INTRODUCTION

2
 INTRODUCTION

Early In
Automobile development, the brakes played a rather subordinate role because the
friction in the drive train was so great that a vehicle was slowed sufficiently even without the
brakes being used. Increasing power and speed as well as constantly increasing traffic density
led to the consideration in the 20s of how an appropriate brake system could provide a
counterbalance to greater power and driving performance.

But only after advances in electronics and micro- electronics could systems be
developed which could react fast enough in emergency situations.

The ancestor of the electronic brake systems is the ABS, which, since its introduction
in 1978, has been continuously further developed and extended by additional functions. These
functions intervene actively in the driving process to increase driving stability.

Currently, the trend in development is to driver support systems such as the brake
assist system. The brake assist system supports the driver when braking in emergency
situations to achieve the shortest possible brake path while maintaining steering ability.

PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
Accident statistics show that in 1999 alone, 493, 527 accidents in India was caused by
driver error. Many accidents caused by ignoring right-of-way, driving on the wrong side of the
road, inappropriate speed, and insufficient distance from other vehicles and so on might have
been prevented had the vehicles been able to brake faster.

What does this mean?

Studies have shown that many drivers do not apply the brakes sufficiently in emergency
situations due to lack of experience. That means that the greatest possible braking effect is not
attained because the drivers did not press the brake pedal hard enough.

Therefore, the brake assist system was developed to support the driver in critical braking
situations.

3
Hydraulic braking system

4
 History of braking system

What does the brake assist system do?

To answer this question, let‟s first take a look at a braking man oeuvre without a brake
assist system. A driver is surprised by the car in front of him braking suddenly. After a
momentary shock, he recognizes the situation and applies the brakes. Perhaps because he has
not had to brake in critical situations very often and therefore has no feel for how hard he must

5
break, he does not press the pedal with all his might. Consequently, the greatest possible brake
pressure will not be developed in the system and valuable braking distance is lost. The vehicle
may not come to a stop in time

In comparison, let‟s look at a car in the same situation but with a brake assist system.
As before, the brakes are not applied with sufficient force. Based on the speed and force with
which the brake pedal is pressed, the brake assist system detects an emergency. The brake
6
assist system increases the brake pressure until the ABS regulation intervenes to prevent the
wheels from locking. This way the greatest possible braking effect can be achieved and the
brake path can be shortened significantly.

Depending on the manufacturer of the wheel spin regulation system, the developmental
goal of a brake assist system was attained in different ways. Currently, we can distinguish
between two different types:
- The hydraulic brake assist systems and
- The mechanical brake assist systems

In hydraulic brake assist systems, like that from Bosch, the return flow pump of the
ABS/ESP hydraulic system provides pressure, thus the expression .hydraulic brake assist
system. In this context, we speak of active pressure development. The advantage in design is
that no additional components needed to be integrated. At VOLKSWAGEN, the hydraulic
brake assist system is currently being used in the 2002 Polo, the 2001 Passat and the D-class
vehicle.

7
FLUID POWER

8
 FLUID POWER
Fluid power technology is a means to convert, transmit, convert and apply fluid energy
to perform useful work. Since a fluid can be either a liquid or a gas, fluid power in general
includes and pneumatics and hydraulics. Oil hydraulics employs pressurized liquid and
pneumatics employs compressed air.
GENERAL APPLICATION OF FLUID POWER:
Agriculture : Farm equipment
Construction : Earth moving equipment, concrete mixing equipment
Ships : Controllable pitch propellers
Aviation : Hydraulic retractable landing wheels
Defense : Missile launches system
Transportation : Hydraulic elevators
Fabrication : Hydraulic presses for metal forming pneumatic hand
tools, Injection molding machine Fabrication
Material handling : Hydraulic jacks‟ hydraulic ram, conveyor system,
pneumatically operated packing warping and bottling equipments
Automation : Hydraulically operated machine tools,
robots‟, pneumatically Operated indexing holding gripping and feeding devices.

9
 BASIC PRINCIPLES AND
INTRODUCTION TO HYDRAULIC AND
PNEUMATICS

10
 BASIC PRINCIPLES & INTRODUCTION OF HYDRAULICS
AND PNEUMATICS
Pneumatic cylinders are the devices for converting the air pressure into linear
mechanical force and motion. They are basically used for single purpose applications such as
clamping, tilting, bending, turning and many other applications.
The Pneumatic power is converted to straight line reciprocating motion by pneumatic
cylinders. The various industrial applications for which air cylinders are used can be divided
duty wise into the groups. They are light duty, medium duty and heavy duty but according to
the operating principle air cylinders can be sub divided as 1.single-acting, 2.Double- acting
cylinders. Since our project is based on single acting cylinder we shall see deep about it.
In a single-acting cylinder, compressed air is fed only in one side hence, this cylinder
can produce work only in one direction the return movement of the piston is affected by a
built–in spring or by application of an external force the spring is designed to return the piston
to its initial position with a sufficiently high speed.
Most industrial processes require substances to be transformed from one place to
another. Also the final products should be shaped (or) compressed (or) held by applying a
great force. Such activities are performed by using prime movers.
The prime movers are operated by,
 Electrical System
 Hydraulic System
 Pneumatic System
In electrical system, the rotary motion is provided by simple motors. The linear
motions can be obtained by converting rotary motions with the aid of screw jack (or) Rack and
pinion.
In Hydraulic system, enclosed water (or) oil can be used to convey energy from one
location to another. In Greek, hydra means water.
In Pneumatic system, enclosed gas (normally compressed air) is used to transfer
energy from one location to another). In Greek, Pneumatic means wind.

