remedy and punishment is itself an evil. In the late
16th century the theory was opposed by the church. It is said that forgiveness is great virtue than
revenge. Retributive theory of punishment is against the cannons of morality and ethics. Retributive
theory considers the crime and not the circumstances of crimes.
08 Deterrent Theory It means to stop and discourage crime and criminal by producing fear or terror.Basic idea behind is to
create fear and horror though exemplary punishments and makes the wrongdoers an example for the
others persons who want to commit such type of crime or warning to criminal minded persons.
Salamond considers the deterrent punishment very important. It gives warnings to all the criminal
minded persons to rectify themselves.In Deterrent theory punishment intensity or proportion is more
than the intensity of crime or offence.
Criticism:-
The Deterrent Theory proved unsuccessful in checking crimes. Even though there is provision of
severe or rigorous punishments in PPC, people still commit crimes.Excessive harsh punishments create
sympathy of the public towards those who has done something wrong.
09 Preventive Theory In this theory the offender is prevented to repeat the crime again Or The offender are disabled to repeat
the same crime by punishment of imprisonment, death, exile and forfeiture.
Criticism:-
The Preventive theory concentrated on the prisoner but seeks to prevent him offending again in future.
For example of preventive punishment is the cancellation of driving licence of a person for violation of
traffic rules so that he may be prevented from driving in order to avoid further accidents.When an
offender is detained or disabled the family members also suffer as a result, especially in the case where
the offender is the sole earning member of the family.When the offenders are sent to jail under this
theory, he turned into crime school and after acquittal the turned into more notorious
criminal.Preventive Punishments are of temporary nature and they don’t have impact on his inner
conscious, rather force him to commit crime again.
10 Reformative Theory In reformative theory the offender is given some psychological treatment or therapeutic approach of his
mind and conduct. This theory believes that an offender is a product of the circumstances and it was
due to circumstances which compel him to commit such crime. Therefore those circumstances are
removed or rectified.The object of the punishment is to transform the criminal person into good human
beings and good citizen. The advocates of reformative theory contend that by a sympathetic tactful and
loving treatment of the offender a revolutionary changes may be brought into the character.
CRITICISM:- Habitual and hardened criminals cannot be reformed because they don’t commit crimes
unintentionally rather intentionally and deliberately.
11 Compensation According to this theory the victims are given compensation or fine which he pays to aggrieved party.
Theory The object of the compensation theory is to compensate the victim or victim family. To deprive the
offender of his property or possession or seize his bank account as a punishment. Taking away property
is worse than isolating him or killing him, physical torture or humiliation.
CRITICISM:- It can be fruitful in common crimes but in serious or sever crimes this theory is not
implementable. If the offender is rich person, he can pay easily and there will be no punishment. the
offender who has no property movable or immovable cannot be punished. Taking away property may
lead to frustration and more crimes may be committed out of this frustration.
12 Conclusion Keeping in various theories of punishment we can say that perfect system of criminal justice is not
base on any one theory of punishment. Every theory has its own merits and demerits. Therefore it
depends upon nature of crime and the circumstances or evidence of the crime.
Define Customs. What are its kinds and what are its essentials?
01 Introduction Custom is the oldest source of law making. Nobody can say about its origin. Customs are as old as the
history of mankind. The custom is habitual course of conduct which is performed again and again
uniformly and voluntary by the people. Every act in society which is considered good and beneficial
for all, repeated again and again and it become customs and whole community or society accepts it. In
the ancient societies people were regulated by customs which develop spontaneously according to
prevailing circumstances of the time. When one thing or act was done again and again in particular
way, it was assumed as customs.
02 Meanings of Customs Customs means such habits or course of conducts which observed or done uniformly and voluntarily
again and again by the people concerned.
AUSTIN:- custom is the rule of the conduct which governed, observed spontaneously and not in
pursuance of law set by political.
CARTER:- Custom is uniformity of conduct of all person under like circumstances.
HOLLAND:- Custom is generally observe cause of conduct
03 Theories of the There are two theories of customs.
customs Historical Theory b. Analytical Theory
HISTORICAL THEORY:-
i. According to this theory growth of law from the customs is due to or a result of the
intelligence of people.
ii. Custom is derived from the common consciousness of people.
iii. Customs springs from the inner sense of people
iv. Customs does not need recognition from the state
ANALYTICAL THEORY
i. According to this theory custom is the source of law and not law itself.
ii. A custom becomes law when it is covered with acts and state enforces it.
iii. Customs are not positive laws until they are recognized by state or country.
iv. Customs becomes law when it takes cover or dress up with the acts.
v. Customs is not binding upon people.
vi. A custom is law when the sovereign allows doing it.
