Physics Intro & Kinematics

•Quantities •Velocity

•Units •Acceleration

•Vectors •Kinematics

•Displacement •Graphing Motion in 1-D

 Some Physics Quantities
Vector - quantity with both magnitude (size) and direction
Scalar - quantity with magnitude only

Vectors: Scalars:
• Displacement • Distance
• Velocity • Speed
• Acceleration • Time
• Momentum • Mass
• Force • Energy
 Mass vs. Weight
Mass
• Scalar (no direction)
• Measures the amount of matter in an object
Weight
• Vector (points toward center of Earth)
• Force of gravity on an object
On the moon, your mass would be the same,
but the magnitude of your weight would be less.
 Vectors
Vectors are represented with arrows
• The length of the arrow • The arrow points in the
represents the directions of the force,
magnitude (how far, motion, displacement,
how fast, how strong, etc. It is often specified
etc, depending on the by an angle.
type of vector).

5 m/s
42°
 Units
Units are not the same as quantities!
Quantity . . . Unit (symbol)
• Displacement & Distance . . . meter (m)
• Time . . . second (s)
• Velocity & Speed . . . (m/s)
• Acceleration . . . (m/s2)
• Mass . . . kilogram (kg)
• Momentum . . . (kg·m/s)
• Force . . .Newton (N)
• Energy . . . Joule (J)
 SI Prefixes

Little Guys Big Guys

-12 3
pico p 10 kilo k 10
-9 6
nano n 10 mega M 10
-6 9
micro µ 10 giga G 10
-3 12
milli m 10 tera T 10
-2
centi c 10
 Kinematics definitions

• Kinematics – branch of physics; study of

motion
• Position (x) – where you are located
• Distance (d ) – how far you have traveled,
regardless of direction
• Displacement (x) – where you are in
relation to where you started
 Distance vs. Displacement
• You drive the path, and your odometer goes up by 8
miles (your distance).
• Your displacement is the shorter directed distance
from start to stop (green arrow).
• What if you drove in a circle?

start

stop
 Speed, Velocity, & Acceleration

• Speed (v) – how fast you go

• Velocity (v) – how fast and which way;
the rate at which position changes
• Average speed ( v ) – distance/time
• Acceleration (a) – how fast you speed
up, slow down, or change direction;
the rate at which velocity changes
 Speed vs. Velocity
• Speed is a scalar (how fast something is moving
regardless of its direction).
Ex: v = 20 mph
• Speed is the magnitude of velocity.
• Velocity is a combination of speed and direction. Ex:
v = 20 mph at 15 south of west
• The symbol for speed is v.
• The symbol for velocity is type written in bold: v or
hand written with an arrow: v
 Speed vs. Velocity
• During your 8 mi. trip, which took 15 min., your
speedometer displays your instantaneous speed,
which varies throughout the trip.
• Your average speed is 32 mi/hr.
• Your average velocity is 32 mi/hr in a SE direction.
• At any point in time, your velocity vector points
tangent to your path.
• The faster you go, the longer your velocity vector.
 Acceleration
Acceleration – how fast you speed up, slow
down, or change direction; it’s the rate at
which velocity changes. Two examples:
t (s) v (mph) t (s) v (m/s)
0 55 0 34
1 57 1 31
2 59 2 28
3 61 3 25

a = +2 mph / s a = -3 m/s
s
= -3 m/s 2
 Velocity & Acceleration Sign Chart
VELOCITY

A
C
+ -
C
E Moving forward; Moving backward;
L +
E Speeding up Slowing down
R
A
T
I
- Moving forward; Moving backward;
O Slowing down Speeding up
N
 Kinematics Equations that Make Sense!

Average speed: sav = d / change in t SI unit: m/s

sav = d / ∆t = d / tf - ti

Average velocity: vav = ∆d / ∆t SI unit: m/s

vav = (df - di) / t

df = di + vav t

Average acceleration: aav = ∆v / ∆t SI unit: m/s/s = m/s2

aav = (vf - vi) / t

vf = vi + aav t

Note: if the time intervals are very small we call these quantities instantaneous
 Solving Kinematics Problems

1. Assign a coordinate system – Define which directions are positive and

negative.

2. Write down your known variables and show unknowns with a question
mark.

3. Write down the kinematics expression that will allow you to solve for
one variable. All the others in your expression should be known.
Rearrange if necessary.

4. Substitute numbers and units into your physical expression.

5. Solve the equation for your unknown and include the correct units.

6. Check your answer.

Does the magnitude of your answer make sense?

Do the units come out right?
Can you use another expression to check your answer?
 Using Split Times!

Position (m) 0-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25

Split Time (s) 1.6 2.4 3.0 3.5 4.0

Av. Velocity (m/s) 3.1 2.1 1.7 1.4 1.2(5)

Determine the average velocity for each distance interval

Determine average velocity of the object over the time recorded

vav = df - di / t = 25m - 0m / 14.5 s = 1.7 m / s

Determine the average acceleration over the time recorded

a = vf - vi / t = (1.25 m/s - 3.1m/s) / 14.5 s = - 0.13 m / s2
Note: the a is negative because the change in v is negative!!
Example 1 Distance Run by a Jogger

How far does a jogger run in 1.5 hours (5400 s) if his

average speed is 2.22 m/s?

t = 5400s sav = 2.22 m/s d=?

sav = d / t

So…… d = sav t = (2.22 m/s)(5400s)

d = 12000 m

Check: Units come out right (m) when multiplied

Example 2 The World’s Fastest Jet-Engine Car

Andy Green in the car ThrustSSC set a world record of 341.1 m/s in
1997. To establish such a record, the driver makes two runs through
the course, one in each direction,to nullify wind effects. From the data,
determine the averagevelocity for each run.

