Animal Feed Science and Technology

81 (1999) 299±307

Chemical composition of solar-dried blood meal and

its effect on performance of broiler chickens
A. Donkoh*, C.C. Atuahene, D.M. Anang, S.K. Ofori
Department of Animal Science, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana

Received 20 October 1998; received in revised form 8 February 1999; accepted 28 May 1999

Abstract

The crude protein, fat, fibre, ash and nitrogen-corrected true metabolisable energy contents of
solar-dried blood meal (SDBM) were 852.3 g kgÿ1 DM, 14.9 g kgÿ1 DM, 35.1 g kgÿ1 DM,
20.6 g kgÿ1 DM, and 13.08 MJ kgÿ1 DM, respectively. It contained 73.7 g available lysine kgÿ1
DM. In a feeding trial, 480 commercial broiler chicks were randomly allocated to one of four
dietary treatments in a completely randomised design. The dietary treatments consisted of the
control diet, which contained fishmeal and groundnut cake as the main protein sources, and three
other diets which contained varying levels of SDBM (25, 50 and 75 g kgÿ1). The experimental diets
were formulated to be both isoproteic and isoenergetic. Feed and water were provided ad libitum
for a period of 5 weeks. Data for the entire 35 days growth assay, indicate the concentration of
SDBM in the diet had no impact on feed intake. However, birds fed SDBM at 50 or 75 g kgÿ1had
better weight gains and feed efficiency (p < 0.05) than birds fed 25 g kgÿ1 SDBM and the SDBM-
free diet. Carcass yields were similar. Mortality was also unaffected by dietary treatments. In
addition, blood parameters (red cell count, haemoglobin, haematocrit and total protein) were
unchanged by dietary treatment (p > 0.05). Analysis of productive parameters indicated that dietary
SDBM up to 75 g kg ÿ1 had a positive effect on growth performance and that partial replacement of
other protein sources (fishmeal and groundnut cake) with SDBM was possible. # 1999 Elsevier
Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Solar-dried blood meal; Chemical analysis; Growth performance; Broilers

1. Introduction

Blood meal, an important animal protein by-product, contains over 800 g protein kgÿ1
DM, 90 g total lysine kgÿ1 DM and small amounts of ash and lipids. However, a notable

*
Corresponding author. Tel: +233-5160325.

0377-8401/99/$ ± see front matter # 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 3 7 7 - 8 4 0 1 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 6 9 - 3
300 A. Donkoh et al. / Animal Feed Science and Technology 81 (1999) 299±307

feature of raw blood is its high moisture content. This makes it particularly sensitive to
deterioration by endogenous enzymes and to microbial putrefaction. It must necessarily
be processed before incorporation into animal diets.
In some areas, where the adoption of blood meal is almost certain because
conventional protein feedingstuffs such as fishmeal are either scarce or expensive, blood
from slaughterhouses is discharged into drains, streams and rivers, thus polluting the
environment because facilities for drying may not be available. This points to the need for
identifying simple procedures for preparing blood meal to be used in poultry feeds. In the
tropics, where there is abundance of sunlight, solar drying has been advocated as a
simpler and cheaper method of drying than other industrial methods.
Furthermore, the level at which blood meal may be included in broiler diets is not clear.
Historically, blood meal was limited to a maximum inclusion level of 30±60 g kgÿ1 diet,
because higher levels were considered to be unpalatable or give rise to depressed
performance (Kratzer and Green, 1957). More recent research has led to a re-appraisal of
optimum inclusion rate, and a recognition that amino acid imbalance may have been the
cause of reduced performance in those early studies (King and Campbell, 1978; Ilori et
al., 1984; Crawshaw, 1994). Thus, a combination of high quality protein sources might
appear to be a sound policy, since one protein source can compensate for the inadequacies
or the excesses of another. It is envisaged that the inclusion of blood meal in poultry diets
even at relatively low concentrations would help reduce costs and problems associated
with the disposal of raw blood from abattoirs, thus reducing the possible pollution of the
environment.
This study was therefore undertaken to determine the chemical composition of solar-
dried blood meal (SDBM) available in Ghana and further ascertain the concentration at
which SDBM could be included in broiler diets, in combination with other protein
sources such as fishmeal and groundnut cake, without deleterious effects.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Source of blood and processing method