04 Essentials of valid ESSENTIAL OF VALID CUSTOMS
customs
i. Reasonableness:- the custom must be useful and acceptable for the society
ii. Reflection of justice:- a custom should not reflect the injustice. If it reflects injustice
then it is not valid custom
iii. Immemorial:- the valid custom should not be temporary and have long history.
iv. Continuity: Custom must be repeated again and again
v. Peaceful enjoyment:- The custom must be enjoyed peacefully. No danger to life
vi. Certainty: - there should not be ambiguity in the custom and it should be clear and
definite.
vii. Compulsory observance:- Custom must be observe regularly at definite or specific time
viii. General and universal:- custom should observe generally
viii. Not opposed to public policy: it should not be against public laws
ix. Conformity with state law;- must be according to law
05 Kinds of customs there are two kinds of customs i. Legal Customs and Conventional customs
06 Legal Customs Legal customs are such customs whose legal authority is recognized by law of state.
Salmond:- Legal custom is such custom which has force of law and it is binding as rule of law.
Characteristics of Legal Customs:
It has absolute authority.
It has binding force.
It has force of law
Kinds of Legal Custom:-
There are two kinds of legal customs 1. Local Customs 2. General Customs
Local Customs:
Local customs are such customs which are observed or operates in specific or particular area. It has
force of law in that area. For example basant is local custom because it operates in particular area.
Characteristics of Local Customs:-
It has conformity with the statute of laws
It base on peaceful enjoyment
Authority of local custom is higher than that of common law
It operates in particular area
General Customs:-
General Custom is that which prevails throughout country and it constitutes on of sources of law of
land.
Once a general custom is recognized by the courts of law, it cannot be set aside by another custom.
For example most of UK laws consist on general customary law.
Characteristics of General Customs:-
These are such customs which are not for a particular area.
These customs prevail throughout the country.
These are immemorial customs.
There must be continuity in these customs
07 Conventional Conventional custom means such custom which operated under an established rule. Conventional
Customs customs means such custom whose authority is conditional on its acceptance.
USAGE:- Other name of conventional custom is usage. The conventional custom is based upon
agreement between two parties.
Characteristics of conventional custom:-
Conventional customs arise as a result of agreement between two groups.
Authority of conventional custom is conditional on its acceptance and incorporation between the
parties. A conventional custom is an establish practices.
Conventional custom is legally binding because it expressly or impliedly incorporates in contract
between the parties.
Conditions for conventional Customs:-
Well establish ,No alternate of general law, Reasonable, Some agreement between two parties
08 Conclusion Custom is the oldest source of law-making. But with the passage of time its importance is diminishing
with growth of legal system. The law relating to succession, inheritance, property, contract etc are
evolved from customary rules.
Legislation
01 Introduction Legislation means the power to make laws. We can say that legislation is most potent and sovereign
source of law making. This is first gate of law. There can be no law without legislative act. The
legislation has powers to enact laws, repeal the old laws or modify or make amendments in law
according to changing political and social conditions of the country. Judiciary only can interpret the
laws but legislation has powers to make laws. Legislation also called "statutory law") is law which has
been promulgated (or "enacted") by a legislature or other governing body, or the process of making.
Before an item of legislation becomes law it may be known as a bill, and may be broadly referred to as
"legislation" while it remains under consideration to distinguish it from other business. Legislation can
have many purposes: to regulate, to authorize, to proscribe, to provide (funds), to sanction, to grant, to
declare or to restrict. Legislation is usually proposed by a member of the legislature (e.g. a member of
Congress or Parliament), or by the executive, whereupon it is debated by members of the legislature
and is often amended before passage. Those who have the formal power to create legislation are known
as legislators; a judicial branch of government will have the formal power to interpret legislation (see
statutory interpretation); the executive branch of government can act only within the powers and limits
set by the law.
02 Meanings of Black’s Law Dictionary:-
Legislation Legislation means power to make laws or powers to enactment of laws.
Gray:-
Legislation means the formal utterances of legislative organs of society
Salmond;-
Legislation has three senses
Austin:
there can be no law without legislative act
03 Senses of legislation Widest sense: -
In widest sense it means to make new rules for human conduct and includes all rules or laws for
executive and judicial system
Technical sense:-
In technical sense it mean a statute which is enacted by legislative organ and which is distinguished
from other organs
04 Kinds of legislation Legislation are of two types
1. Supreme Legislation 2. Subordinate Legislation
05 Supreme Legislation i. Legislation which proceeds from the supreme or sovereign power in the state is supreme
legislation.
ii. The supreme legislation cannot be repealed, annulled or controlled by any other
legislative authority.
06 Subordinate Subordinate legislation is that legislation which proceeds from any authority other than the sovereign
Legislation power and is therefore dependent for its continued existence and validity on some superior or supreme
authority.
Salmond:
Subordinate legislation is such legislations which proceed from any authority other than sovereign
power.
Characteristics of subordinate legislation
i. It is not independent legislation
ii. It has no political force
iii. It proceeds from any authority other than sovereign power
iv. It depends on continuous existence
v. It may repeal
vi. It can change
07 Kinds of Subordinate Colonial Legislation:
Legislation Legislation by legislature for the colonies or other dependent states or functioning under Crown.
Imperial legislature or supreme legislature can suspend, supersede, and alter any colonial enactment.
Judicial Legislation:-
The superior courts have the power of making rules for the regulation of their own procedure; these
rules are termed judicial legislation.