11
HYDRAULIC BASIC PRINCIPLES:
Hydraulic Principles:
There are certain governing principles in a hydraulic system:
All liquids are non-compressible and can be used to transmit power.
Any load to be lifted offers resistance to flow of liquid. This resistance to flow is
pressure.
 If the capacity of the pump is more, then it pumps out more liquid. If it pumps
out more liquid, then it makes the hydraulic actuators (hydraulic cylinder (or)
hydraulic for the speed of the hydraulic actuator.
 If the force developed in the hydraulic cylinder is more than the external load,
then the actuator lifts the external load. If the force developed in the hydraulic
cylinder is less than the external load, then the actuator will not lift the external
load. The flow rate is nothing to do with the load carrying capacity of the
hydraulic system.
 If the operation of a hydraulic system, the liquid chooses the path of least
resistance
For example, there are two passages of flow from the pump. One path is connected to
the hydraulic actuator to lift the load. Another path is connected to the reservoir. The liquid
will choose the path of least resistance (reservoir path) and flows back into the reservoir,
without choosing the path that offers higher resistance i.e. lifting the load. Ultimately, the load
remains un lifted in this case.
Pascal’s Law:

Fig: No: 3.1 Pascal’s Law

Pascal‟s law states that “The pressure applied anywhere to a confined liquid it
transmitted equally to every portion of the surface of the containing vessel”. Refer the

12
following fig. When a force is applied to the liquid by a piston, the liquid transmits this force
equally to all surfaces of the container.
DESCRIPTION OF THE HYDRAULICS COMPONENTS
A Hydraulic cylinder (also called a linear hydraulic motor) is a mechanical actuator
that is used to give a linear force through a linear stroke. It has many applications, notably in
engineering vehicles.
Operation of Hydraulic Actuator:
Hydraulic Actuators:
Pumps convert mechanical input of motor into pressure energy of fluid. Hydraulic
actuators do just the opposite. They convert the pressure energy of fluid into mechanical
output to perform useful work. Fluid power is transmitted through either linear (or) rotary
motion. Linear motion is obtained by using linear actuators called hydraulic cylinders Rotary
motion is obtained by using rotary actuators called hydraulic motors. Rotary actuators are the
hydraulic and pneumatic equivalent of an electric motor.
Linear Actuators: (Hydraulic cylinders)
There are two types of hydraulic cylinders.
1. Single acting cylinder
2. Double acting cylinder
Single acting hydraulic cylinder:
The return stroke is actuated by a spring (or) gravity. The simplest type of linear
actuator is the single acting hydraulic cylinder. In this device, the pressurized liquid is
admitted through only one side. So this cylinder will produce work in only one direction.

Fig: No: 3.2 Single-acting Hydraulic Cylinder

13
 It consists of a piston inside a cylinder body called a barrel. The prison rod is attached
to the one end of the piston. The piston rod extends out during extension and goes inside
cylinder during retraction.
Inlet port is provided at the other end of the cylinder. Single acting cylinders‟ pistons do not
retract hydraulically but it is accomplished by using gravity force (or) using compression
spring as shown in the following fig.

The following are the important components of single acting cylinder:

1. Cylinder body (or) barrel
2. Two end cover plates
3. Piston
4. Piston rod
5. U-cup seal
6. 0-ring
7. Bush to guide the piston

Fig: No: 3.3 various Parts of the Single-acting Hydraulic Cylinder

The various parts of single acting cylinder is shown in fig. The end covers are fitted to
the body by using four cover screws (or) tie rods which are not shown in fig.

Double Acting Hydraulic Cylinder:

In these double acting cylinders, the pressurized liquid is admitted in both sides of the
piston alternately. Work is performed during forward motion as well as backward motion of

14
the piston. To prevent leakage, seals are provided in five locations are the important
components of double acting cylinder.
1. Two end cover plates (or) two end caps with port connections
(i) Base Cap
(ii) Bearing cap
2. Cylinder barrel
3. Piston
4. Piston rod
The end caps are made up of cast iron (or) aluminum and have inlet and outlet ports.
These caps entries are threaded so that it can be locked (or) opened. End caps should be
designed to withstand the impact loads, due to the fluid pressure and kinetic energy of moving
parts.
These shock loads are developed at the extreme ends of piston travels. These stock
loads at the end of travel can be minimized by cushion valves built into the end caps. This is
known as cylinder cushioning.