The blood used in this study was obtained from the Meat Science Unit of the
Department of Animal Science, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana.
The blood was immediately heated in an open pan for 30 min at a temperature of 60oC to
facilitate evaporation of water and coagulation. The coagulated blood, together with the
small amount of the liquid fraction which remained, was transferred to a solar dryer for
drying at 35±50oC to a moisture content of ca. 100 g kgÿ1 DM, finally ground in a
hammer mill to produce the meal and stored in sacks until used in formulations.

2.2. Dietary treatments

Four experimental diets (Table 1) were formulated: a control diet containing no SDBM
and others in which SDBM was incorporated at 25, 50 and 75 g kgÿ1. The experimental
diets were formulated to be isoproteic and isoenergetic.
 A. Donkoh et al. / Animal Feed Science and Technology 81 (1999) 299±307 301

Table 1
Composition of experimental growth dietsa

Level of solar-dried blood meal (g kg-1 diet)

Controll

0 25 50 75
-1
Ingredients (g kg )
Maize 580 580 580 580
Solar-dried blood meal 0 25 50 75
Fishmeal (630 g CP kg-1DM) 190 165 135 100
Groundnut cake 60 50 35 32
Wheat bran 140 150 170 183
Oyster shell (ground) 20 20 20 20
Vitamin and mineral premix1 5 5 5 5
Salt (NaCl) 5 5 5 5
Chemical analysis (g kgÿ1DM)
Crude protein 217.54 219.80 219.30 219.30
Crude fibre 37.90 38.40 39.30 40.70
Ether extract 40.10 38.90 37.30 35.90
Lysine 12.50 13.40 14.20 15.00
Methionine 5.37 5.24 5.16 5.02
Isoleucine 9.83 9.21 8.98 8.13
Calcium 15.10 14.20 13.30 12.40
Phosphorus 8.20 7.70 7.20 6.70
MEn (MJ kgÿ1) 11.57 11.56 11.53 11.52
a
Premix supplied (kg-1 diet): vitamin A, 10 000 IU; vitamin D3, 2000 IU; vitamin E, 10 IU; vitamin K, 3 mg;
riboflavin, 2.5 g; cobalamin, 0.05 mg; pantothenic acid, 5 mg; niacin, 12.5 mg; choline, 175 mg; folic acid,
0.5 mg; Mg, 2.8 mg; Fe, 0.5 mg; Cu, 50 mg; Zn, 25 mg; Co, 62.5 mg.

2.3. Chemical analysis

Proximate analyses of SDBM and diets (dry matter, crude protein, ether extract, ash
and crude fibre) were carried out using the standard procedures of the Association of
Official Analytical Chemists (1990). Amino acids were determined following acid
hydrolysis using a Beckman 119 BL-amino acid analyser. Duplicate samples (5±7 mg)
were hydrolysed in 500 ml of 6 M HCl with 10 g lÿ1 added phenol for 24 h at 110  18C
in glass tubes sealed under vacuum. Methionine and cystine were determined using the
performic acid oxidation method (Moore, 1963). Tryptophan, being destroyed during acid
hydrolysis, was determined chemically by the procedure described by Miller (1967).
Available lysine content of SDBM was determined by the Ousterhout and Wood (1970)
modification of the method of Kakade and Liener (1969).
Eight 6-week-old broiler chicks were used to determine the nitrogen-corrected
true metabolisable energy (TMEn) content of SDBM. Birds were fed ad libitum on a
broiler finisher diet for 1 week prior to force-feeding (Sibbald, 1986). The birds
were housed in individual cages with collection trays, fasted for 24 h and fed 30 g of
the test ingredient through crop intubation. Four broilers were kept fasted during the
assay to measure endogenous losses. Excreta were collected daily for 48 h after crop
302 A. Donkoh et al. / Animal Feed Science and Technology 81 (1999) 299±307