Municipal Legislation:--
Municipal authorities are entrusted by the law with powers to make their special laws for the districts
under their control. This is also called bye-laws
Autonomous legislation:-
The autonomous bodies or corporations, associations, trade unions, railway companies and universities
can make their own rules.
Delegated legislation or Executive Legislation:-
The supreme legislation or legislature quite often delegates its powers to other organs e.g executive.
The rules made in pursuance of this delegated powers are executive or delegated legislatures but they
may be repealed or supersede by the legislatures whenever required.
07 Forms of Legislation Direct Legislation:-
The framing of laws by the legislature is direct legislation.
Colonial legislation is a type of direct legislation because here law making power is exercised by a
legislative body.
Indirect Legislation:-
When legal principles are declared by some other sources to whom law making power is confided by
the legislature, it is known as indirect legislation. Except colonial legislation all other forms of
subordinate legislation are instances of indirect legislation.
08 Control of legislation Parliamentary control.
Parliament can refuse, amend or alter or approve the bill being supreme legislative body
Parliamentary supervision ; where parliament directly supervise the legislatures
Judicial control:
While parliamentary control is direct, the control of courts is direct. Courts cannot annual subordinate
enactments but they can declare them inapplicable in particular circumstances. Trustworthy body
Publicity. Expert’s opinion are controlled factors over legislation.
09 Advantages of i. Legislation cannot be repealed except by Supreme Court
legislation ii. Legislation is constitutive and abrogative means that it can make laws and repeal own laws
iii. Legislation creates statute law
iv. Legislation removes ambiguity and vagueness in the laws
v. Legislation brings efficiency in the administration of the government and judiciary
vi. Legislation satisfies the natural justice phenomena
vii. Legislation provides skeleton or frame work for other constitutions
viii. Legislation has power of self criticism and self revision
ix. The aim of the legislation to protect and progress of the society.
x. It brings uniformity in territory and creates close relationship b/w man and the state
10 Disadvantages Legislations are rigid, courts and executive bodies cannot perform duties out of enactment or framed
laws
Since legislatures are associated with some party so they frame legislatures of their own choice which
full fill their own desires.
Layman cannot understand the technical language.
Statues laws or laws framed by legislatures are not self explained and ambiguity remains.
11 Conclusion Legislation is most recent and powerful source of law. In a wider sense it includes all methods of law.
According to Dicey, Legislation is necessary instrument for the growth and reformation of law.
Administration of Justice
01 Introduction War and administration of justice are two most essential functions of the state. If State is incapable of
performing these two functions, it cannot be called as state. Administration of justice means the
maintenance of peace and order within political community by means of physical force of the state.
The good administration of justice mans the Govt. and its institutions are working properly and there is
good coordination b/w them. Good and efficient judiciary system guarantees good governance and
administration. Administration of justice means the maintenance of peace and order within the political
community by means of physical force of the state. Throughout history, man has sought some kind of
revenge or remedy for wrongs done against his person or property. Administration of justice is the
modern and clinical treatment for all the evils and wrong practices in the society. For sound
administration of justice physical force of the state is the prime requirement. Other factors which help
administration of justice and command obedience of law include social sanction, public opinion,
convenience etc.
02 Definition and Salmond:-
criticism Administration of justice means the maintenance of right within the political community by means of
physical force of the state.
Criticism: This is not only force of the state which guarantee the administration of justice and ensures
the obedience of law. There are number of other factors such as social sanctions, habit and convenience
which help in the obedience of law. The supporters of definition says that if the force of the state is not
used for obedience then the control of the state has disappeared
03 Origin and Growth First stage:-
of Administration of Firstly there was the concept of private system of punishment and violent self help. In primitive times
Justice might was the sole right. Every man was his own judge. A person wronged would take revenge by his
own hands.
Second Stage:-
With the rise of political states, the private system of punishment converted into state punishments and
regulated by the state and state provided the rules eye for an eye and tooth for tooth.
Third Stage:-
Lastly a stage arrived when enactment rules and laws formed and concept . private punishment
converted into administration of civil and criminal justice.
04 Need of Without administration of justice, life of man living in the society would be insecure, poor and nasty.
administration of Administration of justice is necessary due to following reasons. Uniformity and equality in the society.
Justice For protection of civil and public rights For peace and stability. Integration of the society. Smooth
running of the state machinery Necessary to check the injustice. Necessary to avoid lawlessness. To
educate the people. To promote justice and fair play. To promote welfare. To promote equality
05 Kinds of Justice There are 4 types of justice
Public Private Civil Criminal
Public Justice:-
Public Justice is administered by the state by establishing it own tribunals and courts e.g Labor Courts,
Service Tribunals, Appellate Tribunals etc
Private Justice:-
Private Justice is justice between individuals. It is the end for which the courts exist and public justice
is the means through which this end is fulfilled
Civil Justice
Civil Justice results from the infringement of private right. If a right of a person is violated and it only
concerns or directly affects him.
