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A review of batting in men’s cricket

a a a
Richard A. Stretch , Roger Bartlett & Keith Davids
a
Sport Bureau, University of Port Elizabeth, South Africa
b
The Centre for Sport and Exercise Science, Sheffield Hallam University,
Collegiate Crescent Campus, Sheffield S10
c
Department of Exercise and Sport Science, Manchester Metropolitan
University, Hassall Road, Alsager ST7 2HL, UK
Published online: 09 Dec 2010.

To cite this article: Richard A. Stretch , Roger Bartlett & Keith Davids (2000) A review of batting in men’s
cricket, Journal of Sports Sciences, 18:12, 931-949, DOI: 10.1080/026404100446748

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 Journal of Sports Sciences, 2000, 18, 931± 949

A review of batting in men’ s cricket

RICHARD A. STRETCH,1* ROGER BARTLETT2 and KEITH DAVIDS3
1
Sport B ureau, University of Port Elizabeth, PO Box 1600, Port Elizabeth 6000, South Africa, 2The Centre for Sport and
Exercise Science, Sheý eld Hallam University, Collegiate Crescent Campus, Sheý eld S10 2BP, UK and 3Department
of Exercise and Sport Science, Manchester Metropolitan University, Hassall Road, Alsager ST7 2HL, UK

Accepted 29 November 1999

In this review, we critically evaluate the scienti® c research into the morphology and physiology of cricket bats-
men. We consider all aspects of the motor control of this skill, in the context of research into dynamic interceptive
actions, the biomechanics (kinematics and kinetics) of the various phases of batting strokes and injuries to
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batsmen. Some attention is also devoted to batting equipment and to psychological factors in batting. Because of
the lack of published scienti® c research into women’ s cricket, this review focuses on the men’ s game and covers
research on batsmen of various playing standards. For the future, we see as a high priority research into injury
mechanisms, rather than simple injury statistics, and the role of cricket equipment design in injury prevention. A
second priority is for multi- or inter-disciplinary research, linking the biomechanics of batting to the underlying
motor control of the movements and the eþ ect of environmental information. Biomechanical studies of the
variability of the batsman’ s movements are needed, and these should be related to the compensatory variability
proposal of ecological psychology. Clearly, there is also a need for scienti® c research into batting in women’ s
cricket, which has been inadequately researched to date.

Keywords: biomechanics, cricket batting, injury, motor skills, physiology, psychology.

Introduction fore, we use the traditional term batsman, rather than

Batting in cricket requires motor and psychological
skills to play the best shot from a wide repertoire of
attacking and defensive strokes against bowlers of
diþ erent types ± fast, spin, seam and swing. A good
innings can last several hours (occasionally, days) and
will involve the batsmen running the length of the
pitch (about 19 m) for each run scored (other than
boundaries), wearing protective equipment, including
pads and helmet. The ® tness and morphology of the
batsman are, therefore, also important. Previous reviews
of scienti® c research into cricket have concentrated on
the biomechanical and injury aspects of fast bowling
(Bartlett et al., 1996; Elliott et al., 1996). The aim of this
review is to evaluate the scienti® c research into the
morphology and physiology of batsmen, their motor
skill, the biomechanics of batting, injuries, the equip-
ment used and the psychology of the game. Because of
the lack of published scienti® c research into women’ s
cricket, this review focuses on the men’ s game; there-
* Author to whom all correspondence should be addressed. e-mail:
sparas@upe.ac.za
batter, throughout.
Morphology
Studies of the morphology of cricket batsmen are
limited. Most of these have been conducted as part
of research on cricketers in general rather than bats-
men in particular (Foster and Elliott, 1985; Elliott
et al., 1986; Stretch, 1987, 1990; Peens, 1996). A tall,
athletic build, with morphological diþ erences between
batsmen, bowlers and all-rounders, has been found for
international cricketers and for those of provincial,
county and state standard. Mean somatotype ratings of
2.5± 5.3± 2.1 (Stretch, 1987) and 3.1± 5.5± 2.0 (Stretch,
1990) for provincial and 3.8± 4.4± 2.4 (Peens, 1996) for
club cricketers have been documented. Provincial
batsmen (Stretch, 1987: 2.5± 5.2± 2.0; Stretch, 1990:
3.0± 5.7± 2.0) and club batsmen (Peens, 1996: 3.7±
4.5± 2.4) have been found to have endo-mesomorphic
somatotypes. It could, of course, be argued that this
research shows little more than a bias towards large
fast bowlers. Anthropometric diþ erences have been

Journal of Sports Sciences ISSN 0264-0414 print/ISSN 1466-447X online Ó 2000 Taylor & Francis Ltd
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
 932
found between batsmen and bowlers, with the batsmen
tending to be shorter and lighter than the bowlers, but
having a greater relative fat mass. Bowlers have been
shown to have a signi® cantly greater androgyny index
and absolute muscle and bone masses than batsmen
(Stretch, 1987, 1990). It may be that bowling selectively
favours larger and taller players; for batting, size is not
necessarily advantageous.
Physiological factors
The importance of physical conditioning to comple-
ment a cricketer’ s skills has been emphasized by Pyke
et al. (1975), Foster (1978), Davis (1984) and Tyson
(1985), particularly in the constraints of limited-overs
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matches. This aspect of cricket batting has been badly
neglected by sport scientists, as is evident from the lack
of reported research. Foster (1978), Briggs (1980),
Davis (1984), Tomlin and Popplewell (1991) and Bull
et al. (1992) have drawn up guidelines for training
and for the evaluation of the ® tness of cricketers. Much
of this work has been based on subjective evaluations,
rather than empirical scienti® c research, with some
application of basic physiological principles.
Using a portable calorimeter (Kofranyi Michaelis),
Fletcher (1955) determined the mean energy expen-
ditures for college cricketers playing in the nets to be
1004 kJ ´m- 2 ´h- 1 for batting and 1012 kJ ´ m- 2 ´ h- 1 for
bowling. Energy expenditure during match-play was
calculated by analysing the time spent in the component
activities and multiplying these times by the experi-
mentally determined energy expenditure for each
activity in the nets. During inter-college matches, energy
expenditures of 765 kJ ´ m- 2 ´h- 1 for batting, 665
kJ ´ m- 2 ´ h- 1 for bowling and 468 kJ ´m- 2 ´h- 1 for ® elding
were estimated. In an international Test match, it was
predicted that the energy expenditures for batsmen,
bowlers and ® elders were 648, 531 and 368 kJ ´ m- 2 ´ h- 1,
respectively. The American College of Sports Medicine
(1990) classi® ed the energy cost of playing cricket in
general ± not batting in particular ± as falling within the
range of 4.6± 7.4 METS.
Foster (1978) monitored the activity patterns and
telemetered heart rates of ® rst-class cricketers. He
reported that the activity patterns of batting, bowling
and ® elding showed that players were required to repeat
many intensive activities, which do not normally last
more than 20 s. Cricketers rarely sprint more than 70±
80 m, with a distance of ~ 20 m the most common: this
is roughly the distance covered by each batsman for a
`run’ . The energy for this is supplied by anaerobic
sources, using ATP-PC and the lactic acid energy sys-
tem. The aerobic energy source is used during recovery
as well as to replace the phosphate stores in preparation
Stretch et al.
for the next bout of intensive activity. Foster’ s con-
tention was that cricketers need to be able to repeat
many intensive eþ orts lasting on average 10± 20 s. These
brief periods of intense activity need to be repeated,
although at diþ erent regularities and frequencies, by
batsmen, fast bowlers and ® elders. An interval-training
programme was recommended by Foster (1978) to
develop both the aerobic and anaerobic energy systems
most eþ ectively.
It could be argued that future research needs to
determine more clearly the demands of batting in par-
ticular rather than cricket in general (see, for example,
Davis et al., 1994). Stretch and Buys (1991) reported
no signi® cant diþ erences in speed and agility between
batsmen, bowlers, all-rounders and wicket-keepers
taking part in the South African Universities Students
Cricket Week. Comparisons between those who had
played at provincial standard and those who had only
played club cricket showed that provincial players
tended to perform better in the tests than club players.
The running speed (time to run three runs) of the
batsmen was faster than for the other groups, although
they had the slowest 50 m dash times and were ranked
third in the shuttle run test of agility. These contrasting
results appear to indicate that the ability to run with
pads on ± and the skill of running between the wickets
(as assessed by the time to run three runs) ± play an
important role here; batsmen may have re® ned these
skills through batting in matches.
Motor skills: Perception and action in cricket
batting
Batting in cricket is an example of a dynamic inter-
ceptive action, which Whiting (1969) placed in his
second, most complex, category of ball skills ± that
encompassing task constraints where a ball has to be
received and sent away in the same movement. Skilful
performance of dynamic interceptive actions is funda-
mental to success in many ball games. To psychologists,
they have represented a useful vehicle for developing
theoretical understanding of the relationship between
perception and action in goal-directed behaviour (e.g.
Whiting, 1969; Bootsma, 1988; Williams et al., 1992,
1999; Harris and Jenkin, 1998).
The spatio-temporal constraints of dynamic interceptive
actions in ball games
Although there is little speci® c research on the processes
of perception and action during cricket batting, some
previous work has been done on similar dynamic inter-
ceptive tasks, including striking in fast ball sports such
as baseball and table tennis. Because of the similarities
 A review of batting in men’s cricket
in task constraints across fast ball games involving
striking, it may be instructive to compare how top-class
players satisfy the severe demands on their perceptual
and motor systems. In this section, we review some of
the more general work on interceptive actions that is
relevant to cricket batting performance.