intubation, oven-dried at 60oC for 48 h, equilibrated to ambient conditions, weighed and

ground (Dale and Fuller, 1983). Both SDBM and fecal samples were analysed for gross
energy. MEn values for the experimental diets were, however, calculated from values
given by the National Research Council (NRC, 1994) and the determined TMEn content
of SDBM.

2.4. Experimental animals and management

Four hundred and eighty unsexed 14-day-old commercial broiler chickens (AF Bosbek
strain) were individually weighed and allotted randomly to the four dietary treatments.
Each treatment was replicated three times. The birds were placed and reared in deep litter
pens each measuring 3.2 m  3.0 m, a floor space of 0.24 m2 per bird. The study was
conducted for 35 days (2±7 weeks of age). Birds had free access to feed and water
throughout the experimental period. Chickens were vaccinated against Gumboro and
Newcastle diseases. They were protectively medicated for Coccidiosis at 3 days of age
and again during the third week using Sulfadimidine Sodium 33% (Bremer Pharma
GMBH, Germany) via the drinking water.

2.5. Parameters measured

Birds were individually weighed and feed consumption per pen were recorded
weekly. Feed : gain ratio was determined weekly for individual replicates of each
dietary treatment. Records of mortality were also kept. All sick and dead chickens
were sent to the Veterinary Laboratory for post-mortem examination. At 49 days of age,
four broilers from each of the 12 replicates were selected at random, starved of feed for
ca. 18 h to empty their crops, killed by cutting the jugular vein, exsanguinated,
defeathered and eviscerated. Carcass yield was calculated from eviscerated weight and
liveweight.

2.6. Blood collection and assays

To avoid a macrocytic hypochromic anaemia (Christie, 1978) caused by repeated

bleeding, the birds were bled only at 4 and 6 weeks of age between 09.00 and 11.00 h.
The birds were fasted for 12 h prior to the collection of blood specimens to avoid post-
prandial lipemia (Kirk et al., 1990). Various blood parameters studied included: red blood
cell count (RBC), haemoglobin, haematocrit (packed cell volume, PCV) and blood
protein. The series of blood tests were performed on blood drawn from the brachial vein.
Blood samples for the haematological tests were mixed with the dipotassium salt of
EDTA (1.5 mg mlÿ1 blood) as anticoagulant. Erythrocyte (RBC) counting method was
similar to that described by Maxwell (1981). Two separate counts were made for each
blood sample and the mean of the two counts calculated. The quantity of haemoglobin
and the haematocrit (PCV) values were respectively determined by the cyanmet±
haemoglobin and microhematocrit methods (Dacie and Lewis, 1975) using the average of
duplicate samples. Total plasma protein was determined in duplicate by the Biuret
method outlined by Oser (1965).
 A. Donkoh et al. / Animal Feed Science and Technology 81 (1999) 299±307 303

2.7. Histological studies

At 49 days of age, the possible deleterious effects of SDBM on liver were also
assessed. Four chickens from each treatment were randomly selected, killed by cervical
dislocation, the liver excised and examined to determine whether the diets had resulted in
any gross pathological changes. Liver sections were cut before staining with
haematoxylin and eosin (Humason, 1979) and examined microscopically for any
abnormalities in the cells.

2.8. Statistical analysis

The dietary treatment effects for all the variables measured were analysed using the
general linear models procedure of SAS (1987). The data were subjected to regression
analysis to show the effect of including SDBM on performance.