Criminal Justice:-
Criminal justice results from the infringement of a public right. Even if the offence is committed
against one person but the nature of the offence is such that the state steps in and considers it to be an
infringement of a public right.
06 Difference between Civil Justice Criminal Justice
Civil Justice and Civil Justice means justice which addresses Criminal Justice means justice which
the rights of private individuals or of civil addresses the public wrong or wrongs
Criminal Justice nature of public nature
Rights in rem and trespass are preserved Rights in personam is preserved
In civil justice civil rights are protected In criminal justice public rights are
protected
Civil justice deals within the civil proceedings Pakistan Penal Code, CrPC apply
of CPC or statute law during prosecution
Victim party file a suit State file a petition or file a complaint
Civil wrongs are of no much harmful and they Criminal Wrongs are harmful to the
effect only individuals society and whole society suffers a lot
Plaintiff Vs Defendant State Vs Accused
Judgement or results are in the form of Death penalty, imprisonment, fine,
injunctions, Specific performance or damages flogging and other rigours
punishments or exemplary
punishments
In civil justice no benefit of doubt is given to In Criminal Justice benefit of doubt go
accused to accused
In civil justice only a plaintiff can pardon Criminal justice wali or state can
pardon
The object of civil justice is to enforce right The object of criminal justice is to
punish wrongdoers
07 Disadvantages of Rigidity Complexity Formalities Unable to keep up with changing social needs.
Justice
08 Conclusion To conclude it is right to say that justice is permanent feature of the society and basic function of the
state. Because it maintains the peace in the society and obedience of law and it gives protection to the
primary rights and without there would not be supremacy of the Govt. administration of the justice is
the excellent test of the efficiency of the Govt. according to Lord Bryce an efficient judicial system is a
sign of good political society.
What is law, what are its kinds what is imperative law and Natural Law
01 Introduction The term law is derived from German word Lag which mean fixed or evenly. Law is body of principles
recognized and applied by state in administration of justice.Acts of nature are also known as laws and
these laws called natural law. In every society there exist rules that regulate human conduct and thus
customary rules are formed and such customary rules are transformed into laws when state gives them
legal recognition and take the responsibility to enforce them. Acts of human conduct are known as
positive laws and these laws can be change by legislation.
02 Meanings and Meanings of law:-
definition Body of rules promulgated by Government.
Definition of law.
Austin:-
Law is command. It imposes duty and is backed by sanction
Green;-
Law is system of rights and obligation which state enforces.
Holland:
Law is general rule of the external human action enforced by political sovereign.
Salmond:-
Body of principles recognized and applied by state in the administration of justice
03 Kinds of Law Laws in wide sense are divisible into following categories.
Imperative law:-
Imperative law means a rule which prescribes a general course of action imposed by authority which
enforces it by superior power either by physical force or any other forms of compulsion
Physical law:-
All laws are physical in which natural or general principles of the universe are functioning and there is
uniformity and harmony in the universe as a result. Such as laws of astronomy, chemical reactions
Natural and moral law:-
By natural law mean principles of natural right and wrong, the principles of natural justice. Natural
laws also called divine law, the law of reasons or universal laws
Conventional law:-
Conventional law means any rule or system of rules agreed upon by persons for regulation of their
conduct towards each other. It is type of special law
Customary law:
Customary law means any rule of action or conduct of human beings which is actually observed again
and again in uniformity and voluntary.
Technical law:-
Such rules which create for solutions of technical or practical problems e.g laws of health, laws of
architecture, music laws, rules of manufacturing.
International law:-
Those rules which govern sovereign states in their relations and conduct towards each other.
Constitutional law;
It includes all rules and regulations create by legislative bodies and provide framework for all other
pillars of the state. Sovereign body makes such laws and enforces them.
Civil law:-
civil law is the law of state or law of the land, the law of the lawyers and the law of courts. Civil law
protect the rights of individuals i.e rights in rem
Criminal law:
Criminal law protects rights in personam
Conventional law:
Conventional law originates as a result of the agreement b/w two parties and it is law only for those
who have agreed to be bound by it. Even they are not recognized by state, they constitute law in
generic sense. When they are recognized by the state it is enforceable by law
Local law:-
Local law is the body of law which are for specific territory of the state e.g municipal corporation
laws, district government law. All bye laws fall under the definition of local law.
Special law:-
Special laws are those legal rules which are formed for specific time of period for specific purpose and
when target or purpose achieved they become null and void.
General law;-
General Law means territorial law or ordinary law of the land. Its application is thought of the country
and is recognized by courts and there is no special condition for their enforcement.
Private law:
Private law deals with the inter-relationship b/w citizens
Administration law:-
Administrative law defines the powers, organizations and duties of administration or executive.
Constitutional law:-
Constitutionally law defines the all rules and regulations which are necessary for smooth functioning
of government and judiciary machinery. It also provides frame work or skeleton to other laws such as
civil criminal etc.
Autonomic law:-
Laws form by autonomous bodies like railway, PIA, Universities etc
Martial law:-
Law form by military dictator when he occupied the realm or snatch by force. It is also called military
law and thus suspends the constitutional or democratic law.