Fig: No: 3.4 Double-acting Hydraulic Cylinder

Hydraulic cylinders get their power from pressurized hydraulic fluid, which is
typically oil. The hydraulic cylinder consists of a cylinder barrel, in which a piston connected
to a piston rod moves back and forth. The barrel is closed on each end by the cylinder bottom

15
(also called the cap end) and by the cylinder head where the piston rod comes out of the
cylinder. The piston has sliding rings and seals.
The piston divides the inside of the cylinder in two chambers, the bottom chamber (cap
end) and the piston rod side chamber (rod end). The hydraulic pressure acts on the piston to do
linear work and motion. Flanges, trunnions, and/or clevises are mounted to the cylinder body.
The piston rod also has mounting attachments to connect the cylinder to the object or machine
component that it is pushing.
A hydraulic cylinder is the actuator or "motor" side of this system. The "generator"
side of the hydraulic system is the hydraulic pump which brings in a fixed or regulated flow of
oil to the bottom side of the hydraulic cylinder, to move the piston rod upwards. The piston
pushes the oil in the other chamber back to the reservoir. If we assume that the oil pressure in
the piston rod chamber is approximately zero, the force on the piston rod equals the pressure
in the cylinder times the piston area (F=PA).
The piston moves instead downwards if oil is pumped into the piston rod side chamber
and the oil from the piston area flows back to the reservoir without pressure. The pressure in
the piston rod area chamber is (Pull Force) / (piston area - piston rod area).

Fig: No: 3.5 Cut Section Of The Hydraulic Actuator

Parts of Hydraulic Actuator:

A hydraulic cylinder consists of the following parts:
Cylinder barrel:
The cylinder barrel is mostly a seamless thick walled forged pipe that must be
machined internally. The cylinder barrel is ground and/or honed internally.

16
Cylinder Bottom or Cap:
In most hydraulic cylinders, the barrel and the bottom portion are welded together.
This can damage the inside of the barrel if done poorly. Therefore some cylinder designs have
a screwed or flanged connection from the cylinder end cap to the barrel. (See "Tie Rod
Cylinders" below) In this type the barrel can be disassembled and repaired in future.
Cylinder Head:
The cylinder head is sometimes connected to the barrel with a sort of a simple lock (for
simple cylinders). In general however the connection is screwed or flanged. Flange
connections are the best, but also the most expensive. A flange has to be welded to the pipe
before machining. The advantage is that the connection is bolted and always simple to
remove. For larger cylinder sizes, the disconnection of a screw with a diameter of 300 to 600
mm is a huge problem as well as the alignment during mounting.
Piston:
The piston is a short, cylinder-shaped metal component that separates the two sides of
the cylinder barrel internally. The piston is usually machined with grooves to fit elastomeric or
metal seals. These seals are often O-rings, U-cups or cast iron rings. They prevent the
pressurized hydraulic oil from passing by the piston to the chamber on the opposite side. This
difference in pressure between the two sides of the piston causes the cylinder to extend and
retract. Piston seals vary in design and material according to the pressure and temperature
requirements that the cylinder will see in service. Generally speaking, elastomeric seals made
from nitride rubber or other materials are best in lower temperature environments while seals
made of Viton are better for higher temperatures. The best seals for high temperature are cast
iron piston rings.
Piston Rod:
The piston rod is typically a hard chrome-plated piece of cold-rolled steel which
attaches to the piston and extends from the cylinder through the rod-end head. In double rod-
end cylinders, the actuator has a rod extending from both sides of the piston and out both ends
of the barrel. The piston rod connects the hydraulic actuator to the machine component doing
the work.
This connection can be in the form of a machine thread or a mounting attachment such
as a rod-clevis or rod-eye. These mounting attachments can be threaded or welded to the
piston rod or, in some cases; they are a machined part of the rod-end.

17
Rod Gland:
The cylinder head is fitted with seals to prevent the pressurized oil from leaking past
the interface between the rod and the head. This area is called the rod gland. It often has
another seal called a rod wiper which prevents contaminants from entering the cylinder when
the extended rod retracts back into the cylinder. The rod gland also has a rod bearing. This
bearing supports the weight of the piston rod and guides it as it passes back and forth through
the rod gland. In some cases, especially in small hydraulic cylinders, the rod gland and the rod
bearing are made from a single integral machined part.
Other parts
 Cylinder bottom connection
 Seals
 Cushions
 A hydraulic cylinder should be used for pushing and pulling only. No bending
moments or side loads should be transmitted to the piston rod or the cylinder.
For this reason, the ideal connection of a hydraulic cylinder is a single clevis
with a spherical ball bearing. This allows the hydraulic actuator to move and
allow for any misalignment between the actuator and the load it is pushing.
SPECIAL HYDRAULIC CYLINDER:
Telescopic Cylinder:
The length of a hydraulic cylinder is the total of the stroke, the thickness of the piston,
the thickness of bottom and head and the length of the connections. Often this length does not
fit in the machine. In that case the piston rod is also used as a piston barrel and a second piston
rod is used. These kinds of cylinders are called telescopic cylinders.
If we call a normal rod cylinder single stage, telescopic cylinders are multi-stage units
of two, three, four, five and even six stages. In general telescopic cylinders are much more
expensive than normal cylinders. Most telescopic cylinders are single acting (push). Double
acting telescopic cylinders must be specially designed and manufactured.

Plunger Cylinder:
A hydraulic cylinder without a piston or with a piston without seals is called a plunger
cylinder. A plunger cylinder can only be used as a pushing cylinder; the maximum force is
piston rod area multiplied by pressure. This means that a piston cylinder in general has a
relatively thick piston rod.

18
Differential Cylinder:
A differential cylinder acts like a normal cylinder when pulling. If the cylinder
however has to push, the oil from the piston rod side of the cylinder is not returned to the
reservoir, but goes to the bottom side of the cylinder. In such a way, the cylinder goes much
faster, but the maximum force the cylinder can give is like a plunger cylinder. A differential
cylinder can be manufactured like a normal cylinder, and only a special control is added.