The key to successful coordination and control
of dynamic interceptive actions is for the intercepting
limb or implement to be in the right place at the right
time (Savelsbergh and Bootsma, 1994; Regan, 1997;
Williams et al., 1999). When performing dynamic inter-
ceptive actions, athletes need precise information to
locate the ball in space (`where’ information) at a
speci® c time (`when’ information). Savelsbergh and
Bootsma (1994) have argued that three task constraints
need to be satis® ed for successful performance of
dynamic interceptive actions in sport. Performers need
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to: (i) ensure that they contact a moving projectile in the
environment; (ii) contact it with the intended velocity;
and (iii) contact it with an intended spatial orientation
to satisfy the accuracy requirements of the task. Success-
ful interceptive actions require good coordination not
only between relevant parts of the movement system,
but also between relevant motor system components
and the projectile to be intercepted. The latter is a dif-
® cult task, which can be performed with some success
by most humans (Bootsma and Van Wieringen, 1990;
Regan, 1997).
Quantitative descriptions of projectile speeds in
cricket have indicated that the temporal constraints on
cricket batsmen are severe. For example, Glencross and
Cibich (1977) found that a ball delivered at 40.2 m ´ s- 1
took 439 ms to reach the batsman. It was assumed that
the movement time was 250 ms, leaving just 189 ms
to react to the ball. The batsman also needs to pick up
visual information on late deviations in ¯ ight because
of added complications, such as spin, swerve or drag
eþ ects. These ® ndings are broadly in line with those of
Regan (1997), who demonstrated how cricketers often
have only 230 ms to deal with late ¯ uctuations in the
¯ ight of a ball approaching at 44.4 m ´s- 1. If one accepts
the temporal values from these analyses, it is clear that,
to bat successfully, cricketers have to initiate some
movements, such as the backswing in the bi-phasic bat-
ting action, before delivery of the ball. The temporal
constraints of spin bowling are a little better, but for a
ball delivered at 18 m ´ s- 1, Regan (1997) calculated that
it would hit the ground ~ 940 ms after release. Visual
reaction time was estimated at 150 ms and movement
time for the stroke at 200 ms, leaving about 600 ms
for perception of ¯ ight characteristics. Regan’ s (1997)
analyses of the temporal constraints of slow bowling
proposed an appreciable portion of time for perception
of ¯ ight characteristics. He argued that this period could
be ® lled with unreliable information, owing to human
933
weaknesses in judging absolute distance and speed,
beyond a few metres from the point of observation.
To understand processes of perception and action
in dynamic interceptive actions, it is relevant to ask how
skilled players pick up visual information to satisfy the
spatio-temporal task constraints of batting.
Processes of perception and action: Theoretical approaches
In the study of perception and action during dynamic
interceptive actions, there have been at least two distinct
avenues for research. One line of work has tended
to focus on how dynamic interceptive actions can be
instantaneously regulated by perceptual information
(e.g. haptic, proprioceptive, auditory and visual) when
there is suý cient time available (Solomon and Turvey,
1988; Savelsbergh and Bootsma, 1994). This approach
typically emphasizes the role of receptor anticipation
processes, in which actions need information for
initiation, completion and on-line guidance (Gibson,
1979; Harris and Jenkin, 1998; Williams et al., 1999).
Functional on-line adjustments are necessary because
early retinal image information on ball ¯ ight is unreli-
able, as the human visual system has diý culty esti-
mating the absolute distance and absolute speed of
an approaching object (Regan et al., 1998). This is an
apparent limitation that skilled bowlers seek to exploit
by such strategies as holding the ball loosely or
hyperextending the wrist at delivery to vary bowling
speed and ¯ ight along the same trajectory (Regan,
1997). Despite this neurally based limitation, the
human visual system can instantaneously predict the
trajectory of a ball to within less than 0.5° of the visual
® eld and can perceive time-to-contact information
to within ± 2 or 3 ms (Lee, 1980; Bootsma and Van
Wieringen, 1990; Regan et al., 1998). Skilled cricketers
learn to cope with these visual system limitations
through the development of a continuous link between
the perceptual and action systems, which allows them to
use receptor anticipation processes late in the stroke
to make ongoing adjustments.
Another avenue of research, popular in cognitive
psychology, is based upon the notion that the spatio-
temporal constraints of fast ball games are often so
severe that extensive previous knowledge is required
to anticipate perceptually the time-of-arrival of a pro-
jectile at a speci® c point. Traditionally, in cognitive
psychology, there has been a tendency to highlight the
computational problems involved in performing under
the constraints of fast ball sports. In particular, the
limited information-processing capacities of the human
brain, modelled as a computer, have been emphasized
(e.g. Fitts and Posner, 1967; Abernethy and Russell,
1984; Abernethy, 1987). The limitations of the human
information-processing system are typically not due
 934
to threshold properties of the performer’ s perceptual
systems ± so-called `hardware’ factors (see Williams
et al., 1999). Rather, `software’ factors have been
implicated: extensive knowledge and skill in using the
mental processes of perception, attention and memory
underpin the inadequacy of the visual system.
The limitations of human information processing
were highlighted in early cognitive research on reac-
tion times using static interceptive actions (see also
Fischman, 1984; Christina, 1992). For example, mean
values of 195 ms were obtained for simple reaction time
in an interceptive action in which a statically positioned
tennis ball had to be grasped as quickly as possible
(Henry and Rogers, 1960). A mean of 36 ms was added
to simple reaction times when participants were
required to perform an additional task component or
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the accuracy of movement demands was increased.
Given the severe spatio-temporal constraints of fast ball
games, these results indicate the importance not only of
visual information from ball ¯ ight but also of pre-¯ ight
information, such as the movements of a bowler (e.g.
Williams et al., 1992; Regan et al., 1998). Abernethy and
Russell (1984) argued that, because of the restrictive
time constraints of fast ball sports at the highest
standards of performance, the skilled performer is one
who `buys’ time for decision-making and response
preparation by exploiting advance information from
an opponent’ s movements. This ® nding explains why
highly skilled games players rarely seem to react to
unexpected events, but appear to operate `in the future’ .
They use what has been termed an `anticipatory mode’
of action (Whiting et al., 1973).
Skilled cricket batting: An information-processing
interpretation
A classical information-processing approach to cricket
batting emphasizes that stimulus information from the
preparatory movements of a bowler before delivery may
be encoded, together with features of early ball ¯ ight.
When batsmen take up a stance at the crease, they seek
any postural cues from the bowler that may assist in
perceptually anticipating the line, length and speed of
the delivery. Once the ball has been released, parts
of the trajectory may be visually tracked and relevant
characteristics ± such as speed, swerve and spin ± have to
be identi® ed to predict when and where the ball will
pitch. In an inferential process, cues from the event are
compared to an internalized representation of the `tar-
get’ action already stored in memory from many similar
experiences (see, for example, Marteniuk, 1976; Barber,
1988). Based on the available perceptual information,
a decision is reached about whether there was a match
with similar items in memory.
An information-processing approach to interceptive
Stretch et al.
actions, therefore, highlights the role of expert percep-
tion in decision-making, planning and stroke execution
(e.g. Whiting, 1969; Abernethy, 1987). Expertise in
knowing where and when to look for advance infor-
mation is believed to support perceptual anticipation
processes during time-constrained interceptive actions,
such as cricket batting (Abernethy, 1981; Abernethy
and Russell, 1984). The conclusion that skilled
cricketers are more able to infer ball ¯ ight character-
istics from advance information from the bowler’ s body
movements has been supported by evidence on foot
movement times during batting. For example, data on
the foot movements of skilled cricketers batting against
fast bowling concur with those of Hubbard and Seng
(1954) on step durations of baseball batsmen. Foot
movements were completed before the point of ball± bat
contact (Abernethy, 1982).
The propositions of the information-processing
approach have rarely been tested in the context of
cricket batting. One issue concerns the relevance of the
results from studies of reaction time in the laboratories
of experimental psychologists to the time constraints of
natural performance contexts, such as cricket batting.
When the ball deviates, either forward or laterally,
during the latter part of ¯ ight, the batsman is forced
to modify the originally selected stroke under severe
time constraints. Are skilled cricketers burdened with
reaction times of around 200 ms in response to sudden
unanticipated changes in ball ¯ ight during cricket bat-
ting? McLeod (1987), using a ball projection machine,
found that three international class batsmen were not
able to make any adjustments to their stroke during the
last 180± 200 ms of ¯ ight. Although he raised the issue of
the large moment of inertia of the bat, McLeod (1987)
concluded that a range of values around 200 ms should
be accepted as the minimum time required for visual
feedback to in¯ uence initiation of an interceptive action.
Abernethy and Russell (1984) used a ® lm-based
reaction time paradigm to examine diþ erences between
skilled and unskilled cricketers in batting performance.
The task for the groups was to view ® lmed sequences of
the run-up and delivery of two medium-pace bowlers
and to verbally report a stroke to play. The skilled group
required 22 ms less viewing time than the unskilled
group to report a response decision. The results were
taken to infer that skilled players use perceptual antici-
pation strategies to satisfy the severe spatio-temporal
constraints of batting against fast bowling. Evidence
of the role of visual search strategies in providing
advance information is a common feature of research on
expertise in sports, including those involving dynamic
interceptive actions (Williams et al., 1999). In cricket,
Barras (1990) found that skilled batsmen tended to
focus on the bowling hand and ball until the bowler was
in a side-on position in the delivery stride. Thereafter,
 A review of batting in men’s cricket
the batsman ® xated the anticipated area of ball release
above and lateral to the shoulder of the bowling arm.
A time lag of 0.94 s occurred between the initiation
of the visual ® xation of the release zone and the hand
appearing. Barras (1990) argued that this temporal
delay ensured that the eyes were stationary when
the hand appeared to allow the pick-up of visual
information.