a) t = 4.740 s x = +1609m vav = ?

vav = x / t = (+1609m) / (4.740 s)
vav = + 339.5 m/s

b) t = 4.695 s x = -1609m vav = ?

vav = x / t = (-1609m) / (4.695 s)
vav = - 342.7 m/s
Example 3 Acceleration and Increasing Velocity

Determine the average acceleration of the plane.

vi = 0 km/h vf = 260 km/h ti = 0s tf = 29s

aav = (vf - vi) / (tf – ti)

aav = (+260 km/h – 0 km/h) / (29s – 0s)

aav = + 9.0 km/h /s

 Acceleration due to Gravity
Near the surface of the This acceleration
Earth, all objects vector is the
accelerate at the same same on the way
rate (ignoring air up, at the top,
resistance). and on the way
down!
a = -g = -9.8 m/s2
9.8 m/s2

Interpretation: Velocity decreases by 9.8 m/s each second,

meaning velocity is becoming less positive or more
negative. Less positive means slowing down while going
up. More negative means speeding up while going down.
Kinematics Formula Summary
For 1-D motion with constant acceleration:

• vf = v0 + a t

• v = (v0 + vf )/2
avg

• x = v0 t + ½
1
at2
2

• vf2 – v02 = 2 a x
 More Kinematics Equations that Make
Sense!

df = di + vav t but vav = (vi + vf) / 2

df = di + (vi + vf) /2 t but vf = vi + aav t

df = di + (vi + (vi + aav t) /2 t

df = di + vi t + 1/2 aavt2 or… d = vi t + 1/2 aavt2

df = di + (vi + vf) /2 t but t = (vf - vi ) / aav

df = di + (vi + vf) /2 (vf - vi) /aav

d = (vi + vf) /2 (vf - vi) /aav So… d = (vf2 - vi2 ) /2aav

and… vf2 = vi2 + 2aav d

 Free Fall
1. Free fall describes the motion of an object which is only under the influence of
gravity. I.e. a ball thrown upwards or dropped

2. An object in free fall experiences a constant uniform acceleration of 9.8 m/s2 in the
downwards direction

3. Kinematics equations can be used for solving free fall problems by replacing aav in
the expressions with g where g is 9.8 m/s2 downwards

vf = vi + g t dv = vi t + 1/2 g t2 vf2 = vi2 + 2g dv

4. Air resistance limits the time of free fall. Eventually a falling object will reach a
constant velocity downwards known as its terminal velocity
-
vi is negative
+ vi is positive

g is negative g is positive

- +
If you define up as the positive direction, g must If you define up as the negative direction, g
be negative because the velocity gets less must be positive because the velocity gets less
positive over time negative over time
 Freely Falling Bodies

Example 1 A Falling Stone

A stone is dropped from the top of a tall building. After 3.00s

of free fall, what is the displacement y of the stone?
Freely Falling Bodies

dv a vf vi t
? - 9.8 m/s2 0 m/s 3.00 s
Freely Falling Bodies

dv a vf vi t
? -9.80 m/s2 0 m/s 3.00 s

dv = vi t + ½ g t2
= (0 m/s)(3.00s) + ½ (-9.8 m/s2)(3.00s)2
= - 44.1 m
 Newton’s
Laws of Motion
I. Law of Inertia
II. F=ma
III. Action-Reaction
 Newton’s Laws of Motion
• 1st Law – An object at rest will stay at
rest, and an object in motion will stay in
motion at constant velocity, unless acted
upon by an unbalanced force.
• 2nd Law – Force equals mass times
acceleration.
• 3rd Law – For every action there is an
equal and opposite reaction.
 1st Law of Motion
(Law of Inertia)

An object at rest will stay at

rest, and an object in motion
will stay in motion at
constant velocity, unless acted
upon by an unbalanced force.
 1st Law
• Inertia is the
tendency of an
object to resist
changes in its
velocity:
whether in
motion or
motionless. These pumpkins will not move unless
acted on by an unbalanced force.
 1st Law
• Once airborne,
unless acted on
by an
unbalanced
force (gravity
and air – fluid
friction), it
would never
stop!
1st Law

• Unless acted
upon by an
unbalanced
force, this golf
ball would sit on
the tee forever.
 Why then, do we observe
every day objects in motion
slowing down and becoming
motionless seemingly without an
outside force?
It’s a force we sometimes cannot see –
friction.
 Objects on earth, unlike the
frictionless space the moon
travels through, are under the
influence of friction.
 What is this unbalanced force that acts on an object in motion?

• There are four main types of friction:

– Sliding friction: ice skating
– Rolling friction: bowling
– Fluid friction (air or liquid): air or water resistance
– Static friction: initial friction when moving an
object
 Slide a book
across a table and
watch it slide to a rest
position. The book
comes to a rest
because of the
presence of a force -
that force being the
force of friction -
which brings the book
to a rest position.
• In the absence of a force of friction, the book
would continue in motion with the same
speed and direction - forever! (Or at least to
the end of the table top.)
 Newtons’s 1st Law and You

Don’t let this be you. Wear seat belts.

Because of inertia, objects (including you) resist changes
in their motion. When the car going 80 km/hour is stopped
by the brick wall, your body keeps moving at 80 m/hour.
2nd Law
 2nd Law

The net force of an object is

equal to the product of its mass
and acceleration, or F=ma.
 2nd Law

• When mass is in kilograms and acceleration is

in m/s/s, the unit of force is in newtons (N).
• One newton is equal to the force required to
accelerate one kilogram of mass at one
meter/second/second.
 2nd Law (F = m x a)
• How much force is needed to accelerate a
1400 kilogram car 2 meters per second/per
second?
How much force is needed to accelerate a 1400
kilogram car 2 meters per second/per second?