19
HYDRAULIC PUMP

20
 HYDRAULIC PUMP

CHARACTERSTICS OF THE HYDRAULIC PUMP

Hydraulic pumps are used to pump out the liquid from the reservoir to the hydraulic
actuator through a set of valves.
A pump converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy. The mechanical energy is
given to the pump by an electric motor. Due to mechanical action, the pump creates a partial
vacuum at its inlet.
This makes the atmospheric pressure to force the liquid through the inlet line and into
the pump. The pump then pushes the liquid into the hydraulic system.
The pumps are classified as:
(i) Positive displacement pumps
(ii) Hydrodynamic (or) Non-positive displacement pumps
Hydrodynamic (or) Non-positive displacement pumps are used for transporting fluids
from one location to another. These types of pumps are generally used for low pressure, high-
volume flow applications, since they are not capable of withstanding high pressures .
The centrifugal pumps and axial flow pumps are the examples of non-positive
displacement pumps. These pumps provide smooth flow. But the output flow rate is reduced
when the resistance to flow is increased.
Positive displacement pumps have the internal working elements which make a very
close fit together so that there is very little leakage (or) slippage between them. This type of
pumps ejects a fixed quantity of liquid into the hydraulic system per revolution of the pump
shaft.

ADVANTAGES:
These pumps have the following advantages:
 High pressure capability
 Small and compact size
 High volumetric efficiency
 Great flexibility of performance, i.e. these pumps can operate over a
wide range of pressure requirements and speed ranges.
HYDRAULIC PUMP TYPES:

21
  Gear pumps
 Gear rotor pumps
 Rotary vane pumps
 Screw pumps
 Bent axis pumps
 Axial piston pumps swash plate principle
 Radial piston pumps
 Peristaltic pumps
 Multi pump assembly
PUMP SELECTION:
Pumps are selected by considering the following factors:
1. Discharge (flow rate) requirements. (in liters/mm)
2. Operating speed (in rpm)
3. Pressure rating (in bar)
4. Performance
5. Reliability
6. Maintenance
7. Cost
8. Noise
HYDRAULIC PUMP WORKING PRINCIPLES:
Gear Pumps:

Fig: No: 4.1 Gear Pump

Gear pumps (with external teeth) (fixed displacement) are simple and economical
pumps. The swept volume or displacement of gear pumps for hydraulics will be between
about 1 cm3 (0.001 liter) and 200 cm3 (0.2 liter). These pumps create pressure through the
meshing of the gear teeth, which forces fluid around the gears to pressurize the outlet side.

22
Some gear pumps can be quite noisy, compared to other types, but modern gear pumps are
highly reliable and much quieter than older models.
Gear Rotor Pumps:

Fig: No: 4.2 Gear Rotor Pump

Gear rotor pumps (fixed displacement) are a variation of gear pumps, having internal
teeth of optimized design. The efficiency and noise level are very good for such a medium
pressure pump.
Rotary Vane Pumps:
Rotary vane pumps (fixed and simple adjustable displacement) have higher
efficiencies than gear pumps, but are also used for mid pressures up to 180 bars in general.
Some types of vane pumps can change the centre of the vane body, so that a simple adjustable
pump is obtained. These adjustable vane pumps are in general constant pressure or constant
power pumps: the displacement is increased until the required pressure or power is reached
and subsequently the displacement or swept volume is decreased until equilibrium is reached.
Screw Pumps:
Screw pumps (fixed displacement) are a double Archimedes spiral, but closed. This
means that two screws are used in one body. The pumps are used for high flows and relatively
low pressure (max 100 bars). They were used on board ships where the constant pressure
hydraulic system was going through the whole ship, especially for the control of ball valves,
but also for the steering gear and help drive systems. The advantage of the screw pumps is the
low sound level of these pumps; the efficiency is not that high.
Bent Axis Pumps:
Bent axis pumps, axial piston pumps and motors using the bent axis principle, fixed or
adjustable displacement exists in two different basic designs. The Thoma-principle (engineer
Hans Thoma, Germany, patent 1935) with max 25 degrees angle and the Wahl mark-principle
(Gunnar Axel Wahl mark, patent 1960) with spherical shaped pistons in one piece with the
piston rod, piston rings, and maximum 40 degrees between the driveshaft centerline and

23
pistons (Volvo Hydraulics Co.). These have the best efficiency of all pumps. Although in
general the largest displacements are approximately one liter per revolution, if necessary a two
liter swept volume pump can be built. Often variable displacement pumps are used, so that the
oil flow can be adjusted carefully. These pumps can in general work with a working pressure
of up to 350-420 bars in continuous work.
Axial Piston Pumps Swash Plate Principle:
Axial piston pumps using the swash plate principle (fixed and adjustable displacement)
have a quality that is almost the same as the bent axis model. They have the advantage of
being more compact in design. The pumps are easier and more economical to manufacture; the
disadvantage is that they are more sensitive to oil contamination.
Radial Piston Pumps:
Radial piston pumps (fixed displacement) are used especially for high pressure and
relatively small flows. Pressures of up to 650 bar are normal. In fact variable displacement is
not possible, but sometimes the pump is designed in such a way that the plungers can be
switched off one by one, so that a sort of variable displacement pump is obtained.
Peristaltic Pumps:
Peristaltic pumps are not generally used for high pressures. Pumps for open and closed
systems
MULTI PUMP ASSEMBLY:
In a hydraulic installation, one pump can serve more cylinders and motors. The
problem however is that in that case a constant pressure system is required and the system
always needs the full power. It is more economic to give each cylinder and motor its own
pump. In that case multi pump assemblies can be used. Gear pumps can often be obtained as
multi pumps. The different chambers (sometimes of different size) are mounted in one body or
built together. Also vane pumps can often be obtained as a multi pump. Gear rotor pumps are
often supplied as multi pumps. Screw pumps can be built together with a gear pump or a vane
pump. Axial piston swash plate pumps can be built together with a second pump of the same
or smaller size, or can be built together with one or more gear pumps or vane pumps
(depending on the supplier). Axial plunger pumps of the bent axis design cannot be built
together with other pumps.