Although sport scientists have become increasingly
aware of the role of advance perceptual information for
performance of interceptive actions, bowlers in cricket
have also learned about its signi® cance before delivery
of a ball. For example, bowlers have developed tech-
niques to either obscure or confuse the relevant visual
information from the movement system before delivery.
Such techniques include: (1) delaying the onset of
critical information, for example by screening the
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position of the bowling hand with the non-bowling hand
or other parts of the body during the run-up; (2)
presenting false signals; (3) increasing the amount of
information by adopting unorthodox positions before
ball release; and (4) constantly varying the parameters
of ball delivery and ¯ ight, including angle of release,
speed, swing, ¯ ight and direction. The batsman’ s task is
made more diý cult when a bowler is able to extract late
swing in the air or to get the ball to deviate oþ the pitch.
This strategy, as noted by Regan (1997), forces the
batsman to rely on information from early segments of
ball ¯ ight, which the visual system cannot reliably pick
up. What can batsmen do in practice to counter these
strategies? The capacity to pick up relevant information
from the run-up and delivery stride increases the possi-
bility of movement initiation before ball release. Practice
should generally involve developing perceptual skill
in picking up advance information from the relevant
body parts of bowlers. More speci® cally, videotapes
of an opponent’ s bowlers may be studied to reveal
idiosyncrasies in the run-up and delivery stride, which
signal intent.
Response programming
When information about bowlers’ movements and ball
¯ ight has been encoded, transformed and perceived,
a motor response can be selected from the skilled
cricketer’ s repertoire to intercept the ball (see Tyldesley
and Whiting, 1975). Hubbard and Seng (1954)
observed remarkable consistency in the swing times
of professional baseball players. The implication is
that expert batsmen were able to coordinate the many
degrees of freedom of the motor system (i.e. the dif-
ferent parts of the skeletomuscular apparatus that are
free to vary at any instant), by pre-programming the
motor response (see Bernstein, 1967). That is, each
individual component of the movement system does
935
not have to be controlled separately by the brain.
This strategy, based on years of repetitive drills and
systematic practice, suggests how skilled cricketers can
reproduce a consistent and highly reliable stroke under
severe time pressure.
Support for this view emerges from the work of
Tyldesley and Whiting (1975), who proposed the con-
cept of `operational timing’ as a means by which expert
games players reduce temporal uncertainty of an inter-
ceptive action by practising until it has a highly consist-
ent duration. They argued that the development of
good response consistency through practice signi® es
that expert performance of dynamic interceptive actions
only demands attention to the input and decision-
making components of performance. For expert games
players, it appears that movement patterns can become
so replicable that the spatio-temporal constraints on
playing the shot can be reduced to simply one of timing
the initiation of movement. In their study of striking
actions, at the key points of movement initiation
and bat± ball contact, the between-trials displacement
diþ erences in the trajectory of the bat for experts
were negligible. From this information-processing
perspective, trial-to-trial variability was regarded as
dysfunctional and due to `noise’ in the central nervous
system or perturbations within the environment. Other
data on response accuracy in cricketers also suggest
that skilled players are more accurate in reporting shot
selection, particularly during good-length deliveries
(Abernethy and Russell, 1984). Taken together, these
® ndings can be taken to support the notion of the
development and use of a general motor program for
batting strokes by skilled players.
In summary, the ® ndings reviewed in this section
illustrate the importance of cricketers developing
perceptual anticipation strategies to overcome infor-
mation-processing limitations when batting. These
® ndings have been criticized for being too speci® c
to experimental contexts in which participants are
required to react suddenly to the appearance of visual
signals. A clear distinction should be made between
these speci® c constraints and typical performance
conditions in ball games, where athletes can modulate
ongoing actions on the basis of continuously available
information (Bootsma and Van Wieringen, 1990;
Whiting, 1991). The methodological techniques used
by information-processing theorists have been criticized
for other reasons (for a full summary, see Williams
et al., 1992, 1999), including problems with ecological
validity of the experimental context, an apparent
obsession with reaction-time paradigms, the failure to
implement realistic movement response measures, and
the use of static and small-scale stimulus displays to
present information in experiments. We now highlight
some of these key criticisms.
 936
Criticisms of information-processing research on timing of
dynamic interceptive actions
Traditionally, there has been a tendency to focus on
coincidence anticipation or motion prediction tasks
in which participants typically have to report verbally
when a (suddenly occluded) object or image arrives at
a designated target (e.g. Abernethy and Russell, 1984).
These paradigms emphasize perceptual anticipation
processes, whereas in the study of natural interceptive
actions the emphasis is on receptor anticipation processes
(Poulton, 1957; Williams et al., 1992; Tresilian,
1995). In dynamic interceptive actions, participants are
typically able to view a ball until it is adjacent with the
bat. There is ample opportunity for information to pro-
vide a steering or guiding role for action. The implica-
tion is that the typically distinct constraints of motion
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prediction and natural interceptive tasks may involve
diþ erent control mechanisms. In natural interceptive
actions, the execution times are far shorter than in
motion prediction tasks. Also, the ball is typically able
to be viewed for the whole ¯ ight (e.g. 300 ms for one-
handed catching at 10 m ´s- 1; Alderson et al., 1974). As
evidenced by results on timing from `ordinary people’
and infants, the large variability in estimation of time-
to-contact typically reported in simulation studies is
often not present in the performance of natural tasks
such as rapid interceptive actions (Williams et al.,
1999). Tresilian (1995, p. 237) also highlighted that
`the variability (standard deviation of response times)
of responses in CA [coincidence anticipation] tasks
is some ® ve or six times greater than that observed
in IAs [interceptive actions] performed under the
same stimulus conditions’ . This ® nding, particularly
with the practised observers and skilled catchers,
calls into question the use of coincidence anticipation
methods, such as ® lm-based tasks, for investigating the
timing of dynamic interceptive actions. The use of these
unrealistic paradigms to assess dynamic interceptive
actions in sport also prevents expert performers from
demonstrating a tight coupling between the perceptual
and action systems. As we shall see next, ecological
psychologists propose this idea as the conceptual basis
of the relationship between perception and action.
Perception and action in dynamic interceptive actions:
The ecological perspective
In contrast to information-processing accounts, the eco-
logical approach to perception and action emphasizes
the high quality of information continuously available
for direct perception in the environment (Gibson,
1979). For this reason, information does not have to be
embellished by inference with internalized models of
the world. The notion in cognitive psychology, that
Stretch et al.
invariant information about actions and objects can be
processed and committed to a uni® ed representation of
an event in memory, is rejected. This fallacy has been
termed the `Grand Illusion’ (Harris and Jenkin, 1998).
Ecological psychology instead emphasizes the biological
constraints on brain functions such as perception
and action (Davids and Bennett, 1998). A functional
relationship between human perceptual and action
systems has evolved to support the behaviours involved
in negotiating surfaces and interacting with objects
in typical environments (Gibson, 1979). Fundamental
behaviours, such as interceptive actions, are exempli® ed
in many ball games. Here, we focus on the visual system
as the vehicle for our discussion of key ideas on the
ecological approach to perception and action during
interceptive actions.
Information aþ ords actions. The ® rst key idea of the
ecological approach is that ambient light arriving at
the eye provides optical information for the performer
because it already contains enormous structure. Accord-
ing to Gibson (1979), light reaches the eye after having
been re¯ ected oþ surfaces and objects, such as an
approaching cricket ball, in the environment. Light
is re¯ ected in straight lines and exists in a highly
structured distribution called an `array’ . In ecological
psychology, optic variables refer to the properties of
the light re¯ ected in a lawfully structured way from
important objects. These properties are available to be
perceived directly by all organisms equipped with a
visual system. Optic variables come in many forms.
They include information on the direction of motion of
an object, the distance from an observer that an object
will pass, and even the time until it contacts the point
of observation (tau) (for detailed reviews, see Gibson,
1979; Lee, 1980; Todd, 1981; Bootsma and Peper,
1992; Michaels and Oudejans, 1992; Williams et al.,
1999). Optic variables are characterized by the action
possibilities or aþ ordances they oþ er the sport per-
former. For example, advance information from body
orientation and relative motion of joints in the move-
ment system of a bowler running up to deliver a ball
provides aþ ordances for a batsman. As a result of
learning, the aþ ordances from the bowler’ s run-up and
delivery, as well as ball ¯ ight, can be exploited by skilled
cricketers as reliable sources of information to constrain
batting actions. With practice, the actions of a bats-
man can become tightly geared to the most important
informational constraints in speci® c task conditions.
The evolutionary basis of interceptive timing. A second
important aspect of the ecological view is that informa-
tion is unambiguous and can be perceived directly by
the sport performer. This position contrasts strongly
with indirect accounts of `cues’ as tentative stimuli to be
 A review of batting in men’s cricket
embellished by internalized representations. From an
evolutionary perspective, the textured elements of the
environment perturb the ¯ ow of light rays in meaning-
ful ways for humans. The continuous availability of
information for pick up by purpose-designed perceptual
systems is an important element of ecological explana-
tions of the performance of dynamic interceptive
actions. It implies an existing sensitivity to the pick-up
of optical information from objects during relative
approach. The practice and experience of actions in
speci® c performance contexts merely attune existing
sensitivity to optical sources of information, which
constrain action (Michaels and Beek, 1995).