• Write the formula

• F=mxa
• Fill in given numbers and units
• F = 1400 kg x 2 meters per second/second
• Solve for the unknown
• 2800 kg-meters/second/second or 2800 N
If mass remains constant, doubling the acceleration, doubles the force. If force
remains constant, doubling the mass, halves the acceleration.
Newton’s 2nd Law proves that different masses
accelerate to the earth at the same rate, but with
different forces.

• We know that objects

with different masses
accelerate to the
ground at the same
rate.
• However, because of
the 2nd Law we know
that they don’t hit the
ground with the same
force.
F = ma F = ma
98 N = 10 kg x 9.8 m/s/s 9.8 N = 1 kg x 9.8
m/s/s
 Check Your Understanding
• 1. What acceleration will result when a 12 N net force applied to a 3 kg
object? A 6 kg object?

• 2. A net force of 16 N causes a mass to accelerate at a rate of 5 m/s2.

Determine the mass.

• 3. How much force is needed to accelerate a 66 kg skier 1 m/sec/sec?

• 4. What is the force on a 1000 kg elevator that is falling freely at 9.8

m/sec/sec?
 Check Your Understanding
• 1. What acceleration will result when a 12 N net force applied to a 3 kg object?
12 N = 3 kg x 4 m/s/s

• 2. A net force of 16 N causes a mass to accelerate at a rate of 5 m/s2. Determine

the mass.
16 N = 3.2 kg x 5 m/s/s

• 3. How much force is needed to accelerate a 66 kg skier 1 m/sec/sec?

66 kg-m/sec/sec or 66 N

• 4. What is the force on a 1000 kg elevator that is falling freely at 9.8 m/sec/sec?

• 9800 kg-m/sec/sec or 9800 N

 3rd Law

• For every action, there is an

equal and opposite reaction.
3rd Law
According to Newton,
whenever objects A and
B interact with each
other, they exert forces
upon each other. When
you sit in your chair,
your body exerts a
downward force on the
chair and the chair
exerts an upward force
on your body.
 3rd Law
There are two forces
resulting from this
interaction - a force on
the chair and a force on
your body. These two
forces are called action
and reaction forces.
 Newton’s 3rd Law in Nature
• Consider the propulsion of a
fish through the water. A fish
uses its fins to push water
backwards. In turn, the water
reacts by pushing the fish
forwards, propelling the fish
through the water.
• The size of the force on the
water equals the size of the
force on the fish; the direction
of the force on the water
(backwards) is opposite the
direction of the force on the
fish (forwards).
3rd Law
Flying gracefully
through the air, birds
depend on Newton’s
third law of motion. As
the birds push down on
the air with their wings,
the air pushes their
wings up and gives
them lift.
• Consider the flying motion of birds. A bird flies by
use of its wings. The wings of a bird push air
downwards. In turn, the air reacts by pushing the
bird upwards.
• The size of the force on the air equals the size of the
force on the bird; the direction of the force on the air
(downwards) is opposite the direction of the force on
the bird (upwards).
• Action-reaction force pairs make it possible for birds
to fly.
Other examples of Newton’s Third Law

• The baseball forces the

bat to the left (an
action); the bat forces
the ball to the right (the
reaction).
 3rd Law
• Consider the motion of
a car on the way to
school. A car is
equipped with wheels
which spin backwards.
As the wheels spin
backwards, they grip
the road and push the
road backwards.
3rd Law
The reaction of a rocket is
an application of the third
law of motion. Various
fuels are burned in the
engine, producing hot
gases.
The hot gases push against
the inside tube of the rocket
and escape out the bottom
of the tube. As the gases
move downward, the rocket
moves in the opposite
direction.
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What is work?
Work is the energy transfer that takes place when a force
causes an object to move.

work done = force applied × distance moved

in direction of force
W = Fs

Where:
⚫ work done is measured in joules (J)
⚫ force is measured in newtons (N)
⚫ distance is measured in metres (m)

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Work: example question 1
A box is pushed across a floor by a constant force of 100 N.
What is the work done by the force to move the box 5 m?

W = Fs
100 N
= 100 × 5
= 500 J

If the floor is smooth, where does this energy go?

The box accelerates and gains kinetic energy.
If the floor is rough, where does the energy go?
Some or all of the energy is lost as heat and sound.
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Work done by a force at an angle
The same box is now dragged by a rope, which is raised at
an angle θ to the horizontal.

This time, the box moves in a different direction to the

direction of the applied force. How does this affect the work
done? Can you think of any suggestions?

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Calculating work done at an angle
When calculating the work done by a force acting at an
angle, it is useful to break the force down into components.

The tension in the rope can be broken down into a horizontal

and a vertical component.

The vertical component F

does no work because Fsinθ
θ
the box does not move in
that direction. Fcosθ
So to calculate work done by a force at an angle:

work done = force in direction of movement × distance moved

W = Fscosθ

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Work: example question 2
A toy car is pulled along by a piece of string which is at 30° to
the horizontal. Calculate the work done in pulling the toy if the
tension in the string is 10 N, and it is pulled along 5 m.

10 N

30°
5m

W = Fscosθ

= 10 × 5 × cos30°

= 43.3 J
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What is energy?
Energy is the measure of the ability of an object or a
system to perform work. There are many types of energy:

⚫ kinetic energy – energy of an object due to its speed

⚫ gravitational potential energy – energy of an object due

to position in a gravitational field

⚫ elastic energy – energy stored when an object is

stretched or compressed

⚫ chemical energy – energy stored in chemical bonds

⚫ nuclear energy – energy stored in nuclei.

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Energy transfer
When work is done, energy is
transferred. That energy might be:
⚫ gravitational potential energy
– e.g. when an object
changes height within a
gravitational field
⚫ kinetic energy – e.g. when
an object changes speed
⚫ light energy – e.g. when a
light bulb is switched on
⚫ heat and sound – e.g. when
a car brakes sharply.