24
HYDRAULIC HOSE:
The hose is long cylindrical tube designed to carry power in the form of fluids from
one place to other. Hoses are generally made up of polyethylene, PVC, or synthetic or natural
rubber with a combination of metal wires to give strength. Common parameters are diameter,
wall thickness and pressure rating.

Fig: No: 4.3 Hydraulic Hose

25
HYDRAULIC FLUIDS

26
 HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
SPECIFICATIONS:
Some of the specifications of the fluids are not given mainly the kinematic viscosities
of the fluids at 40°C and 100°C which are used to calculate viscosity index of the fluid. The
kinematic viscosities of the fluids at both temperatures has been measured in flumes lab by
using Ubbelohde viscometer where it is used in most of the test methods like ISO 3104, ISO
3105, ASTM D 445, ASTM D 446, BS 188, IP 71.
To calculate viscosity index of the petroleum products, lubricants or other types of
hydraulic fluid according to „ISO 2909:2002‟ or „ASTM D2270 - 10e1‟ standards it requires
kinematic viscosities [cSt] at two different temperature. One is at 40°C and other is at 100°C.
But these two standards are used to calculate the viscosity index of the fluids from 2 cSt to 70
cSt at 100°C. The viscosity index of the fluids has calculated by using online calculator [3].
The difference in viscosities between the given data and the measured is due to error in the
viscometer. But this does not affect in estimating the viscosity of the fluid with respect to
temperature.

HYDRAULIC FLUID:
Hydraulic fluid is a medium to transfer power in the system or the machinery.
Hydraulic fluids play a very important role in the developing world. The fluids are classified
on the basis of their viscosity, which makes a chart which is useful for the industries to select
the fluid for the particular function. The classifications range from a simple ISO (International
Organization for Standardization) to the recent classification ASTM D 6080-97 (classifying
based on viscosity).

CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS BASED ON ISO

VISCOSITY GRADE:
Most of the fluids used are classified with ISO standards. The ISO standard fluids are
mainly classified based on the kinematic viscosity at 400C. The fluid is mainly taken at 400C
which is taken as a reference temperature between the maximum operating and the ambient
temperatures. The ISO classification is done on 18 main fluids based on their viscosity grade.
Table.2.1 shows the viscosity range of a fluid on its ISO VG.

27
 Classification of hydraulic fluids based on ISO Viscosity grade:
ISO VISCOSITY GRADS BASED ON KINEMATIC VISCOSITY
[CENTISTOKES/CST] AT 400C
ISO VG Minimum [cSt] Maximum[cSt]
2 1.98 2.42
3 2.88 3.52
5 4.14 5.06
7 6.12 7.48
10 9.0 11
15 13.5 16.5
22 19.8 24.2
32 28.8 35.2
46 41.4 50.6
68 61.2 74.8
100 90 110
150 135 165
220 198 242
320 288 353
460 4147 506
680 612 748
1000 900 1100
1500 1350 1650

Table: No: 5.1 ISO Viscosity Grads Based On Kinematic Viscosity

TYPES OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS:

According to ISO there are three different types of fluids according to their source of
availability and purpose of use.
Mineral-Oil based Hydraulic fluids:
As these have a mineral oil base, so they are named as Mineral-oil-Based Hydraulic
fluids. This kind of fluids will have high performance at lower cost. These mineral oils are
further classified as HH, HL and HM fluids. Type HH fluids are refined mineral oil fluids
which do not have any additives. These fluids are able to transfer power but have less
properties of lubrication and unable to withstand high temperature.

28
 These types of fluid have a limited usage in industries. Some of the uses are manually
used jacks and pumps, low pressure hydraulic system etc. Type HL fluids are refined mineral
oils which contain oxidants and rust inhibitors which help the system to be protected from
chemical attack and water contamination. These fluids are mainly used in piston pump
applications.
HM is a version of HL-type fluids which have improved anti-wear additives. These
fluids use phosphorus, zinc and sulphur components to get their anti-wear properties. These
are the fluids mainly used in the high pressure hydraulic system.