What evidence is there, in studies of dynamic inter-
ceptive actions, for the notion of an evolutionary based
sensitivity to optical information from approaching
objects? Von Hofsten (1983) videotaped infants aged
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34 and 36 weeks reaching towards a brightly coloured
object travelling in a circular path in a horizontal plane
at speeds of 0.3, 0.45 and 0.6 m ´ s- 1. In total, 144
reaches were analysed to show highly functional
accuracy and precision of timing. Only 17 of the trials
resulted in the target being completely missed by the
infants. In the slowest target speed condition, the mean
timing error was only 9.4 ms in an average reaching time
of 550 ms. For targets moving at 0.45 m ´ s- 1, with a
faster average reach time of 479 ms, the systematic error
fell to a mean of 4.4 ms. It is diý cult to conceive of
infants being able to develop a representation to support
such accurate performance of interceptive actions.
Rather, these ® ndings emphasize the view that per-
ceptual processes are supported by smart (i.e. purpose-
designed) mechanisms, which have evolved in the
human central nervous system to become attuned
to speci® c optical variables (Runeson, 1977). The idea
of `smart visual perception’ can be viewed as the
`selective, task-oriented, gathering of information from
the visual world’ for movement execution (Ballard et al.,
1998, p. 93). The role of smart mechanisms in dynamic
interceptive tasks is supported by other data showing
that precise timing is not just a function of the relatively
slow speeds used by von Hofsten (1983) with infants.
McLeod et al. (1986) asked non-games players to strike
vertically dropping squash balls with paddle bats
towards a designated target area. A high consistency
was soon reached by the participants in this novel inter-
ceptive action, with standard deviations of 10 ms found
in 90% of trials and 5 ms in 50% of trials. McLeod and
Jenkins (1991, p. 286) have argued that these results
suggest that `ordinary people, without any particular
practice’ can produce ® ne timing in dynamic intercep-
tive actions. From these results, it is easy to interpret
how expert cricketers can satisfy the task constraints of
batting. Observations of expert cricketers playing dif-
® cult shots, such as the hook or leg glance, ® t these
937
arguments (McLeod, 1987; Regan, 1997). Typically,
the most straightforward shot to play is hitting the ball
straight down the line. As the game context changes,
batsmen might need to play more risky shots across
the line of ¯ ight of the ball, such as the glance, cut or
hook. In the leg glance, for example, the margin of
error (estimated by the standard deviation around the
mean time taken to perform the action) is minimal. The
frontal plane of the blade of the cricket bat (» 10 cm
wide) is turned almost 90° to de¯ ect the ball past the
wicket keeper. Yet skilled cricketers were able to satisfy
successfully these severe spatio-temporal constraints
against fast bowling at speeds of around 40 m ´s- 1.
In the hook shot, the margin of error in perceiving time
to contact information has been estimated at 2.5 ms
(Regan, 1997).
For Lee and Young (1985, p. 2), the extraordinary
demonstration of timing precision in non-games players
and human infants `suggests that visual-motor systems
have evolved which are particularly eý cient at detecting
time to contact and gearing actions to the information’ .
Recent modelling and evidence on neural mechanisms
in the visual system also provide some support for the
evolutionary basis of smart mechanisms in interceptive
timing. Regan (1997) and Regan et al. (1998) have
modelled how the detection of looming objects during
visually guided actions is supported by the presence of
speci® c neural ® lters in the central nervous system. One
crucial retinal detector is the `motion-in-depth’ ® lter,
whose magnitude of output is `inversely proportional
to time to collision’ with an approaching object, such
as a cricket ball (Regan et al., 1998, p. 186). Wang and
Frost (1992) have also reported that speci® c neurones
in the brain respond with heightened electrical activity
at a constant time before contact during perception
of information from looming objects. The maximum
response of the neuronal cells always occurred at a
constant time to contact, regardless of changes in size
and speed of the approaching stimuli. Motion of the
stimuli in other directions, apart from straight towards
the point of observation, failed to produce a signi® cant
increase in the rate of ® ring of neurons. Other research
has also implicated special-purpose functional divisions
in the visual cortex with an evolutionary basis for
supporting certain acts (e.g. Harris and Jenkin,
1998; Milner, 1998). This suggests that multiple visual
systems may exist in the cortex for extracting diþ erent
types of information when performing diþ erent
tasks. One such cortical pathway is dedicated to sub-
consciously picking up and using visual information for
the purpose of controlling actions. The implication is
that people may be able to exploit a sensitivity to optical
information within the central nervous system when
they need to time their actions to rapidly moving objects
in space (Harris and Jenkin, 1998).
 938
The studies reviewed above imply that skill in
dynamic interceptive actions may be based on an evo-
lutionary sensitivity to optic variables. It would appear
that this sensitivity is a resource that can be ® ne-tuned
with context-speci® c practice in ball games such as
cricket (Williams et al., 1999). Skilled cricketers can
satisfy the severe task constraints of batting because
unambiguous optical information sources are con-
tinuously available to be sub-consciously picked up by
dedicated visual systems to constrain the assembly of
successful interceptive actions. From the emerging evi-
dence, therefore, it is apparent that the earlier account
from indirect perception, claiming that cricket batsmen
need to somehow encode and transform information
before selecting a pre-programmed response, is overly
complex. Rather, the process of perception± action coup-
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ling is advocated in ecological psychology as the basis of
skilled interceptive timing behaviour (Savelsbergh and
Bootsma, 1994; Williams et al., 1999).
Acting is not reacting (Whiting, 1991). The notion
of perception± action coupling questions traditional
assumptions that the performance of skilled batsmen in
cricket is limited by simple reaction times of around
200 ms, as discussed earlier (McLeod, 1987). Bootsma
and Van Wieringen (1990) criticized previous research
postulating visual-motor delays of around 200 ms as
arti® cial. They drew a crucial distinction between the
role of visual information to initiate a movement,
typically required in laboratory reaction time studies,
and its regulatory role in adapting, steering and guiding
ongoing `real-world’ movements, such as cricket batting
(see also Carlton, 1981). Their ® ndings on dynamic
interceptive actions in expert table-tennis players,
revealed visual-motor delays of 105± 122 ms when
modifying a forehand drive. Another study of inter-
ceptive actions by Lee et al. (1983) found evidence of
visual-motor delays of 55± 130 ms. The implication is
that periods of around 200 ms for visual information
processing cannot be justi® ed outside the laboratory,
particularly during natural actions when visual infor-
mation was used primarily to adapt and modify on-
going movement. Moreover, these results are in line
with revised estimates from newer, more biological
approaches to the study of cognitive processes, which
are less `black-box-oriented’ than their predecessors.
For example, temporal constraints on the pick-up and
comparison of perceptual information with `cortical
memories’ have been modelled around 80± 100 ms,
based on what neuroscientists now know about ® ring
times for neurons and local cortical circuitry in the brain
(e.g. Ballard et al., 1998).
A functional role for variability. A third proposal in eco-
logical psychology is that of compensatory variability,
Stretch et al.
exempli® ed in the study of dynamic interceptive actions
by Bootsma and Van Wieringen (1990). The ability of
experts to modulate precisely ongoing dynamic inter-
ceptive actions is predicated on a functional role for
movement variability during interceptive actions. Com-
pensatory variability is a functional type of variability. It
is an important means by which skilled performers in
dynamic environments can produce a tight ® t between
the current state of the action system and the task goal
at the all-important endpoint of execution, through
modulating movements on the basis of ongoing per-
ceptual information. They suggested that action systems
and perceptual systems could be used to compensate
for sudden changes through the covariation of move-
ment duration and initiation time for an interceptive
action. Such variability between trials should be viewed
as compensatory, because early movement initiations
would be locked to slower drives and later ones to faster
drives. When the interceptive action was broken up into
® rst and second parts, the higher negative correlations
for the ® rst part with mean speed suggested that adapta-
tions were taking place from trial to trial. Evidence
for intra-trial variability was also provided in two parti-
cipants in their study. Smaller movement variability
(estimated by the coeý cient of variation) was found
during the middle to late components of their inter-
ceptive actions, not the earliest parts, suggesting that
these `subjects were still altering their movement during
execution’ (Bootsma and Van Wieringen, 1990, p. 27).
The visual-motor delays of 105± 122 ms observed in
four participants suggested that they were still able to
pick up movement-regulatory information at a relatively
late stage of performance.
These ® ndings provided a theoretical explanation
for the data of Hubbard and Seng (1954) on the ability
of expert baseball batsmen to covary movement initi-
ation time in relation to ball speed. Furthermore, the
results contradicted traditional information-processing
assumptions that expert batsmen rely on the known
duration of an interceptive action as the basis for
timing (e.g. Tyldesley and Whiting, 1975; Abernethy,
1981). Rather, it is apparent that an ongoing process
of perception± action coupling allows experts to update
interceptive actions continuously, with concurrent
perceptual information, until a very late stage of
performance. These explanations call into question
previous interpretations of how skilled cricketers satisfy
the time constraints of batting against fast bowlers
(e.g. Glencross and Cibich, 1977; Abernethy, 1981;
Abernethy and Russell, 1984). The shorter estimates
of visual-motor delay suggest that ongoing adaptations
may be feasible at a much later stage of performance
than previously believed.
It is clear that, because of its theoretical emphasis on
coupling of perception and action systems in dynamic
 A review of batting in men’s cricket
interceptive actions, the ecological framework has
tended to emphasize kinematic measures, using bio-
mechanical techniques of analysis. This approach
lends itself naturally to a close relationship between the
sub-disciplines of biomechanics and motor control in
experimental design. In the next section, we examine
the ® ndings of biomechanical studies of cricket batting.