Mercantile law:-
It is also kind of special law and it apply in working business trade and commerce
Prize law; prize law is part of international law in which law apply on pirates, who capture ships and
cargos at sea in time of war
04 Conclusion To conclude it is right said that law is system of rights and obligations which state enforces. And every
law is gift of God and decisions of sages. There are many forms of law. Acts of nature are known as
laws of nature. Acts of human conduct are known as positive laws. Laws of nature cannot be change
while positive laws can be change.
08 Sanctioned by law In case of non compliance with the command, one has to face the consequence in the form of
sanctions. There must be law enforcing agencies who implement the law in letter and spirit.
09 Criticism of Laws before the state;-
Imperative Theory The laws which were existed before the creation of state or government were not in the form of
of Law commands from sovereign body. It had its source in customs, religion, ethics or public opinion and was
not vested in some authority or sovereign or some political superior. Therefore Austin theory that there
must be sovereign who give command fails.
Generality of Law;
According to Austin Law is general and for every individual and they must obey but it is not happens
so. All persons don’t obey the laws in their full sense.
Law as command:
According to Austin, law is command of sovereign but all laws cannot be expressed in terms of
command. The greater part of the legal system consist of laws which neither command nor forbid
things to done. Laws not only define duties but also give rights. Not applicable in modern democratic
societies. Austin theory of law may be true in monarchy or state where there is dictatorship but not
applicable in true democratic states.
Not applicable to international law;-
Since the world has become global village. Austin theory of law does not apply to constitutional law
which cannot say command of sovereign. The constitutional law defines the powers of various organs
of the state.
Austin theory is against the ethical element;-
There is smell of dictatorship and against the ethics. End of law is justice and not the punishment. End
of justice gives you rights and it is bonafide and gives you rights.
10 Conclusion According to Austin every law is in the form of command. A command is an expression of desire given
by superiors to inferiors. The superior enjoy the powers and he has ability to punish inferiors who
disobey him.
03 Secondary i. Secondary functions means such functions which in reality are the
Functions of the functions of the state itself but state delegate to the courts of law for the
courts convenience of state.
ii. Secondary functions can change with the passage of time or can be
different society to society.
Secondary functions of courts of law are based on practical implication.
04 List of secondary i. Actions against state
functions ii. Declaration of rights
iii. Administration
iv. Title of rights
05 Actions against This is main secondary function of court. It means that courts of law exercise in the
state first place, the function of adjudicating upon the claims made by the subjects or
people against the state. In the past when some person wanted to claim against state
then in such situation there was only a way of complaint for him was petition of right.
Now a day if a subject claims against state then he is at liberty to take proceedings in
a court of law by an ordinary action for the determination of his right in the matter.
Examples:
i. If some person claims that a debt is due to him from the crown has broken
a contract with him or wrongfully detains his property then he is at liberty
to take proceedings in court by an ordinary action for the determination of
his right.
ii. Practice in Pakistan: article 99 of the Constitution of Islamic Republic of
Pakistan 1973 lays down these matters may go directly to the High Court.
Following are claims in the form of petitions against state
i. Habeas Corpus
ii. Prohibition
iii. Mandamus
iv. Certiorari
v. Quo Warranto
06 Declaration of rights In certain cases the plaintiff does not ask for the enforcement of any right but ask for
declaration of such right which does exist and such declaration know as a declaration
of right.
07 Administration In this functions all those cases involve in which the court of justice undertake the
management and the distribution of the property.
Examples
Liquidation of company:- If a company winds up then in this situation, the court will
distribute shares among the partners of company.
Administration of property of deceased person:- in such case court will appoint
guardian court appoints him only for the safety and administration of deceased’s
property.
08 Title of rights It means a procedure where right of an individual created and transferred and
extinguished.
Examples
i. A decree of divorce or judicial separation
ii. An adjudication of bankruptcy.
iii. An order of discharge in bankruptcy
iv. An order of appointing or removing trustees
v. Vesting or charging orders
vi. A grant of letters of administration
09 Conclusion To conclude it is right to said that court performs two types of functions. Primary
functions of the is the administration of justice and to ensure that justice is done
whereas secondary function are actually functions of the sate but state has delegated
its powers to the Court.
08 Vicarious liability This is such liability in which a person is made liable for the wrongs committed by
another.Usually a person is liable for his own wrong but in vicarious another becomes
liable for wrong of the wrongdoer.
Situations when vicarious liability arises
Vicarious liability occurs in two cases
i. Master and servant
ii. Representatives of a dead man
09 Strict Liability It is kind of liability in which a person becomes liable whether he has committed an
offence or not or without his fault.
Nature:-
Law does not inquire whether guilty person has committed wrong intentionally,
negligently or innocently. It merely presumes formal conditions of the liability.