Fire Resistant Fluids

These fluids generate less heat when burnt than those of mineral oil based fluids. As
the name suggests these fluids are mainly used in industries where there are chances of fire
hazards, such as foundries, military, die-casting and basic metal industry.
These fluids are made of lower BTU (British thermal unit) compared to those of
mineral oil based fluids, such as water-glycol, phosphate ester and polyol esters. ISO have
classified these fluids as HFAE (soluble oils), HFAS (high water-based fluids), HFB (invert
emulsions), HFC (water glycols), HFDR (phosphate ester) and HRDU (polyol esters).
Environmental Acceptable Hydraulic Fluids (EAHF):
These fluids are basically used in the application where there is a risk of leakage or
spills into the environment, which may cause some damage to the environment. These fluids
are not harmful to the aquatic creatures and they are biodegradable.
These fluids are used in forestry, lawn equipment, off-shore drilling, dams and
maritime industries. The ISO have classified these fluids as HETG (based on natural vegetable
oils), HEES (based on synthetic esters), HEPG (polyglycol fluids) and HEPR (polyalphaolefin
types).

29
CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS:

Fig: No: 5.1 Classifications Of Hydraulic Fluids

FLUID PROPERTIES AND COMPARATIVE PERFORMANCES:

While selecting a hydraulic fluid one has to be aware of hydraulic fluid properties and
its effect on hydraulic system. Generally the hydraulic fluids have many properties and some
of the important properties are explained in detail below.
Density (ρ):
Density is expressed as mass occupied in a unit volume. The density is inversely
proportional to temperature. The SI unit of density is kg/m3
Viscosity:
The most important property of the hydraulic fluid to be considered is viscosity of the
fluid. The main selection of fluid for the system depends on the viscosity of fluid. Viscosity is
the measure of resistance of fluid flow that is inverse measure of fluidity. For example honey
is very thick that means it is more viscous than water. Viscosity is directly related to system
(especially pump and motor) wear, leakage, and most important efficiency.

30
STANDARD TEST METHODS:
For hydraulic fluids:
It is important to know the specification of the fluid while selecting the fluid for the
hydraulic system. Here are some of the important specification and their standard test methods
in brief.
Viscosity:
This test determines the kinematic viscosity of the hydraulic fluids and liquid
petroleum products both opaque and transparent. There are different standards like ISO 3104,
ISO 3105, ASTM D445, ASTM D446, IP 71, DIN 51366, BS 188 to measure kinematic
viscosity. All these standards uses nearly same method to test kinematic viscosity. For this test
method glass capillary viscometer is used to determine the kinematic viscosity. In this the time
is calculated for the fluid to fall under its own gravity from one point to another at constant
temperature and then it is multiplied by viscometer constant to get kinematic viscosity in
centistokes. The viscosity is measured minimum at two different temperatures mostly at 40°C
and 100°C, so that viscosity index of the fluid can be calculated.
Total acid number (TAN):
Total acid number is the presence of milligrams of potassium hydroxide (KOH) per
gram of sample. This TAN indicates the potential of corrosion problems. ISO 6618, ASTM
D664 and ASTM D974 are some of the standard methods. In ISO 6618 „color indicating
titration‟ method is used to measure the acid number where an appropriate pH color indicator
is added to the sample. The volume of color titrant that is added to change the color of the
sample permanently is used to calculate acid number.
Flash Point:
Flash point is the minimum temperature at which the fluid vaporize to form ignitable
mixture in air when fire is brought over this mixture. The standard methods are ISO 2592,
ASTM D92. In these two standards „Cleveland open cup method‟ is used to determine flash
point. For this the Cleveland apparatus is filled with fluid and then its temperature is increased
rapidly at first and then slowly till it reaches its theoretical flash point. Then a small fire is
brought over the apparatus, therefore the minimum temperature at which the mixture ignites is
considered as flash point.

31
Pour Point:
The pour point is the minimum temperature at which the fluid becomes semi-solid and
loses its fluidity. There are different test standards for different types of fluid, for example ISO
3016 for the petroleum products. Other standards are ASTM D97, ASTM D 2500 etc. The
general procedure for petroleum products is the fluid is cooled to form paraffin crystals. Then
the temperature is maintained at above 9°C above the expected pour point. For every
subsequent 3°C temperature the apparatus is tilted to check the surface. If there is no
movement in fluid then the apparatus is kept horizontal for 5 seconds. If the fluid does not
flow then it is considered as pour point.
Water content:
This test is used to determine the water content in the fluid. Water in fluid is the main
problem that decreases viscosity and forms rust. So the user has to check whether the fluid is
suitable for the machine with that water content. Some of the standard tests are ISO 12937 and
ISO 6296 which uses „Karl Fischer titration method‟ to find water content.
Air Release:
Air release property is important parameter to be considered mainly in the systems
where residue time is short because the air flows with fluid causes pressure losses in the
system. Some of the standard test methods are ISO 9120, ASTM D3472, IP 313 and DIN
51381 where air is blown into the fluid and the time taken by the air to decrease its volume by
0.2 % at constant temperature is considered as air release time.
Low Temperature Fluidity:
This test determines the highest possible viscosity of fluid at very low temperature for
a certain period of time. This is useful for the system when it is stand still for long time at low
temperature. The standard test method is ASTM D2532.
Elements by ICP:
This test is used to determine the additive elements in the fluid. This test provides wear
indication of the hydraulic machines by testing used oil. „Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP)
Atomic Emission Spectrometry‟ is used t determine the elements and it can measure the
elements down to 0.1 parts per million. ASTM D5185 and ASTM D4951 are the standard
tests.