Biomechanics of batting
Several biomechanical studies have been conducted
on the swing of a cricket ball and the technique of fast
bowling; these are well documented in a review by
Bartlett et al. (1996). In contrast, only Davis (1983),
Baker (1992), Elliott et al. (1993), Stretch (1993c)
and Stretch et al. (1995, 1998a) have illustrated bio-
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mechanical principles related to cricket batting and
evaluated the eþ ectiveness of coaching points. The
research to date on the biomechanics of batting has been
essentially descriptive. For example, no research has
yet evaluated how coaching style in¯ uences the kine-
matics of batting. The principle of distal-to-proximal
sequencing has not been clearly addressed for cricket
batting. Perhaps most importantly, the role of com-
pensatory variability (see previous section) in the skill of
striking a moving cricket ball with a moving cricket bat
has not received attention from biomechanists. Having
identi® ed the kinematic and kinetic principles involved
in batting, as in the research reviewed below, coaches
should be aware of individual diþ erences in the tech-
niques, as skills can be performed in a variety of
ways. These limitations should be borne in mind when
reading the following sub-sections, in which we have
sought to relate the mostly descriptive research ® ndings
to biomechanical principles or to views on batting
technique in the coaching literature.
The kinematics of batting
Davis (1983) provided insight into the technique of
batting and questioned some of the established
principles of coaching cricket skills; however, these
results were not obtained under well-controlled experi-
ments. For a group of 14 ® rst-class batsmen (two of
whom went on to play Test cricket), Stretch (1993c)
and Stretch et al. (1998a) compared the kinematics of
the front foot drive (D) to those of the forward defensive
stroke (FD), which forms the basis of the drive (Greig,
1974; Reddick, 1979; Tyson, 1985; MCC, 1987; Khan,
1989). Their ® ndings con® rmed several descriptions in
the coaching literature (Greig, 1974; Reddick, 1979;
Tyson, 1985; Andrew, 1987; MCC, 1987; Khan, 1989)
and highlighted diþ erences between the two stroke
patterns.
939
The stance and backlift. Stretch et al. (1998a) reported
that the grip and stance were similar for the forward
defensive stroke and front foot drive, with the feet twice
the recommended distance apart (0.30± 0.35 m apart)
for both strokes (Greig, 1974; Reddick, 1979; Tyson,
1985; MCC, 1987; Khan, 1989). The front knee and
hip were directly over the front foot, with the back knee
(0.05 m), hip (0.07 m) and shoulder (0.09 m) forward
of the back foot. The front shoulder was forward of
the front foot (0.08 m) and above the back shoulder
(0.07 m); this resulted in the body’ s centre of mass
being displaced 0.08 m forward of the midpoint
between the feet, and towards the line of ¯ ight of the
ball. This concurs with the recommendations of the
coaching literature (e.g. MCC, 1987) and the ® ndings
of Elliott et al. (1993) and supports the principle of
weight distribution for an expected forward movement.
Stretch et al. (1998a) reported that the backlift for the
drive was 0.09 m higher than for the forward defensive,
similar to recommendations in the coaching literature
(Greig, 1974; Reddick, 1979; Tyson, 1985; MCC, 1987;
Khan, 1989) and to the ® ndings of Elliott et al. (1993).
This observation suggests that the batsman made an
initial choice of stroke before the start of the downswing
of the bat (Stretch et al., 1998a). The pick up of the bat
in the drive brought the front elbow ahead of the body
and ¯ exed at an angle of 144° (FD = 142°), somewhat
less than the 121° and 124° for the oþ - and on-drives
reported by Elliott et al. (1993). At no stage in the back-
lift did Stretch et al. (1998a) ® nd that the bat was kept
stationary at the top of the backlift, as suggested by
Gibson and Adams (1989); rather, the downswing of
the stroke ¯ owed from the backswing in a continuous
movement.
Gibson and Adams (1989) used a split-image ® lming
technique to examine the time-course of the batting
action of an international cricketer when facing a fast-
medium bowler or a ball projection machine set at
the same speed. When batting against the bowler, the
batsman initiated his backswing at a consistent time
before ball release. The bat was lifted slowly, held at the
top of the backswing and then the downswing was
performed while completing the front foot movement.
When facing the bowling machine, the backlift began at
widely varying times, with the front foot movement
starting before the backswing was completed. The back-
swing was held for a short time, the downswing was
faster and the front foot movement was completed
before the end of the downswing. The pause at the top
of the backswing was used to make ® nal adjustments to
the stroke-selection decision. The batsman thus initiates
the stroke in response to temporal cues, modifying
it later as a result of continued input of spatial and
temporal information. Gibson and Adams (1989)
recommended that batsmen should bat against bowling
 940
machines for the learning of techniques and against
bowlers for the development of stroke timing and
modi® cations.
The stride and downswing to impact. The diþ erences
reported by Stretch et al. (1998a), between the kine-
matics of the stride and downswing of the bat for the two
strokes, are as expected for successful execution of the
two strokes and are generally supportive of the coaching
literature. Both the instant at which batsmen began
playing the drive and the start of the stride occurred
later than for the forward defensive; the front foot
movement occurred 0.58 s pre-impact (FD = 0.64 s)
and the downswing of the bat started 0.36 s pre-impact
(FD = 0.38 s). Delaying the forward movement of
the foot and the downswing of the bat, when playing
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the attacking stroke, allows the batsman to assimilate
additional ball ¯ ight information and, therefore, make
® nal decisions about the execution of the stroke from
this temporal and spatial information. This is supported
by Glencross and Cibich (1977), Abernethy (1981,
1982), Abernethy and Russell (1984) and Gibson and
Adams (1989), who suggested that, only after the
batsman has made his initial general response, such as
playing forward, can he make the ® nal adjustment to the
stroke.
The front foot strides for the two strokes showed no
statistically signi® cant diþ erences. This lack of statistical
signi® cance, and the limited number of batsmen in the
study, hinders the generality of the ® ndings of Stretch
et al. (1998a). Nevertheless, the results do allow some
quanti® cation of batting technique and the drawing of
tentative comparisons with opinions in the coaching
literature and with biomechanical principles. Although
not statistically signi® cant, the stride for the drive
was shorter than the forward defensive (D = 0.68 m;
FD = 0.72 m), the front foot was raised higher (D =
0.09 m; FD = 0.08 m) and the stride began 0.06 s later,
with the front foot placement occurring later (D =
0.06 s pre-impact; FD = 0.14 s pre-impact). The longer
front foot movement time for the drive bene® ted the
summation of forces in the direction of the stroke,
leading to a greater impact speed of the bat on the ball,
unlike the forward defensive, where the batsman was
in a stationary position well before bat± ball impact.
At the instant when the front foot was lifted oþ the
ground in moving forwards to play the drive, Stretch
et al. (1998a) reported that the front knee was ¯ exed
slightly to 173° (FD = 175°). The front knee angle then
reduced to 152° (FD = 159°) at front foot placement,
147° at impact (FD = 156°) and 150° during the follow-
through (FD = 149°). This front knee ¯ exion helped the
weight of the body to move forward, as suggested in
the coaching literature (e.g. MCC, 1987). This weight
transfer was further enhanced by raising the heel of the
Stretch et al.
back foot oþ the ground, also as recommended in the
coaching literature (MCC, 1987). The horizontal
forward displacement, measured from the front of the
boot (D = 0.10 m; FD = 0.05 m), of the toe of the back
foot at the instant of contact diþ ered from the recom-
mendations of the MCC (1987). Whereas the MCC
recommended that the toe should not drag forwards,
moving the back foot forwards may, in fact, help to
transfer weight into the stroke.
During the stride phase of the drive, no statistically
signi® cant diþ erences were noted between the strokes
for the forward (D = 0.35 m; FD = 0.31 m) or down-
ward (D = 0.12 m; FD = 0.09 m) displacement of the
head (Stretch et al., 1998a). During the last 0.06 s before
impact in the drive, the head moved 0.09 m downwards,
ensuring that the batsman’ s weight did not shift away
from the point of bat± ball contact, which could have
resulted in the ball being hit upwards (Tyson, 1985).
The downswing of the bat to execute the drive began
with the movement of the hands, forearm and upper
arm; this was followed by the movement of the bat
forwards and downwards (Stretch et al., 1998a). The
front upper arm then accelerated to reach a peak
horizontal velocity 0.22 s before impact; the forearm
accelerated until 0.20 s before impact, with the back
upper arm, forearm and the centre of mass of the bat
accelerating into the stroke. The bat reached a peak
horizontal velocity (11.8 ± 4.61 m ´ s- 1) at impact, after
which all segments decelerated. During the downswing
of the drive, the elbow ¯ exed to 113° at the instant the
front foot was raised, after which it extended to 129° at
impact (Stretch et al., 1998a). This ¯ exion is in line with
the coaching view that the downswing of the bat should
be carried out with the front elbow ¯ exed and with the
bat moving down in a straight line, as close to the body
as possible (Tyson, 1985). In cricket batting, the exten-
sion of the front elbow might result in `its [the bat’ s] arc
¯ attening’ (Tyson, 1985), leading to an increase in the
radius of the arm and bat segment, which would then
increase the tangential velocity of the distal end of the
segment (Hay and Reid, 1988), resulting in an increase
in the speed of the bat and, therefore, the post-impact
ball speed.
Impact. The aim of the drive is to hit the ball with
suý cient force to score runs, while still maintaining
control of the ball (Stretch et al., 1998a). The success
of the stroke can be ascertained from the resultant
end-point linear speeds and the interaction between
bat and ball. Stretch et al. (1998a) reported that, in the
drive, which requires the ball to be hit with both power
and accuracy, the diþ erence between the horizontal
velocity vectors of the bat (11.8 m ´ s- 1) and ball (20.5
m ´ s- 1) at impact (32.3 ± 5.06 m ´s- 1) was signi® cantly
greater (P < 0.05) than for the forward defensive
 A review of batting in men’s cricket
(24.2 ± 4.65 m ´s- 1). This variability is in part attri-
butable to diþ erent ball release speeds, even though the
same bowler was used. The bat± ball impact speed for
the study of Stretch et al. (1998a) is slightly lower than
the values reported by Elliott et al. (1993) for the oþ -
(36.4 m ´ s- 1) and on-drives (38.6 m ´ s- 1). The reasons
for these discrepancies are not clear; however, it should
be noted that both of the values from Elliott et al. (1993)
lie within one standard deviation from the mean
reported by Stretch et al. (1998a).