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Conservation of energy
The law of conservation of energy states that:
Energy cannot be created, or destroyed;
it can only be changed into another form.

In other words, the total energy

of a system is constant.

A bungee jumper’s
gravitational potential energy
is changed into kinetic energy
as they jump, and then stored
as elastic potential energy as
the bungee rope stretches.

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What is gravitational potential energy?
Gravitational potential energy (GPE, Ep or Egrav) is the
energy of an object due to its position in a gravitational field.

The Ep gained by a mass is proportional to the force used to

lift it, and the distance it is lifted:

gravitational = mass × gravitational × height

potential energy field strength
Ep = mgh

It is often talked about in terms

of a change in an object’s Ep ΔEp = mgΔh
due to a change in its height:

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Ep: example question 1
A supermarket employee lifts a
baked bean tin, weighing 250 g,
from the floor, to a shelf 2 m high.
How much gravitational potential
energy does it gain?
(g = 9.81 N kg-1)

ΔEp = mgΔh
= 0.250 × 9.81 × 2
= 4.9 J

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Ep: example question 2
A pole vaulter of mass 80 kg
jumps a height of 5 m. What is
his gravitational potential
energy at the highest point of
his jump?
(g = 9.81 N kg-1)

Ep = mgh

= 80 × 9.81 × 5

= 3924 J

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What is kinetic energy?
Kinetic energy (KE or Ek) is the energy of an object due to
its speed.

kinetic energy = ½ × mass × speed2

Ek = ½mv2

Where:

⚫ kinetic energy is measured in joules (J)

⚫ mass is measured in kilograms (kg)
⚫ speed is measured in metres per second (ms-1).

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Deriving Ek = ½mv2
Consider a force F acting on an object of mass m, initially at
rest, moving it a distance s in time t.

⚫ From ‘suvat’ equations: s = ½ (u + v)t a = (v – u) / t

⚫ Because u = 0 ms-1: s = ½vt a=v/t
⚫ Newton’s 2nd law: F = ma
⚫ Substituting a = v / t: F = mv / t
⚫ Work done by force: W = Fs
W = (mv / t) × ½vt
W = ½mv2
⚫ Work done = energy transferred: Ek = ½mv2

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Ek and Ep
If resistive forces, such as friction and air resistance, are
ignored, Ek and Ep are related as follows:

loss of Ek = gain in Ep
lose of Ep = gain in Ek

For example, if an object of mass m is released above the

ground at height h, it will gain speed, v, as it falls.

Due to the conservation of energy, and assuming air

resistance is negligible, after falling a height of Δh:

½mv2 = mgΔh

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Conservation of energy: example question
A ball of mass 400 g is thrown upwards at a speed of 5 ms-1.
(g = 9.81 N kg-1).
⚫ What is the ball’s Ek as it is released? Ek = ½mv2
= ½ × 0.4 × 52
= 5J

⚫ What is the ball’s maximum gain of Ep? ΔEp = Ek

= 5J
⚫ What is the ball’s maximum height? Ep = mgh
h = Ep / mg
= 5 / (0.4 × 9.81)
= 1.27 m
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Resistive forces
Resistive forces are forces that act on a moving body in the
opposite direction to the direction of movement.
The main resistive force is friction, which includes drag or
air resistance.
When an object such as a rollercoaster moves vertically
without a driving force, any difference between a change in
ΔEp and ΔEk corresponds to a loss of energy to resistive
forces, or work done against resistive forces:

W = ΔEp + ΔEk

Where ΔEk is positive if ΔEp

is negative, and vice versa.

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What is power?
Power is the rate at which work is done, or the rate at which
energy is transferred.

power = work done / time taken

P = W/t

Where:

⚫ power is measured in watts (W)

⚫ work done or energy transferred is measured in joules (J)
⚫ time is measured in seconds (s).

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Power: example question 1
A crane lifts a load of
1500 kg a height of 25 m
at a steady rate, in a
time of 2 min. What is
the power of the crane?

P=W/t W = energy transferred = ΔEp

= 367 875 / 120 ΔEp = mgΔh
= 3066 W = 1500 × 9.81 × 25
= 367 875 J
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Motive power
The power outputted by a powered object, such as an engine
or muscles, is sometimes called the motive power.

If the powered object is moving at a constant speed at a

constant height:

power = force × speed

P = Fv

At constant speed and height, the force produced by the

powered object is equal but opposite to all resistive forces
acting on the object, such as friction and air resistance.

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Power: example question 2
What is the resistive force on a cyclist who has leg muscles of
power 200 W each and who reaches a top speed of 10 ms-1 on
a level road?

P = Fv
F=p/v
= (200 × 2) / 10
= 40 N

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Power: efficiency
Efficiency is the ratio of useful work done by a device, to
the total work done (or the ratio of useful output energy to
the total energy input).

efficiency = useful work done / total work done

efficiency = useful energy output / total energy input

Efficiency is often expressed as a percentage.

Efficiency is always less than 100%, as no device is perfect
and some energy is always lost.
For example, what is the efficiency of a 60 W filament
lamp that gives out 1 W of light?
efficiency = 1 / 60 = 0.017 = 1.7%
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Sankey diagrams
A Sankey diagram is a type of flow diagram that shows the
major energy transfers, including energy losses, through a
closed system.