Wrong of absolute or strict liability
Mistake of law
Mistake of act
Inevitable accident
Mistake of law:
It is based on legal mexim that ignorance of law has no excuse. This wrong shows
that if a person commits or offers an account of mistake of law, then it would be no
excuse in the eye of law and he is liable to punished although he had no guilty mind at
the time of committing offence. It the duty of every citizen to get knowledge of law of
that part which is concerns to him.
Mistake of fact
Mistake of fact is good defiance but in the criminal cases but in civil law is involves
absolute liability.
Inevitable accident:
Inevitable accident is good defense or ground of exemption from liability in civil and
criminal cases.
10 Conclusion Liability is ultimatum of law. And it is bond of legal necessity. It is ultimate object of
law because by this the wrongdoer suffers. It can be avoided. There are many kinds of
liability such as penal, strict liability and civil liability etc.
Possession
01 Introduction In law the possession is the physical control of a person over some material or
immaterial thing intentionally. In all cases, to possess something, a person must have
an intention to possess it. Possession means acquire, detention, taking over the right
of property or some material thing. Possession is also claim of right over something
and the person in possession enjoys its benefits. A person has possession of something
if the person knows of its presence and has physical control of it, or has the power and
intention to control it. [More than
one person can be in possession of something if each knows of its presence and has
the power and intention to control it.]
The law recognizes several kinds of possession. A person may have actual possession
or constructive possession. A person may also have sole possession or joint
possession.
A person who has direct physical control of something on or around his person is then
in actual possession of it.
A person who is not in actual possession, but who has both the power and the
intention to later take control over something either alone or together with someone
else, is in constructive possession of it.
If one person alone has possession of something, possession is sole.
If two or more persons share possession, possession is joint.
02 Definitions of Salmond;
possession Possession reflects a relation of a person with a material object which a person
continues claim of its ownership and exclusively use it and enjoy all the benefits
attached with it.
Corpus Possession
Complete control or complete physical control over something is called corpus
possession. A person having possession must enjoy its benefits.
Animus Possidendi
An intention to possess something is called Animus Possidendi. Normally, it is proved
by the acts of control and surrounding circumstances.
Thus animus possidendi have following important points
The possessor must have exclusive claim over the thing which he has possessed
The possessor must use and enjoy the possessed thing
The possessor must have intention to claim over its possession.
05 Modes of acquiring Possession is acquired and complete whenever there is union of two elements of
of possession possession i.e animus and corpus.
There are three modes of acquisition of possession
By taking
It is the act of acquiring possession with or without the consent of previous
possessor.
Kinds of taking
Rightful taking
Rightful taking possession is acquired by the consent of a person already holding that
thing. E.g Shopkeeper gets the money and customer gets possession of the things.
Original acquisition
It is such possession of property where nobody claims over it as ownership or
possession. For example capturing of wild animal which does not belong to any one.
Wrongful taking
It is one which is acquired wrongfully without the consent of its previous possessor or
already who possessed it. E.g stealing of things
By delivery
It is the act of acquiring possession with the consent of previous possessor. It may be
of two kinds
Actual Delivery
Actual delivery is the transfer of immediate possession from its previous possessor to
new possessor.
Constructive delivery
Constructive delivery is the mode of acquiring possession to two persons jointly.
By operation of law
This acquiring of possession takes place when court passes orders or gives some
injunctions or directions for possession. For example in the case of death of the
possession of property passes from the deceased person to his legal heirs or
representatives.
06 Legal consequences Possession is prima facie or ample proof or evidence of ownership
of possession Transfer of possession is one of the chief modes of transfereing ownership
Long adverse possession shows title of ownership
The first possession of thing has advantage over the second possession.
10 Concurrent It is not actual possession. It is possession in law but no possession in fact. A person
possession who, although not in actual possession, knowingly has both the power and the
intention, at a given time, to exercise dominion or control over a thing, either directly
or through another person or persons, is then in constructive possession of it. For
example the owner of jewelry in a deposits that box with someone else but he himself
has the key to that box, he is said to be in constructive possession of it.
11 Adverse possession Adverse possession is such possession, in which a person holds, detains or claim that
he has initially holds the land on behalf of some other person and for very long period
and no one claim of right of possession for the last 20 years or so. If adverse
possession continues peacefully for a prescribed time of period, then title of true
owner is extinguished and the person in possession becomes true owner of the land..
12 Actual possession A person who knowingly has direct physical control over a thing, at a given time, is
then in actual
possession of it.
a)Moral Rights
A moral right is also called natural rights and such rights are recognized and
protected by rule of morality and the violation of moral right would be moral
wrongs and it is moral duty to protect the moral right.
b)Legal Rights
A legal rights are such rights which are recognized by rule of law and its
violation is legal wrong and it is legal duty to protect the legal rights.
Ownership
01 Introduction Ownership means collection of rights to use and enjoy the property including right to
transfer, sell and dispose off. The idea of ownership develop with the growth of civilization
when human beings started plantation, vegetation, cultivation and building their homes.
Power of transferring, disposing and selling are elements of ownership. Ownership can be
acquired by original and derivative way. Trus and beneficial ownership, legal ownerhip and
equitable ownership are some of its kinds.