The bat± ball impact was 0.20 ± 0.13 m behind the
front ankle for the drive (FD = 0.09 ± 0.17 m) and
0.04 ± 0.36 m (FD = 0.11 ± 0.25 m) behind the line of
the head (Stretch et al., 1998a). These ® ndings con¯ ict
in part with both the coaching literature (Greig,
1974; Reddick, 1979; Tyson, 1985; Andrew, 1987;
MCC, 1987; Khan, 1989) and the ® ndings of Elliott
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et al. (1993); the ball was not played close to the front
foot but, at impact, the line of the head was over the
ball. At impact, the angular displacement of the bat at
77.8 ± 7.1° to the ground in the drive diþ ered signi® -
cantly from that of the forward defensive (62.6 ± 6.5°).
These results of Stretch et al. (1998a) for the drive
support the coaching literature, which recommends
that bat± ball impact should occur `just before the bat
reaches the perpendicular’ (Khan, 1989, p. 21), with the
top of the bat ahead of its toe at impact (Tyson, 1985).
This should enhance both ball speed, by maximizing
the bat speed at impact, and control ± the impact in this
position would not tend to raise the ball into the air.
The bat reached its peak horizontal velocity in the
drive (11.8 ± 4.61 m ´s- 1) 0.02 s before impact (Stretch
et al., 1998a). This is in line with the results of research
in golf (Shibayama and Ebashi, 1983), softball (Messier
and Owen, 1984) and baseball (McIntyre and Pfautsch,
1982). Stretch et al. (1998a) agreed with the suggestion
that the body segments slow down just before contact to
prepare for the force of impact.
In the drive, the forward step of the front foot ± and
the sequence in which the segments reached their peak
linear speeds ± resulted in a peak horizontal velocity
for the bat 0.02 s pre-impact that produced much of
the post-impact ball speed (Stretch et al., 1998a). The
¯ exion of the front knee in the drive lowered the centre
of mass. This increased the stability of the body (Hay
and Reid, 1988), so that the stroke could be played
powerfully while still maintaining a correctly balanced
position. The back knee ¯ exed slightly to an angle
of 145° when playing the drive. During the downswing
of the bat, the back foot moved forwards 0.10 m
(FD = 0.05 m) to ensure the forward movement of the
body’ s centre of mass; this accords with the principle of
summation of forces in the direction of the stroke
(Stretch et al., 1998a).
The pendulum movements of the front upper
941
limb, rotating at the shoulder, elbow and wrist joints,
resulted in the sequential peaking of the linear speeds
of the segment end-points (Stretch et al., 1998a). These
results agree with research in tennis and baseball, in
which greater racket and bat impact speeds were found
from the striking limb moving as a multi-segmental set
of levers (Breen, 1967; Milburn, 1982; Shibayama and
Ebashi, 1983; Tyson, 1985; Hay and Reid, 1988; Elliott
et al., 1989). In addition, the back elbow reached its
peak linear speed at impact, supporting the coaching
literature, which suggests that the bottom hand gives
power to the stroke (MCC, 1987). The front elbow
moved forwards and upwards in anticipation of the
movement of the ball after bouncing on the pitch,
thereby ensuring that the ball was played into the
ground (Stretch et al., 1998a).
Follow-through. The follow-through for the drive is
essential for the bat to reach optimal speed at impact.
In the study of Stretch (1993c), all batsmen followed-
through as suggested in the coaching literature (e.g.
MCC, 1987). The post-impact bat horizontal velocity
for the drive (11.3 ± 4.21 m ´s- 1) was signi® cantly greater
than that for the forward defensive stroke (2.73 ±
2.88 m ´ s- 1) where there is less of a follow-through, as it
is a defensive stroke. During the follow-through of the
drive, the bat retains 95% of its pre-impact speed and
requires time and distance to allow the body segments
to decelerate without interfering with the application of
force to the ball.
Kinetics of batting
Stretch (1993a) and Stretch et al. (1995, 1998a) studied
the grip forces of the top and bottom hand while batting
on a turf pitch against a medium-fast bowler. Their
main ® ndings supported the coaching literature, which
suggests that the top hand is the dominant hand in the
drive and is reinforced by the bottom hand at impact
(Greig, 1974; Reddick, 1979; Tyson, 1985; Andrew,
1987; MCC, 1987; Khan, 1989). Similar grip force
patterns for the drive and forward defensive strokes
were recorded throughout the initial part of the stroke,
with greater forces applied by the top and bottom hands
just before impact in the drive.
Signi® cant diþ erences were found in the intra-
individual means of the top and bottom grip forces
when playing the two strokes, as well as for the intra-
individual means of the top hand (range = 87.5± 138 N)
and the bottom hand (range = 32.8± 103 N) when
playing the drive. This variability may relate both
to slight variations in the pace, line and length of the
delivery and to diþ erences between players’ styles. The
initial grip pressure pattern for the drive was very similar
to that of the forward defensive, as the batsman is only
 942
able to make his ® nal stroke selection based on ball
¯ ight information (Abernethy and Russell, 1984;
Gibson and Adams, 1989). Fairly constant diþ erences
were found between the grip force patterns of the top
and bottom hands throughout the early part of the
drive. Diþ erences occurred at 0.10 s pre-impact as
the top hand applied more force than the bottom hand
during the drive.
During the drive, the grip force of the top hand
increased, with peak forces of 199 ± 41 N being reached
0.02 s before impact, reducing to 158 ± 56 N at impact
and 126 ± 29 N at 0.02 s after impact. A similar pattern
occurred in the forward defensive stroke (Stretch et al.,
1998a). The pattern is similar to that reported for the
speed of the body segments in golf (Shibayama and
Ebashi, 1983), softball (Messier and Owen, 1984) and
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baseball batting (McIntrye and Pfautsch, 1982). The
upper limb segments reached their peak linear speeds
before impact and were decelerating at impact.
The relaxation of the grip continued until 0.06 s post-
impact and was followed by a slight increase in grip
force as the necessary hand forces were generated to
regain control of the bat after impact and to control the
inertia of the bat (Stretch et al., 1998a). A more gradual
relaxing of the grip force followed, as the bat was swung
through to ® nish high in front of the batsman. However,
the top hand plays the dominant role in the stroke and
needs to grip the bat ® rmly to control the stroke (Greig,
1974; Reddick, 1979; Andrew, 1987; MCC, 1987).
The grip force patterns for the bottom hand during
the drive were similar to the top hand, except the forces
were smaller, with a peak force of 91.8 ± 41.1 N reached
0.02 s pre-impact, reducing to 86.2 ± 58.2 N at impact
and 82.4 ± 28.6 N at 0.02 s post-impact (Stretch et al.,
1998a). A rapid relaxation of the bottom hand occurred
up to 0.05 s post-impact, followed by a slight increase as
the necessary hand forces were generated to regain con-
trol of the bat after impact. This was then followed by a
more gradual relaxing of the grip force as the bat was
swung through to ® nish high in front of the head.
Centripetal forces up to 320 N have been reported
when a golf club is swung, eþ ectively increasing the
weight of the golf club about 160 times (Daish, 1972).
Similarly, the centripetal forces built up during the
downswing and the follow-through phases of the drive
in cricket batting may be quite large. Thus, although a
particularly strong grip is not likely to add power to the
shot, an eþ ective grip is necessary to sustain the centri-
petal forces generated in the execution of the attacking
strokes in cricket. Such a grip may lead to an increase in
the control of the bat, resulting in greater consistency
of stroke reproduction.
Stretch (1993c) reported diþ erences in the grip forces
when batting on diþ erent surfaces and against diþ erent
paced bowlers, although results for the comparison of
Stretch et al.
arti® cial and turf pitches and spin and medium-paced
bowlers were collected from only two batsmen, both
experienced elite cricketers. When playing the drive
against medium-paced bowlers on an arti® cial pitch,
smaller forces were generated by the top hand than
when playing on a turf pitch. In the drive, forces at
impact of 195 N were recorded (FD = 93.6 N) with the
peak force of 195 N being reached 0.02 s post-impact
(FD = 102 N at 0.04 s pre-impact). The force patterns
for the bottom hand before and at impact were similar
to those when batting on turf, while a relaxation and
re-gripping of the bat during the follow-through was
demonstrated when batting on the arti® cial pitch. The
drive played on a turf pitch against a spin bowler
demonstrated a peak force of 158 N, which occurred
0.02 s post-impact for the top hand. A similar grip± force
pattern was demonstrated for the bottom hand (peak
force of 102 N at 0.02 s pre-impact), except that, after
impact, a slight re-gripping of the bat occurred as the
necessary hand forces were generated to regain control
of the bat and to control the inertia of the bat during the
follow-through. When playing the forward defensive,
the peak forces for the bottom hand (58.4 N) occurred
0.08 s after impact (Stretch, 1993c). These diþ erences
may be attributable to the arti® cial pitch being faster
than turf, with a more consistent and predictable
bounce and with the ball not spinning or seaming as
much as on turf.