For instance, a Sankey diagram for a filament lamp that is

5% efficient would look like this:
light energy
electrical (5 W)
energy (100 W)

heat energy
(95 W)
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Thermodynamics
Temperature, Heat, Work
Heat Engines
 The answer is a bit longer.
• In Thermodynamics we deal with quantities
which describe our system, usually (but not
always) a gas.
• Volume, Temperature, Pressure, Heat Energy,
Work.
• We all know about Volume.
• Pressure:

Force
Pressure =
Area
 Temperature and Heat
• Everyone has a qualitative understanding of
temperature, but it is not very exact.
• Question: Why can you put your hand in a
400 F oven and not get instantly burned, but
if you touch the metal rack, you do?
• Answer: Even though the air and the rack are
at the same temperature, they have very
different energy contents.
 Construction of a Temperature Scale
• Fahrenheit: Original idea:
0F Freezing point of Salt/ice
100F Body Temperature
Using this ice melts at 32F and water boils at 212F
(Not overly convenient) Note: 180F between boiling
an freezing.
• Celsius (Centigrade) Scale:
0C Ice Melts
100C Water Boils
Note a change of 1C = a change of 1.8F.
Conversion between Fahrenheit and
Celsius

If we know Celsius and want Fahrenheit

9
F = C + 32
5
If we know Fahrenheit and want Celsius

C = (F − 32 )
5
9
 Absolute or Kelvin Scale
• The lowest possible temperature on the
Celsius Scale is -273C.
• The Kelvin Scale just takes this value and calls
it 0K, or absolute zero.
• Note: the “size” of 1K is the same as 1C.
• To convert from C to K just add 273.
K=C+273
 When do you use which scale.
• Never use Fahrenheit, except for the weather.
• You can always use Kelvin and you must use
Kelvin when doing absolute temperature
measurements.
• You can use either Kelvin or Celsius when
measuring differences in temperature.
 Heat
• Heat is the random
motion of the particles in
the gas, i.e. a “degraded”
from of kinetic energy.

• Nice web simulation

• gas simulation
• The higher the temperature, the faster the
particles (atoms/molecules) are moving, i.e.
more Kinetic Energy.
• We will take heat to mean the thermal energy
in a body OR the thermal energy transferred
into/out of a body
 Specific Heat
• Observational Fact: It is easy to change the temperature of
some things (e.g. air) and hard to change the temperature of
others (e.g. water)
• The amount of heat (Q) added into a body of mass m to change
its temperature an amount T is given by

Q=m C T

• C is called the specific heat and depends on the

material and the units used.
• Note: since we are looking at changes in temperature,
either Kelvin or Celsius will do.
 Units of Heat
• Heat is a form of energy so we can always use
Joules.
• More common in thermodynamics is the
calorie: By definition 1 calorie is the amount
of heat required to change the temperature of
1 gram of water 1C.
• 1 Cal = 1 food calorie = 1000 cal.
• The English unit of heat is the Btu (British
Thermal Unit.) It is the amount of heat
required to change the temperature of 1 lb of
water 1F.

• Conversions:
1 cal =4.186 J
1Btu = 252 cal
 Units of Specific Heat

Q  cal   J 
C= =  o  =  o 
mT  g C   kg C 

Note that by definition, the specific heat

of water is 1 cal/gC.
Material J/kgC cal/gC

Water 4186 1
Ice 2090 0.50
Steam 2010 0.48
Silver 234 0.056
Aluminum 900 0.215
Copper 387 0.0924
Gold 129 0.0308
Iron 448 0.107
Lead 128 0.0305
Brass 380 0.092
Glass 837 0.200
Wood 1700 0.41
Ethyl Alcohol 2400 0.58
Beryllium 1830 0.436
Water has a specific heat of 1 cal/gmK and iron has a
specific heat of 0.107 cal/gmK. If we add the same
amount of heat to equal masses of iron and water,
which will have the larger change in temperature?

1. The iron.
2. They will have equal
changes since the same
amount of heat is added
to each.
3. The Water.
4. None of the above.
 Example Calculation
• Compare the amount of heat energy required to
raise the temperature of 1 kg of water and 1 kg of
iron 20 C?

Q = mC T
For Water
Q = ( 1000 g)(1cal / g C )( 20 C ) = 20,000 cal
o o

For Iron
Q = ( 1000 g)(0.107 cal / g oC )(20 o C ) = 2140 cal
 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
1. Conduction: (solids--mostly) Heat transfer
without mass transfer.
2. Convection: (liquids/gas) Heat transfer with
mass transfer.
3. Radiation: Takes place even in a vacuum.
 Conduction

 Thermal  Contact  Temperatur e 

 Conductivi ty  Area  Difference 
 Rate of  =    
 Heat Flow 
  (Thickness )
Q A
= T
t d
Example
 Convection
• Typically very
complicated.
• Very efficient way to
transfer energy.
• Vortex formation is very
common feature.
• liquid convection
• vortex formation
• Sunspot
• solar simulation
 Convection Examples

• Ocean Currents
• Plate tectonics
 Radiation

• Everything that has a temperature

radiates energy.
• Method that energy from sun reaches the
earth.

Q
P = = eAT = (const)T
4 4

t
• Note: if we double the temperature, the
power radiated goes up by 24 =16.
• If we triple the temperature, the radiated
power goes up by 34=81.
• A lot more about radiation when we get to
light.
 Work Done by a Gas

• Work=(Force)x(distance)
=Fy
• Force=(Presssure)x(Area)
• W=P(Ay)
=PV
 First Law of Thermodynamics
Conservation of energy
• When heat is added into a system it can either
1) change the internal energy of the system
(i.e. make it hotter) or 2) go into doing work.
Q=W +U.
Note: For our purposes, Internal Energy is the part of
the energy that depends on Temperature.
 Heat Engines
• If we can create an “engine” that
operates in a cycle, we return to our
starting point each time and therefore
have the same internal energy. Thus, for
a complete cycle
Q=W
Model Heat Engine

• Qhot= W+Qcold
or
• Qhot-Qcold=W

(what goes in must come out)

 Efficiency
• We want to write an expression that describes
how well our heat engine works.
• Qhot=energy that you pay for.
• W=work done (what you want.)
• Qcold= Waste energy (money).