32
Oxidation Stability:
This test is used to determine the oxidation stability of the fluid. The standard tests are
ASTM D943 and DIN 51554-3. In DIN 51554-3. 70 ml of oil is kept at 95°C for 35 days in
atmospheric oxygen and it is stirred with glass stirrer connected to copper strip at a speed of
24 stirs per minute. Then the viscosity, acid number and other parameters are measured for
every week.
Hydrolytic stability:
There are more chances of fluid to get contaminated with water which decreases
viscosity, forms rust that decrease the performance of the system. So it is important to know
the hydrolytic stability of the fluid. The ASTM D2619 is the standard test method where 75 g
of fluid, 25 grams of water and a copper strip is sealed in vessel and stirred at 5 rpm for 48 hrs
at 93°C. Then the acid number and viscosity is measured to find the hydrolytic stability.

Thermal Stability:
The effect of temperature on the metals is also an important factor. The ASTM D2070
is the standard test method in which copper and steel rods are placed in the oil at a temperature
of 135°C for one week. Then the condition of the metal specimens is noticed and viscosity of
fluid is also measured.

For fluid power components:

Pump is the core component for the fluid power system. So it is important to know the
performance of the pump at different working conditions. To know the performance
volumetric and mechanical efficiency of the pump should be measured.
To test the pump
1. Inlet pressure of the pump should be kept constant. Record the measurements
of
2. Input torque
3. Outlet flow of the pump.
4. Fluid temperature.
5. Drainage flow (if needed) Now test the pump
a) At constant speed and by varying the outlet pressure of the
pump.
b) By varying the speed of the pump at constant pump outlet
pressure.

33
 By using these two tests calculate the efficiencies of the pump by the following
equations

34
HYDRAULIC VALVE

35
 HYDRAULIC VALVE
HYDRAULIC VALVES PRESSURE FLOW DIRECTION CONTROLS
APPLICATIONS:
Fluid power is controlled primarily through the use of control devices called valves.
Hydraulic and pneumatic systems require control valves to direct and regulate the flow of
fluid from pump (or compressor to hydraulic cylinders (or) hydraulic motors.
The selection of these control devices depends on the type, size, actuating technique
and remote control capability. There are three basic types of control valves.
(i) Direction control valves
(ii) Pressure control valves
(iii) Flow control valves
Direction control valves are used to determine the path of the fluid through which it
should travel within a given circuit.
The control of fluid path is carried out by check valves, shuttle valves and two ways, three
way and four way direction control valves.
Pressure control valves are used to protect the hydraulic system against over pressure.
This over pressure may occur due to a gradual buildup as fluid demand decreases (or) due to
sudden surge as valve close.
The buildup of pressure is controlled by pressure relief, pressure reducing, sequence,
unloading and counter balance valves.
The fluid flow must be controlled in hydraulic circuits. The control of actuator speeds
depends on the flow rates. So to control the actuator speed, the flow rate should be controlled
by using flow control valves.
There are some practical differences between the hydraulic and pneumatic direction
control valves, even though the principle of operation is the same. But the pressure and the
flow control valves for both hydraulic and pneumatic systems are same.
DIRECTION CONTROL VALVES:
As the name implies, the direction control valves are used to control the direction of
the flow to the actuator from the pump.
The following are the important types of direction control valves in the hydraulic system.
1. Check Valve
2. Two position two way valves
3. Two position four way valves
4. Three position four way valves
36
 5. Rotary four way valve
6. Shuttle valve
Check Valve:
The simplest type of one direction flow valve is check valve. Check valve is a one way
valve because it permits flow in only one direction and prevents any flow in the opposite
direction. The check valve with graphical symbol is shown in figure.

Fig: No: 6.1 Check Valve

The spring holds the poppet in the closed position. When the fluid attains the required
pressure, it overcomes the spring force, the spring is compressed the poppet is moving right
and free flow occurs from left to right.
If the flow is attempted in the opposite direction, the fluid pressure along with the
spring force pushes the poppet in closed position. Hence, no flow is occurred in opposite
direction. The graphic symbol shows the function of the check valve.

Fig: No: 6.2 Pilot Operated Check Valve

Another type of check valve is the pilot operated check valve. It is shown in fig with
its symbol. The pilot operated check valve always permits free flow in one direction but

37
permits flow in the normally blocked opposite direction only if pilot pressure punches the pilot
piston downward. Irk this construction, the pilot piston is attached (or) integral part of the
valve poppet.
The spring holds the poppet seated in a no flow condition by pushing against the
piston.
In the symbol, the dashed line represents the pilot pressure line connected to the pilot
pressure port of the valve. The pilot operated check valves are frequently used to lock the
hydraulic cylinders in position.

Rotary Four way valves:

Spool designs are mostly used like rotary four way valve. It has shown in figure the
corresponding for direction control valves. However, other types are consists of a rotor closely
fitted inside a valve body graphic symbol is also shown here.

Fig: No: 6.3 Rotary Four-way Valve

When the rotor is rotating inside the valve body, it connects (or) closes the passages
with the ports A (or) B (or) P (or) T, to provide four flow paths. The figure shows the three
position valve.
1. In the first position, the pressure port P is connected to the port A and the port
B is connected to the tank T.
2. In the 2nd position centered position, all four ports are blocked.
3. In the third position, the pressure port P is connected to port B and the port A is
connected to tank T. Rotary valves are usually operated by manually (or)
mechanically.