When playing the drive against a spin bowler on an
arti® cial surface, the top hand demonstrated a similar,
although smaller, grip± force pattern than when batting
on turf, with the exception that the peak forces were
reached 0.04 s post-impact (FD peak force = 74.3 N
at 0.06 s post impact). The grip± force pattern for the
bottom hand again showed a similar force pattern,
but with smaller forces than those for the top hand,
with a relaxation and then re-gripping post-impact to
control the bat during the follow-through. In the
forward defensive, the bottom hand showed little
change in grip forces throughout the stroke, with a force
at impact of 30.1 N, reaching a peak force of 34.4 N
at 0.06 s post-impact (Stretch, 1993c).
Injuries
In addition to possessing good technical skills, the
modern batsman needs to be very ® t, to avoid not only
the `traditional’ direct injuries of being struck by the
ball, but also indirect and overuse injuries as a result
of repetitive training for a sport that is becoming more
explosive in nature. The various studies of injury
incidence in cricket, highlighted below, do not always
distinguish injuries to batsmen from those to other
players.
 A review of batting in men’s cricket
The risk of injuries to club cricket players has been
estimated to be 2.6 per 10,000 man hours played
(Weightman and Browne, 1971; Temple, 1982). These
® gures exclude injuries thought to be trivial, as well as
many chronic overuse injuries. The rate of injury to
® rst-class cricketers in Australia has been estimated
to be 1 per 30 man-hours played (Payne et al., 1987).
Provincial cricketers (71.6%) were reported to be at a
greater risk of injury than schoolboy (49.0%) and club
cricketers (28.4%; Stretch, 1993b).
Deaths from cricket date back to the passing
of Frederick Louis, the Prince of Wales and father of
George III, who died hours after being struck on the
head by a cricket ball (Temple, 1982). Blonstein (1966)
suggested that six deaths per year occurred in the UK
as a result of playing cricket. From the self-report
questionnaire responses of 183 (59%) of 308 cricketers
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canvassed, Stretch (1993b) found that serious injuries
are sustained more frequently during matches by club
and provincial cricketers (69.3%) than at practices
(26.1%). In schoolboy cricketers, 45.6% of the injuries
were sustained both in matches and at practices. In both
groups, the balance of the injuries were chronic injuries
or injuries that occurred during training.
Although bowling is the major cause of injuries at all
standards of the game, batting accounted for 17.1%
of the injuries to club and provincial cricketers, with
muscle pulls and impact injuries the most common
(Stretch, 1993b). In schoolboy cricketers, the batsmen
sustained 29.8% of the injuries, of which 17.5% were
impact injuries to the head and face. The incidence of
injury to the head, neck and face has been reported
as 17.5% in schoolboy cricketers, 9% in club and pro-
vincial players, 17.5± 20% in provincial players (Stretch,
1989) and 25% in club cricketers (Temple, 1982).
Most head injuries were a result of being struck by the
ball while trying to hook, by the ball de¯ ecting oþ the
top-edge of the bat on to the head while playing
a horizontal-bat stroke, or as a result of being struck
by the ball rearing oþ the pitch. These injuries were
sustained when the batsmen were batting either without
a helmet or with a helmet with earpiece side-guards
only; they included concussions, a broken nose and
cheekbones, and lacerations requiring stitches around
the eyes, mouth and chin.
Eye injuries in cricket were ® rst reported at the
beginning of the century (Ogilvie, 1900), with later
cases of chronic glaucoma secondary to trauma
(D’ Ombrain, 1945) and ocular concussion (Littlewood,
1982) having been reported. Four cases of severe eye
injuries, including retina detachment and rupture of
the globe, were documented in batsmen, accounting for
9.0% of sport-related eye injuries. These resulted from
the ball de¯ ecting oþ the top-edge of the bat while hook-
ing, and striking the eye on the side of the dominant
943
hand (Jones and Tullo, 1986). A survey over 18 months
carried out at the Sussex Eye Hospital revealed ® ve
minor eye injuries caused by playing cricket, which
accounted for 5.4% of all the eye injuries recorded in
sports within that period (Gregory, 1986).
Many cricket injuries have been found to be either
recurring injuries from the previous season or injuries
that recurred later in the season. Twenty percent of
the injuries sustained on an international tour were
re-aggravated injuries from the previous season (Smith,
1991), while 23.9% of the injuries to club and provincial
cricketers were reported to be recurrent injuries and
22.7% of the new injuries sustained were re-aggravated
again during that season (Stretch, 1993b). Of the
injuries sustained by schoolboy cricketers, 29.8%
involved a recurrence of an old injury, while 36.8% of
the new injuries sustained recurred again during the
same season. Injuries have been reported as occurring
fairly regularly throughout the season, with a slight
increase during the early and latter part of the season
(Stretch, 1989, 1993b). Overuse injuries have been
reported to be more common towards the end of the
season (Corrigan, 1984), which would appear to be a
result of both the concentration of cricket and players
not fully recovering from previous injuries.
The upper limb accounted for 24.6% of the injuries
in schoolboy cricketers, 25% of injuries in club
cricketers (Temple, 1982), 32% in provincial cricketers
(Stretch, 1989) and 34% in provincial and club
cricketers (Stretch, 1993b). Batting injuries consisted
primarily of fractures, dislocations and contusions of the
® ngers, which were found to be the most vulnerable
site for injuries (Corrigan, 1984; Gregory, 1986; Jones
and Tullo, 1986; Stretch, 1989, 1993b).
The danger of a fracture, as a result of being struck
by the ball while batting, to the distal third of the ulna,
rib fractures and soft tissue injuries, especially to the
upper leg, abdomen and testicles, have been reported by
Corrigan (1984). The case of a splenic rupture, and
another of a young player requiring splenectomy for a
ruptured spleen after blunt trauma from a cricket ball,
were reported by Du Toit and Rademan (1987).
Top- and middle-order batsmen have been found
to be more susceptible to impact injuries to the head,
phalanges, metacarpals and to lower arm injuries
than lower-order batsmen (Stretch, 1989). Payne et al.
(1987) reported that bowlers sustained most impact
injuries while batting. Lower limb injuries were mainly
hamstring, quadriceps and calf muscle pulls as a
result of running between the wickets (Weightman
and Browne, 1971; Temple, 1982; Payne et al., 1987;
Stretch, 1989).
Forward (1988) recorded all the indoor cricket
injuries that were reported at the Royal Perth Hospital
over a 6-month period. He found that the 64 patients
 944
treated were 19± 34 years old (50 males, 14 females).
Fielding (72%) and batting (17%) resulted in the major
share of these injuries: no injuries were sustained while
bowling. The most common injuries were to the ® ngers
and thumb. Fifty percent of the injured players required
time oþ work, with 30% being oþ work for more than
1 week and 10% being hospitalized.
Coroneo (1985) recommended that ocular pro-
tective devices should be worn when playing indoor
cricket after reporting four cases of ocular injuries in
cricketers. From the many case reports and studies on
the incidence of injuries to cricketers, the indications
are that the major areas of concern to batsmen are
impact injuries to the head, face and ® ngers. Although
cricket injuries have not reached serious proportions,
cognisance needs to be taken of these patterns so that
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the risks of injury can be reduced even further.
Equipment
Bats
The centre of percussion is important in the design of
all sports equipment used to hit balls, including cricket
bats. If the bat-to-ball impact occurs through the centre
of percussion, then no force is transmitted to the hands.
The centre of percussion will alter with the position of
the grip on the handle. This sensitivity is reduced if the
centre of mass is closer to the centre of percussion; for
example, by the build up of the mass of the cricket bat
around its centre of percussion (Bartlett, 1997). It is,
perhaps, surprising, given the amount of research into
the positioning of the `sweet spot’ on tennis rackets, that
such little research has been reported on the optimal
design of cricket bats. There is little published informa-
tion on how the position of the centre of percussion is
aþ ected by diþ erent weights or shapes of bat and little
research into other aspects of optimal bat design.
Modern wooden cricket bats have been assessed for
their eþ ectiveness as implements to strike the ball by
Wood and Dawson (1977). The ® ve bats tested showed
distinct diþ erences in hitting eþ ectiveness because of
their physical properties. Consistent diþ erences were
found between the theoretically obtained centres of
percussion. The total impact time between bat and ball
was 40± 70 ms, with the major shock dissipated in the
® rst 20± 30 ms after impact. A weak relationship was
found between the weight of the bat and the moments of
inertia.
Elliott and Ackland (1982) compared aluminium and
wooden cricket bats and found that they had similar
dimensions, weight, static balance and resistance to
rotational motion. The location of the experimental
centres of percussion of the senior-sized aluminium bats
Stretch et al.
was further from the handle than that for the wooden
bats, which was similar to the ® ndings of Wood
and Dawson (1977). The experimental centres of per-
cussion of the junior-sized wooden and aluminium
bats were very similar. Both groups of aluminium
bats showed three to four times greater recoil impulses
and, on average, produced a greater rebound coeý cient
than the wooden bats. Wooden bats demonstrated
better rebound characteristics than aluminium bats.
Elliott and Ackland (1982) contended that more
research needs to be done into aluminium bats
before they can become a viable replacement for
wooden bats; at present, aluminium bats are rarely used
in cricket.
Batting gloves
Stretch and Tyler (1995) compared the impact charac-
teristics and the eý ciency to absorb impact forces
of four types of cricket batting gloves using the drop
test to simulate four impact speeds: slow-medium, fast-
medium, fast and express. In this test, a weighted ball
was dropped vertically onto the surface of the batting
glove with the vertical forces measured by sensors in
a cricket bat handle. The structure and composition
of the protective part of the gloves over the index and
middle ® ngers were diþ erent in all four makes of gloves.