Efficiency = e = W/Qhot
• If we had a perfect engine, all of the input heat would
be converted into work and the efficiency would be 1.
• The worst possible engine is one that does no work
and the efficiency would be zero.
• Real engines are between 0 and 1

W Qhot − Qcold Qcold

e= = = 1−
Qhot Qhot Qhot
 Newcomen Engine
(First real steam engine)

e=0.005
 Example Calculation
• In every cycle, a heat engine absorbs 1000 J
from a hot reservoir at 600K, does 400 J of
work and expels 600 J into a cold reservoir at
300K. Calculate the efficiency of the engine.
• e= 400J/1000J=0.4
• This is actually a pretty good engine.
 Second Law of Thermodynamics
(What can actually happen)
• Heat does not voluntarily flow from cold to
hot.
OR
• All heat engines have e<1. (Not all heat can be
converted into work.)
 Carnot Engine
• The very best theoretically possible heat
engine is the Carnot engine.
• The efficiency of a Carnot engine depends on
the temperature of the hot and cold reservoirs.

Tcold
eCarnot = 1 −
Thot
Note : The temperatu res must
be measured in Kelvins! !!
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
• Zeroth law of thermodynamics – If two thermodynamic
systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third,
then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
• First law of thermodynamics – Energy can neither be
created nor destroyed. It can only change forms. In any
process, the total energy of the universe remains the
same. For a thermodynamic cycle the net heat supplied
to the system equals the net work done by the system.
• Second law of thermodynamics – The entropy of an
isolated system not in equilibrium will tend to increase
over time, approaching a maximum value at
equilibrium.
• Third law of thermodynamics – As temperature
approaches absolute zero, the entropy of a system
approaches a constant minimum.
• When you heat something, depending on
what it’s made of, it takes a different about of
time to heat up. Assuming that power remains
constant, this must mean that some materials
require more energy to raise their
temperature by 1K (1K is actually the same as
1°C, they just start at a different place.)
• If you think about it, this makes sense. A
wooden spoon takes a lot longer to heat up
than a metal one. We say that metal is a good
thermal conductor and wood a poor thermal
conductor. The energy required to raise 1kg of
a substance by 1K is called it’s specific heat
capacity. The formula we use to find how
much energy is required to raise 1 kg of a
substance by 1K is:
Waves and Vibrations

126
 Waves are everywhere in nature

– Sound waves, – telephone chord

– visible light waves,
waves, – stadium waves,
– radio waves, – earthquake
– microwaves, waves,
– water waves, – waves on a
– sine waves, string,
– slinky waves

127
 What is a wave?
• a wave is a disturbance that travels through a
medium from one location to another.
• a wave is the motion of a disturbance

128
 Slinky Wave
• Let’s use a slinky wave as an example.
• When the slinky is stretched from end to end
and is held at rest, it assumes a natural
position known as the equilibrium or rest
position.
• To introduce a wave here we must first create
a disturbance.
• We must move a particle away from its rest
position.

129
 Slinky Wave
• One way to do this is to jerk the slinky forward
• the beginning of the slinky moves away from its
equilibrium position and then back.
• the disturbance continues down the slinky.
• this disturbance that moves down the slinky is called
a pulse.
• if we keep “pulsing” the slinky back and forth, we
could get a repeating disturbance.

130
 Slinky Wave
• This disturbance would look something like this

• This type of wave is called a LONGITUDINAL wave.

• The pulse is transferred through the medium of the
slinky, but the slinky itself does not actually move.
• It just displaces from its rest position and then
returns to it.
• So what really is being transferred?

131
 Slinky Wave
• Energy is being transferred.
• The metal of the slinky is the MEDIUM in that
transfers the energy pulse of the wave.
• The medium ends up in the same place as it started
… it just gets disturbed and then returns to it rest
position.
• The same can be seen with a stadium wave.

132
 Longitudinal Wave

• The wave we see here is a longitudinal wave.

• The medium particles vibrate parallel to the motion
of the pulse.
• This is the same type of wave that we use to transfer
sound.
• Can you figure out how??
• show tuning fork demo

133
 Transverse waves
• A second type of wave is a transverse wave.
• We said in a longitudinal wave the pulse
travels in a direction parallel to the
disturbance.
• In a transverse wave the pulse travels
perpendicular to the disturbance.

134
 Transverse Waves
• The differences between the two can be seen

135
 Transverse Waves
• Transverse waves occur when we wiggle the
slinky back and forth.
• They also occur when the source disturbance
follows a periodic motion.
• A spring or a pendulum can accomplish this.
• The wave formed here is a SINE wave.

136
 Anatomy of a Wave
• Now we can begin to describe the anatomy of
our waves.
• We will use a transverse wave to describe this
since it is easier to see the pieces.

137
 Anatomy of a Wave

• In our wave here the dashed line represents the

equilibrium position.
• Once the medium is disturbed, it moves away
from this position and then returns to it

138
 Anatomy of a Wave
crest

• The points A and F are called the CRESTS of

the wave.
• This is the point where the wave exhibits
the maximum amount of positive or
upwards displacement
139
 Anatomy of a Wave

trough

• The points D and I are called the TROUGHS

of the wave.
• These are the points where the wave
exhibits its maximum negative or
downward displacement.
140
 Anatomy of a Wave

Amplitude

• The distance between the dashed line and

point A is called the Amplitude of the
wave.\
• This is the maximum displacement that the
wave moves away from its equilibrium.
141
 Anatomy of a Wave
wavelength

• The distance between two consecutive similar

points (in this case two crests) is called the
wavelength.
• This is the length of the wave pulse.
• Between what other points is can a wavelength
be measured?
142
 Anatomy of a Wave

• What else can we determine?