38
Shuttle Valve:
Shuttle valve is another type of direction control valve. It allows a system to operate
from either of two fluid power sources. It is also known as a double check valve. It is mostly
used in pneumatic device and is rarely used in hydraulic circuits.
Similarly, when the pressure is applied through port Y, the ball is blown to the left
blocking the port X, and the ports Y and A are connected. The construction and symbol are
shown here.

Fig: No: 6.4 Shuttle Valve

Since the ball is shuttled to one side (or) the other side of the valve depending on
which side of the ball has the greater pressure, it is known as shuttle valve. This shuttle valve
is used for safety purpose in the event that the main pump can no longer provide hydraulic
power to operate emergency devices; the shuttle valve will shift to allow fluid to flow from a
secondary backup pump.

Pressure Control Valves:

The pressure control valves are used in hydraulic circuits to maintain desired pressure
in various parts of the circuits.
The most widely used type of pressure control

39
 Fig: No: 6.5 Pressure Control Valve- Relief Valve
It is also employed as a backup device when the main pressure control device fails.
The simple relief valve is shown in figure. A poppet is held seated inside the valve by a heavy
spring. When the system pressure reaches enough high pressure, the poppet is forced off its
seat.
This allows the flow through the outlet to tank as long as the high pressure level is
maintained. The adjusting screw cap is used to vary the spring force and thus to vary the
cracking pressure at which the valve begins to open.

Fig: No: 6.6 Symbolic Representation of Partial Hydraulic Circuit

The symbol for simple relief valve is shown here. A partial hydraulic circuit consisting
of pump and pressure relief valve is shown symbolically.
If the hydraulic system obtain maximum pressure (cracking pressure), then all the pump flow
will return back to the tank through the relief valve.

40
The pressure relief valve protects the hydraulic system against any overloads. If a pressure
compensated vane pump is used, then pressure relief valve is not needed.
The main function of a pressure relief valve is to control the force or torque produced by
hydraulic actuators.

41
CONSTRUCTION OF HYDRAULIC
BRAKING SYSTEM

42
CONSTRUCTION OF HYDRAULIC BRAKING SYSTEM

43
WORKING PRINCIPLE

44
 WORKING PRINCIPLE

Here in our project Braking System is done by hydraulic system. It consists of

structure, arm, and cylinder and piston assembly with hydraulic circuit.
In this project of the fabricated model of hydraulic braking system for automobile will
describe the working principles as well as hydraulic machines application and its advantages.
Efforts have been taken to show the path of hydraulic fluid as it is applied and released.
The Hydraulic system pressure can be generated in the form of any physical action
which result a compression over the Hydraulic system or pneumatic pressure which is
developed in the form of air compressing externally can be applied to activate Hydraulic
system. After pressing brake pedal when pump is pumped the hydraulic cylinder will moves
upward, holds the object and will lift gradually. The light duty of lift move easily with the help
of wheel. No extra skill is required for operating this system and then it is Easier to maintain.
Hence the operation is very smooth and in this system we can get more output by applying
less effort.

45
BILL OF MATERIALS

46
 BILL OF MATERIALS
MATERIALS USED:

NAME OF THE COMPONENTS MATERIALS

Hydraulic pump(linear type pump) Steel
Cylinder M.S rod
Piston M.S with chromium
Ram M.S rod
Spring M.S
Nipple M.S rod
End plate M.S plate
Hydraulic Fluid
Structure M.S.Plate
Table: No: 9.1 Bill of materials

47
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

48
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
ADVANTAGES:
1. Very effective when compared to mechanical braking system.
2. Better than Pneumatic braking system and cost wise also.
3. Human safety is Possible and sudden braking is available.
4. The process uses low- cost energy source.
5. Large machines frames are not required on the process.
6. Intricate shapes on material of low form ability can be worked fairly easily.
7. It does not require special type hoses.
8. No extra skill is required for operating this system.
9. Easier maintenance.

DISADVANTAGES:
1. Machining work is very complicated.
2. Very sturdy base needed.
3. Hydraulics components cost is high.

49
CONCLUSION

50
 CONCLUSION

Therefore, the result obtain from the project is to reduces the time taken and efficiency
over the other system. The necessary requirements and fulfillment of the project details which
we have given is factual.
This report details with design of hydraulic lift with suitable drawing. The project
carried out by us made an impressing task. The operation is Simple in construction where as
additional accessories are not needed. It is comparatively cheaper in cost than the other
systems. The system becomes as a Quick response and then Continuous operation is possible
without stopping.
Through this type of changes in hydraulics principle and its application we have
increased the performance etc...

51
BIBLOGRAPHY

52
BIBLOGRAPHY:

1. GUPTA J.K and KHURUMI R.S (1981) “Text book of Machine Design”, S.Chand &
comp and.
2. Parr. ANDREW (2003) „Hydraulic & Pneumatics‟ Butterworth Heimann Ltd
3. Dr.D.K.AGGARVAL & Dr.P.C SHARMA(2004) “machine design”, S.K.Kataria and
sons
4. MAJUMDAR.S.R “Pneumatic systems”, Tata McGraw-hills company ltd.
5. SRINIVASAN.R (2004) “Hydraulic & pneumatic controls”, Vijay Nicole imprints
private ltd.

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PHOTOGRAPHY

54
PHOTOGRAPHY

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