Three of the pairs of gloves (G1, G2 and G3) were com-
posed of two protective components, whereas the fourth
(G4) had only one. In the gloves for which there were
two protective components, the outer part consisted of
sponge-foam-polyurethane that was 10, 10 and 8 mm
thick for G1, G2 and G3, respectively. The density of
this padding appeared to be less in G3 than in the
others. The main diþ erence, however, was that, in
addition to the protection oþ ered by this, G3 had addi-
tional protection in the form of a 3 mm thick ¯ at plastic
reinforcement over the outer part of the padding of the
index and middle ® ngers.
The second protective layer of the gloves varied, with
G2 and G4 made up of a similar component to their
outer layers, 16 and 10 mm thick, respectively. Gloves
G1 and G3 were made up of a layer of tightly compacted
padding in each of the ® ngers. In G1 and G3, a thin
sponge covering formed the innermost layer of pro-
tection. The only glove with one protective layer, G4,
diþ ered from the other three gloves in that this section
consisted of four layers. First, it had a thin plastic
reinforcement 1 mm thick, with a 2 mm foam covering
on the outer side, over each of the ® ngers. Secondly, in
each ® nger, the middle layer consisted of a 10 mm thick
composition similar to the outer and middle layers in
G2. Finally, the innermost layer, which was 7 mm thick,
was made from a component that appeared to be less
dense than the previous layer.
 A review of batting in men’s cricket
Signi® cant diþ erences between the force absorption
characteristics were found at all speeds except slow-
medium. At fast-medium, signi® cant diþ erences were
found between G1 and G2. At fast speed, G2 and G4
diþ ered signi® cantly, while at express speed, G4 diþ ered
signi® cantly from both G2 and G3, and G3 diþ ered
signi® cantly from G2. These diþ erences were a result
of the diþ erences in the structure and composition of
this protective part of the gloves. Manufacturers are,
however, in the diý cult position of having to balance
the impact absorption characteristics of the gloves with
the comfort required to wear them for long periods.
At the two fastest impact speeds, the gloves that
showed the greatest ability to absorb the impact forces
of the ball (G3 and G4) were those with a thin plastic
reinforcement placed in the outer part of the padding of
the index and middle ® nger (G3) and separately over
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each of the ® ngers (G4). This design feature helped
to dissipate the impact forces of the cricket ball over
a greater area, thus reducing the impact forces on the
® ngers. These diþ erences were a result of the structure
and composition of the protective part of the batting
glove, which diþ ered for all four makes of glove. From
the results, it would appear that the batting gloves best
able to absorb forces at the fastest impact speeds were
those that had a thin plastic reinforcement over an extra
padded layer of the ® ngers, plus the normal padding on
the ® ngers.
Batting pads
Hrysomalis (1996) reported how such factors as thick-
ness, construction, temperature and humidity aþ ect the
shock absorbency of cricket pads. Several of the pads
tested showed inadequate protection to repeated drops
on the knee roll, especially at higher temperatures and
humidities. A high correlation was reported between
peak deceleration and the thickness of both the pad knee
roll and shin region.
Stretch et al. (1998b) found a signi® cant diþ erence
between the impact kinetics of cricket batting pads at
various impact speeds. These diþ erences were con-
sidered to be a result of the diþ erent structure and com-
position of the protective part of the pads. Some makes
of pads were better able to absorb the impact forces of
the ball, giving the batsman greater protection, while
others were better able to reduce the rebound distance
of the ball after impact. From their ® ndings, it would
appear that the batting pads best able to absorb the
impact forces of a ball bowled at fast to express speeds
are manufactured from polyurethane. The traditional
batting pads that are in current use have a greater ability
to reduce the rebound distance of the ball after impact
with the pads. This reduced ball± pad coeý cient of
restitution is a result of the structure and composition
945
of the protective parts of the pads, which are less
rigid.
These rebound characteristics of pads could be
either an advantage or a disadvantage when batting,
depending on the match; this is not to suggest that
batsmen select their pads according to rebound charac-
teristics rather than for protection, comfort or freedom
of movement. In Test cricket, where it is more common
for ® elders to ® eld close to the batsman, pads with a
large post-impact rebound distance of the ball could
result in the batsman being caught `bat± pad’ (the ball
de¯ ected from the bat onto the pads and then being
caught by a ® elder). Wearing the more traditional
pads would reduce this rebound distance, lessening the
risk of dismissal in this manner. The converse could,
however, apply in limited-overs cricket matches, where
the ® elders are normally further from the batsman.
A batsman wearing pads with a greater post-impact
rebound distance might have an advantage by being
able to score runs or leg byes from balls de¯ ecting oþ
the pads.
Manufacturers of batting pads are in the diý cult
position of having to balance the impact absorption and
rebound characteristics of the pads with the comfort
required to wear them for long periods. Cricket pad
manufacturers, aware that the batting pads behave
diþ erently under various impact conditions because of
the structure and composition of the protective layers
of the pads, need to investigate further the impact
properties of the components or combinations of com-
ponents they use in their batting pads.
Ball and sightscreen colour
From the batsman’ s point of view, either an orange ball
used against a black sightscreen or a white ball against
a black sightscreen is better than the traditional red
ball against a white sightscreen (Martin-Jenkins, 1988).
The reaction time for the former combination was
414 ms, compared with 420 ms for a white ball against
a black sightscreen and 456 ms for a red ball against
a white sightscreen. More recently, Langley et al. (1999)
found that neither ball colour (red or white) nor
illuminance (571, 1143 or 1714 lux) aþ ected the slip
catching performance of ® ve male ® rst-class cricketers.
More research of this kind is required to determine
scienti® cally the eþ ects of such changes to the game on
batting performance.
Psychological factors
Traditionally, cricket players and administrators have
neglected the contribution that the sport psychologist,
and current trends in sport psychology, can make in the
 946
mental preparation of batsmen. The emphasis has
largely been placed on the technical, physical and
tactical components; recently, however, more research
has been conducted into mental preparation. Batsmen
and coaches are becoming more aware of the role that
sport psychology can play in the enhancement of
performance (see, for example, Bull et al., 1992),
although there is plenty of scope for further, good-
quality research into the various psychological aspects
of batting.
No diþ erences between anxiety and the performance
of skilled and semi-skilled cricket batsmen were found
in tests when these batsmen were required to discrimi-
nate between various bowling deliveries from a video-
tape presentation (Morris et al., 1985). When required
to respond by selecting the appropriate batting stroke,
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the skilled batsmen recorded lower state anxiety scores,
although no diþ erences in cue discrimination were
found between the groups. High speci® city in the causes
and eþ ects of stress in batting have been reported
(Morris et al., 1985); these authors suggested that
practice in muscle relaxation might reduce stress in
batsmen with relatively high state anxiety. Dippenaar
and Potgieter (1986) found no signi® cant relationship
for anxiety between or within ability groups in ® rst
league batsmen and bowlers. They did, however, ® nd
signi® cant diþ erences between and within the groups
on measures of attentional and interpersonal style.
When looking at the more pro® cient cricketers in each
group, spin bowlers were less impulsive and had more
self-control than batsmen. Fast bowlers were found
to be more intellectually expressive than seam bowlers,
and more positively expressive and in¯ uenced to a
greater extent by external stimuli than spin bowlers.
Jones et al. (1988) assessed the aþ ect of anxiety on
psychomotor performance of 12 cricketers, 4 days,
1 day, 1 h and immediately before batting. Their results
showed no change in cognitive anxiety across the
four test sessions, whereas somatic anxiety increased
immediately before batting with a corresponding reduc-
tion in self-con® dence. Simple and discrimination
reaction time did not alter, but the error percentage
was greater on the discrimination task immediately
before batting, which the authors ascribed to increased
somatic anxiety.
Many batsmen have been under the impression that
wearing a helmet when facing fast bowling helps to
reduce anxiety by reducing the possibility of serious
head and facial injuries. Davids and Morgan (1988)
found that batsmen showed little change in per-
formance-related anxiety, heart rate and the ability
to track and play fast bowling when wearing a
helmet with bars, a visorless helmet or no helmet at all.
These ® ndings imply that batsmen can now face fast
bowlers with con® dence in the knowledge that their
Stretch et al.
vision has not been aþ ected by wearing a helmet with
bars.
At the end of a programme examining the relation-
ship of mental preparation and performance, club
cricketers were able to determine personal objectives
with regard to control, commitment and mood analysis
(Shilbury, 1989). They were also able to isolate factors
such as anxiety, nervousness, lack of motivation
and poor concentration by gaining a greater under-
standing of themselves as cricketers and individuals.
Only recently have attempts been made to identify
and develop the necessary mental skills required for
competition by integrating the psychological with the
technical and physical aspects of the game. We would
argue that, although some studies ± such as the one just
discussed ± have not distinguished between batsmen
and other players, batsmen have the most to gain from
research into the eþ ects of mental preparation on their
performance.
Conclusions and recommendations
The scienti® c research into aspects of batting in men’ s
cricket has included the morphology and physiology
of cricket batsmen, motor skills, the biomechanics
of the various phases of batting strokes, injuries to
batsmen and their association with cricket equipment,
and psychological factors in batting. The research is
patchy in coverage and many topics merit further
investigation. These topics include aspects of ® tness
speci® city, for example weight training based on
electromyographic evidence, and psychological coping
skills.
A high priority should be given to research into injury
mechanisms, rather than simple injury statistics, and
the role of cricket equipment design in injury preven-
tion. A second priority is for multi- or inter-disciplinary
research, linking the biomechanics of batting to the
underlying motor control of the movements and the
eþ ect of environmental information. Biomechanical
studies of the variability of the batsman’ s movements
are needed, and these should be related to the com-
pensatory variability proposal of ecological psychology.
Additional areas of research should focus on methods
of performance enhancement through vision training
and the use of virtual reality. Clearly, there is also a need
for scienti® c research into batting in women’ s cricket,
which has been inadequately researched to date.
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