• We know that things that repeat have a
frequency and a period. How could we find
a frequency and a period of a wave?

143
 Wave frequency
• We know that frequency measure how often
something happens over a certain amount of
time.
• We can measure how many times a pulse
passes a fixed point over a given amount of
time, and this will give us the frequency.

144
 Wave frequency
• Suppose I wiggle a slinky back and forth, and
count that 6 waves pass a point in 2 seconds.
What would the frequency be?
– 3 cycles / second
– 3 Hz
– we use the term Hertz (Hz) to stand for cycles per
second.

145
 Wave Period
• The period describes the same thing as it did
with a pendulum.
• It is the time it takes for one cycle to
complete.
• It also is the reciprocal of the frequency.
• T=1/f
• f=1/T
• let’s see if you get it.

146
 Wave Speed
• We can use what we know to determine how
fast a wave is moving.
• What is the formula for velocity?
– velocity = distance / time
• What distance do we know about a wave
– wavelength
• and what time do we know
– period

147
 Wave Speed
• so if we plug these in we get
– velocity =
length of pulse /
time for pulse to move pass a fixed point
–v=/T
– we will use the symbol  to represent wavelength

148
 Wave Speed
• v=/T
• but what does T equal
–T=1/f
• so we can also write
–v=f
– velocity = frequency * wavelength
• This is known as the wave equation.

149
 Wave Behavior
• Now we know all about waves.
• How to describe them, measure them and
analyze them.
• But how do they interact?

150
 Wave Behavior
• We know that waves travel through mediums.
• But what happens when that medium runs
out?

151
 Boundary Behavior
• The behavior of a wave when it reaches the
end of its medium is called the wave’s
BOUNDARY BEHAVIOR.
• When one medium ends and another begins,
that is called a boundary.

152
Fixed End
• One type of boundary that a wave may
encounter is that it may be attached to a fixed
end.
• In this case, the end of the medium will not be
able to move.
• What is going to happen if a wave pulse goes
down this string and encounters the fixed
end?

153
Fixed End
• Here the incident pulse is an upward pulse.
• The reflected pulse is upside-down. It is
inverted.
• The reflected pulse has the same speed,
wavelength, and amplitude as the incident
pulse.

154
Fixed End Animation

155
Free End
• Another boundary type is when a wave’s
medium is attached to a stationary object as a
free end.
• In this situation, the end of the medium is
allowed to slide up and down.
• What would happen in this case?

156
Free End
• Here the reflected pulse is not inverted.
• It is identical to the incident pulse, except it is
moving in the opposite direction.
• The speed, wavelength, and amplitude are the
same as the incident pulse.

157
Free End Animation

158
Change in Medium
• Our third boundary condition is when the
medium of a wave changes.
• Think of a thin rope attached to a thin rope.
The point where the two ropes are attached is
the boundary.
• At this point, a wave pulse will transfer from
one medium to another.
• What will happen here?

159
 Change in Medium

• In this situation part of the wave is reflected,

and part of the wave is transmitted.
• Part of the wave energy is transferred to the
more dense medium, and part is reflected.
• The transmitted pulse is upright, while the
reflected pulse is inverted.

160
 Change in Medium

• The speed and wavelength of the

reflected wave remain the same, but the
amplitude decreases.
• The speed, wavelength, and amplitude of
the transmitted pulse are all smaller than
in the incident pulse.
161
Change in Medium Animation

Test your understanding

162
Wave Interaction
• All we have left to discover is how waves
interact with each other.
• When two waves meet while traveling along
the same medium it is called INTERFERENCE.

163
 Constructive Interference
• Let’s consider two waves moving towards
each other, both having a positive upward
amplitude.
• What will happen when they meet?

164
 Constructive Interference
• They will ADD together to produce a
greater amplitude.
• This is known as CONSTRUCTIVE
INTERFERENCE.

165
 Destructive Interference
• Now let’s consider the opposite, two waves
moving towards each other, one having a
positive (upward) and one a negative
(downward) amplitude.
• What will happen when they meet?

166
 Destructive Interference
• This time when they add together they
will produce a smaller amplitude.
• This is know as DESTRUCTIVE
INTERFERENCE.

167
 Optics
Mirrors and Lenses
 Reflection
• We describe the path of light as straight-line rays
• Reflection off a flat surface follows a simple rule:
– angle in (incidence) equals angle out (reflection)
– angles measured from surface “normal” (perpendicular)

surface normal
same exit ray
incident ray angle reflected ray
 Reflection Vocabulary
• Real Image –
–Image is made from “real” light rays
that converge at a real focal point so the
image is REAL
–Can be projected onto a screen because
light actually passes through the point
where the image appears
–Always inverted
 Reflection Vocabulary

• Virtual Image–
–“Not Real” because it cannot be
projected
–Image only seems to be there!
 Virtual Images in Plane Mirrors
Rays seem to come from behind
the mirror, but, of course, they
don't. It is virtually as if the rays
were coming from behind the
mirror.

"Virtually": the same as if

As far as the eye-brain system is

concerned, the effect is the same
If light energy doesn't flow from the
as would occur if the mirror were
image, the image is "virtual".
absent and the chess piece were
actually located at the spot labeled
"virtual image".
 Hall Mirror
• Useful to think in terms of images

“real” you

mirror only “image” you

needs to be half as
high as you are tall. Your
image will be twice as far from you
as the mirror.
LEFT- RIGHT REVERSAL
 Curved mirrors
• What if the mirror isn’t flat?
– light still follows the same rules, with local
surface normal
• Parabolic mirrors have exact focus
– used in telescopes, backyard satellite dishes,
etc.
– also forms virtual image
0
82a425d7

Concave Mirrors
•Curves inward
•May be real or virtual image
 For a real object between f and the mirror, a virtual image is
formed behind the mirror. The image is upright and larger than
the object.
For a real object between C and f, a real image
is formed outside of C. The image is inverted
and larger than the object.
For a real object at C, the real image is
formed at C. The image is inverted and the
same size as the object.
For a real object close to the mirror but outside
of the center of curvature, the real image is
formed between C and f. The image is inverted
and smaller than the object.
What size image is formed if the
real object is placed at the focal
point f?