02 Meaning of Ownership means collection of rights to use and enjoy property inclufing right to transit it to
ownership others.
03 Definitions of Salmond:- ownership means the relation between a person and right vested to him.
ownership Austin:- ownership is a right indefinite in point of user, unresisting and unlimited in point of
duration.
04 Essentials of i. Indefinite is point of user:- this element shows that owner is at liberty to use the
ownership property in any way he like. He is no under any obligation or no one can
interfere. This right of ownership does not terminate even with his own death. In
case of his death, the property and all benefits associated with it transfer to legal
heris.
ii. Unrestricted in point of disposition
The owner can disposed of , sell it , transfer it , gift it to any one or even destroy
iii. Unlimited in point of duration
It means the owner can retain property as long as he wished till death and can
enjoy all the benefits associated with it
iv. Right to posses
Ownership means real possession or actually owned
v. Right to exhaust
It the property is perishable or exhaustible or consumable, he can do them.
vi. Residuary character
It means all the easement of rights attached with that property, he (owner) can
enjoy
05 Characteristics of i. The rights of ownership is limited or restricted subject to paying taxes and other
ownership dues chargeable on property
ii. The owner cannot exercise the right of ownership by infringing right of others
iii. Owner cannot transfer his property to defraud hi creditors.
iv. Ownership does not terminate with the death of owner
v. The right of ownership become limited or restricted during natinalemergency or
contry at war.
06 Theories of ownership There are two theories of ownership
i. Ist theory describes that ownership is a relation which subsist between a person
and that thing which is object of owner.
ii. 2nd theory prescribes that ownership is realtion between a person and a right that
is vested in him
07 Modes of acquiring of There are two modes of acuquistion of ownership
ownership Derivative and original
Derivative
It means coming from another. This way has not its origin itself.
Original
Original ownership may be acquired by long and continousous and undisputed possession of
a thing as a owner. The principle of adverse possession works in this connection.
There are three modes of original mode of acquisition
I. Absolute
Ownership is absolute when the same is acquired over previously owneries
objects.
II. Extinctive
Ownership is extinctive if ownership of a previous person is finished on account
of adverse possession by the acquirer.
III. Accessory
Ownership is accessory if the ownership is acquired as result of accession.
EVIDENCE
01 Introduction Evidence is information upon which court decides the balance of convenience for particular fact or set of
facts.Evidence means and includes all statements that a court requires by a witness. All the documents
which a court requires to prove a cases fact and to see what is truth and what is false. When a dispute,
whether relating to a civil or criminal matter, reaches the court there will always be a number of issues
which one party will have to prove in order to persuade the court to find in his or her favour. The law
must ensure certain guidelines are set out in order to ensure that evidence presented to the court can be
regarded as trustworthy. The law of evidence governs the use of testimony (e.g., oral or written
statements, such as an affidavit) and exhibits (e.g., physical objects) or other documentary material
which is admissible (i.e., allowed to be considered by the trier of fact, such as jury) in a judicial or
administrative proceeding (e.g., a court of law). All questions of fact are answered by the evidence.
02 Meanings Literal sense
The proof of question of fact. The material subject of the case is called evidence
Legal sense
Something that tends to prove and disapprove the existing of alleged fact
03 Definition of Salmond
Evidence Evidence may be defined as any fact which possesses probative force. One fact is evidence of another
fact
Phipson:- evidence is the term used in judicial proceedings in order to find true aspects of the case or
inquiry.
According to QSO 1984 Article:- Evidence means and includes all statements which the court permits
or requires to be made before it by witnesses, in relation to matters of fact under inquiry.
04 Modes of evidence Oral evidence
The evidence which are made by a witness before court of law thourgh oral statment is called oral
evidence.
Documentary Evidence
All documents which are exhibited for proof and inspection are called documentary evidence.
Real evidence
The material objects which are produced before the court in course of judicial proceedings are called real
evidence
05 Distinction Proof consists of all immediate and mediate facts which tends to convince the mind about the truth or
between proof and falsehood of the case whereas evidence is the medium of proof. Just like evidence is bricks, cement or
evidence other materials and proof is house.
04 Kinds of evidence There are two kinds of evidence. Judicial and Extra-Judicial.
1. Judicial evidence
Judicial evidence is that which is produced before the court. It consists of all facts which are
brought into the knowledge of court. It may be either oral, testimony, oath, pledge, documents
produced before the court.
2. Extra-Judicial
Extra judicial evidence consists of facts and not directly proved in the court.
3. Personal evidence
It includes all kinds of statements by a witness. Personal evidence may be oral or written. It
may be judicial as well as extra judicial.
4. Real Evidence:
Any evidence which is believed to be true for any other reason is called real evidence
5. Primary evidence
Primary evidence is the immediate evidence for the question of act. For example document is
primary evidence.
6. Secondary evidence
Secondary evidence requires which may be given in the absence of better of evidence which
the law requires to be given first.
7. Direct evidence
Direct evidence is testimony relating immediately to the principle fact. It is the evidence of fact
perceived by a witness his own senses
8. Circumstantial evidence
It is such evidence which relates to a series of other facts than the fact in issue, but which is
closely related with that fact.