For a real object at f, no image is formed. The

reflected rays are parallel and never converge.
 Convex Mirrors
•Curves outward
•Reduces images
•Virtual images
–Use: Rear view mirrors, store
security…
CAUTION! Objects are closer than they appear!
 Refraction
• Light also goes through some things
– glass, water, eyeball, air
• The presence of material slows light’s progress
– interactions with electrical properties of atoms
• The “light slowing factor” is called the index of
refraction
– glass has n = 1.52, meaning that light travels about
1.5 times slower in glass than in vacuum
– water has n = 1.33
– air has n = 1.00028
– vacuum is n = 1.00000 (speed of light at full capacity)
 Refraction at a plane surface
• Light bends at interface between refractive
indices
– bends more the larger the difference in refractive
index
A

n1 = 1.0
n2 = 1.5

B
 Convex Lenses
Thicker in the center
than edges.
– Lens that converges
(brings together) light
The Magnifier
rays.
– Forms real images and
virtual images
depending on position of
the object
 Concave Lenses
• Lenses that are thicker
at the edges and
thinner in the center.
– Diverges light rays
– All images are The De-Magnifier

erect and reduced.

 How You See
• Near Sighted – Eyeball is
too long and image
focuses in front of the
retina
• Near Sightedness – Concave
lenses expand focal length
• Far Sighted – Eyeball is
too short so image is
focused behind the
retina.
• Far Sightedness – Convex lense
shortens the focal length.
 Cameras, in brief
object pinhole
image at
film plane

In a pinhole camera, the hole is so small that light hitting any particular point
on the film plane must have come from a particular direction outside the camera

object image at
film plane

lens

In a camera with a lens, the same applies: that a point on the film plane
more-or-less corresponds to a direction outside the camera. Lenses have
the important advantage of collecting more light than the pinhole admits
Electricity & Magnetism

Static, Currents, Circuits

Magnetic Fields & Electro Magnets
Motors & Generators
 Atoms…
• Have neutrons, protons, and
electrons.
• Protons are positively charged
• Electrons are negatively charged
 Electrons…
• Are located on the outer edges of
atoms…they can be moved.
• A concentration of electrons in an
atom creates a net negative charge.
• If electrons are stripped away, the
atom becomes positively charged.
The world is filled with electrical charges:

+
+ + -
- - + - +
+
- + + -
-
+ +
- - -
What is this electrical potential called?

• Static Electricity

-
- -
- - + ++
- - ++
 Static Electricity
• The build up of an electric charge on
the surface of an object.
• The charge builds up but does not
flow.
• Static electricity is potential energy.
It does not move. It is stored.
 Static Discharge…
• Occurs when there is a loss of static
electricity due to three possible
things:
• Friction - rubbing
• Conduction – direct contact
• Induction – through an electrical
field (not direct contact)
 Electricity that moves…
• Current: The flow of electrons from
one place to another.
• Measured in amperes (amps)
• Kinetic energy
 How can we control currents?
• With circuits.
• Circuit: is a path for the flow of
electrons. We use wires.
 There are 2 types of currents:
• Direct Current (DC) – Where
electrons flow in the same direction
in a wire.
 There are 2 types of currents:
• Alternating Current (AC) – electrons
flow in different directions in a wire
 There are 2 types of circuits:
• Series Circuit: the components are
lined up along one path. If the circuit
is broken, all components turn off.
Series Circuit
 There are 2 types of circuits:
• Parallel Circuit – there are several
branching paths to the components.
If the circuit is broken at any one
branch, only the components on that
branch will turn off.
Parallel Circuit
 Conductors vs. Insulators
• Conductors – material through which
electric current flows easily.

• Insulators – materials through which

electric current cannot move.
 Examples
• Conductors: • Insulators:
–Metal –Styrofoam
–Water –Rubber
–Plastic
–Paper
 What is Resistance?
• The opposition to the flow of an
electric current, producing heat.
• The greater the resistance, the less
current gets through.
• Good conductors have low
resistance.
• Measured in ohms.
 What Influences Resistance?
• Material of wire – aluminum and copper
have low resistance
• Thickness – the thicker the wire the
lower the resistance
• Length – shorter wire has lower
resistance
• Temperature – lower temperature has
lower resistance
 What is Voltage?
• The measure of energy given to the
charge flowing in a circuit.
• The greater the voltage, the greater
the force or “pressure” that drives
the charge through the circuit.
 Difference b/t Volts and Amps
• Example – you could say that…
–Amps measure how much water comes
out of a hose.
–Volts measure how hard the water
comes out of a hose.
 Ohm’s Law

• Resistance = Voltage / Current

• Ohms = Volts / Amps

 Practice with Ohm’s Law
Ohms Volts Amps
4 100 25
15 150 10
2 30 15
9 45 5
6 48 8
 What is an electromagnet?
• Electromagnet – a magnet made
from a current bearing coil of wire
wrapped around an iron or steel
core.
 What is a generator?
• Generator – a machine that changes
mechanical energy to electrical
energy
• Usually use moving magnets to
create currents in coils of wire.
 What is a motor?
• Motor – a device that changes
electrical energy to mechanical
energy that can do work.