9. Original evidence
Original evidence is that which is independent of probative force of its own e.g witness with his
own eyes or ears.
10. Hearsay evidence
Hearsay evidence is which is not perceived by a witness with his own senses but by some other
person.
General rule:- there is no role of hearsay evidence in QSO Article 17.
05 Rules of evidence Rules of best evidence is that evidence which is of the highest quality available, as measured by the
nature of the case rather than the thing being offered as evidence. For example original document rather
than the photo copy. This is base on maxim Res Ipsa Loquitar i.e things must speaks itself.
06 The probative The probative force of evidence is that every evidence is an evidence of different effect
force of evidence
07 Rules of probative Conclusion, conditional, insufficient, exclusive, facts which are not evidence
force of evidence i. Conclusive
It means the acceptance and recognition of fact by law as conclusive proof. It consists of
facts which have such probative force that they cannot be contradicted.
ii. Conditional
It means such proof which may be considered insufficient, if there is no proved fact to the
contrary.
iii. Insufficient
If law prescribed a certain amount of evidence to be absoulutely necessary and evidence
produced does not come up to the necessary standard.
iv. Facts which are not evidence
There are certain facts which have absolutely no probative force at all. They can neither
produced in the court acted upon.
08 Conclusion
05 Modes in which property Following are modes in which property is divested or extinguished.
may be divest a. By contract or sale
b. By giving in trust
c. By operation of law
d. By forfeiture or attachment or acquisition under the law.
PERSON
01 Introduction Law takes all human beings as person who has rights and duties towards each other but in
broader term all kind of institutions, organizations, firms, partnership or associations are also
considered as person in their individual capacity and being a separate legal entity or identity.
Person is also kind of unit which has claims, duties, liberties and obligations.
02 Definition of person Salmond
Person is any being whom the law has given rights and duties. Any being which is capable to
perform duties and enjoy the rights are called person whether human being or not.
Gray
A person is separate entity to which rights and duties may be attributed
03 Kinds of person There are two kinds of person
i. Natural person
ii. Legal person
i. Natural Person
A natural person is a human being which is capable of rights and duties.
They may be person in fact or persons in law.
ii. Legal person
Legal persons are being real or imaginary whom the law has recognized
or his authority has been recognized in the same way as that of human
beings. They are persons in law but not in fact.
Kinds of legal persons
There are three kinds of legal persons
a. Corporations
A corporation is a group or series of person which are recognized by law and treated
as person.
b. Institutions
Institutions are legal persons created for accomplishment of some legal, social,
political or economic purpose. E.g university or church
c. Fund or estate
To run corporations or institutions funds are corpus person e.g charitable fund or trust
estate
04 Legal status of lower According to salmond only human beings are person and beasts are not persons because they
animals don’t have natural or legal rights. They are merely things or objects. However law in some
countries have recognized their separate entity and they have legal rights as law has granted
them.
For example cruel treatment to the animals is a criminal offence
05 Legal status of unborn Unborn persons have some legal rights. Law does not prevent a man from owing property
persons before he is born. His ownership is real and present ownership but it is contingent until he or
she born.
06 Legal status of dead person In law dead person are things and not persons and they have no rights. However dead person
has some rights such as he may be buried in respect and honor and his will may be honoured.
He may not be defamed or his reputation may not be defamed through libel. His left property
may be distributed among his legal heirs according to law or according to his will.
07 Double personality There are persons who have double personality in different set of circumstances. Sometime he
acts as in personal capacity and sometimes acts as official or judicial capacity.
Kinds of precedent
Original precedent Declaratory precedent Persuasive precedent Authoritative precedent
1. Such precedents establish 1. 1. Such precedents re- 1. 1. Such precedents upon which1. 1. Such precedents which the
original or new rules of law affirm an already existing the judges are under no judges must have to follow without
2. Original precedent creates a rule of law. obligation to follow but only question
new principle of law. 2. 2. Good source of law. they take into consideration. 2. 2. Important legal source of law.
3. Their numbers are very 3. These are historical source of 3. 3. There are two kinds of
small but their importance is law authoritative precedents
very good. 2. 2. Historical source of law and 4. a. Absolute authoritative
have no legal effects. precedent.
3. E.g. judgements of foreign 5. The precedents which have to be
courts and experts view followed by the judges even if they
don’t approve of them. These
decisions are absolutely followed.
6. B. Conditional authoritative
precedent
7. The precedents which are normally
binding upon the court but court
may or may not follow.
8. Example
9. A decision give by double bench is
more authoritative than single
bench.
10.
11.
Demerits
1. Uncertain and unknown and require great efforts for lawyers to search them.
2. They are undetermined
3. They are complicated
4. They are less accessible
5. Clash with logical interpretation of law
6. No test of validity
7. Confusion in selection
8. No abrogative power
9. Made in haste
10. Not comprehensive
11. Causes inconvenience
12. Judges mistakes cannot be set right.