3. Results and discussion

The chemical composition of SDBM (Table 2) showed that it contained, on g kgÿ1 DM

basis, 852.3 crude protein, 14.9 fat, 35.1 crude fibre and 20.6 ash. The values presented
here for the proximate composition are close to the values reported by NRC (1994). The
results indicate a very high concentration of protein in SDBM. NRC (1994) reported high
protein contents of 881 g kgÿ1 DM for vat-dried blood meal and 889 g kgÿ1 DM for
spray- or ring-dried blood meal. Comparison of the amino acid composition of SDBM
with the amino acid requirements of chicks as given by NRC (1994) are also shown in
Table 2. SDBM had a good essential amino acid profile relative to non-ruminant (chick)
requirements. It contained substantial amounts of essential (indispensable) amino acids,
including lysine, methionine, arginine, cystine, leucine and threonine but was very poor
in isoleucine. Amino acid digestibility and availability are complex phenomena affected
by many interacting factors (Moughan, 1991). Processing may, if not carried out with
careful control, reduce digestibility and availability of the product. Overheating during
drying of blood meal can seriously lower digestibility and the availability of specific
amino acids, particularly lysine (Hamm and Searcy, 1976; Moughan and Donkoh, 1991;
Crawshaw, 1994; NRC, 1994). The fact that SDBM used in the present study contained
high amounts of total (81.4 g kgÿ1) and available lysine (73.7 g kgÿ1) indicates that the
processing conditions used in the present study were not severe enough to adversely
affect the nutritional quality of SDBM.
The general performance of the experimental population is shown in Table 3. Feed
intake by birds was not significantly (p > 0.05) influenced by the level of SDBM in the
diets suggesting that broilers will consume diets up to 75 g SDBM kgÿ1.
There was little difference in average chick weight, after selection at 2 weeks of age,
for birds fed diets containing 0, 25, 50 and 75 g SDBM kgÿ1 diet. In general, inclusion of
graded levels of SDBM in broiler diets had significant (p < 0.05) impact on mean body
weight gain during the period of 2±7 weeks of age. Birds fed SDBM at 50 or 75 g kgÿ1
had better weight gains than those fed 25 g kgÿ1SDBM and the SDBM-free diet. The
304 A. Donkoh et al. / Animal Feed Science and Technology 81 (1999) 299±307

Table 2
Chemical composition of solar-dried blood meala

Component NRC requirement (g kg-1) Dry matter (g kg-1)

Proximate analysis
Dry matter 903.5
Crude protein 852.3
Ether extract 14.9
Crude fibre 35.1
Ash 20.6
Amino acid
Arginine 14.4 39.1
Lysine 12.0 81.4
Histidine 3.5 53.3
Phenylalanine 7.2 61.3
Tyrosine 6.2 28.8
Methionine 5.0 12.8
Leucine 13.5 116.0
Isoleucine 8.0 8.50
Valine 8.2 79.0
Threonine 8.0 45.9
Cystine 4.3 11.7
Tryptophan 2.3 14.6
Alanine ± 68.5
Aspartic acid ± 88.0
Glutamic acid ± 82.8
Proline ± 63.3
Serine ± 45.6
Glycine ± 37.1
Other chemical parameters
Available lysine 73.7
TME ( SE) (MJ kg-1) 3.08 (0.45)
a
The values are the means of three samples.

following correlation between the level of SDBM in the diet and weight gain of broiler
chickens was found: Y (weight gain) = 1.79 (0.087) + 0.001(0.0003)x (r = 0.70;
p: < 0.05), where x is the level of SDBM in the diet.
Efficiency of feed utilisation progressively improved (p < 0.05) when the levels of
dietary SDBM were progressively elevated. Birds receiving SDBM had a better
feed : gain ratio than those receiving no SDBM. Regression of feed conversion ratio
against level of SDBM yielded the linear equation: Y (feed : gain) = 2.10
(0.15) ÿ 0.009(0.0004)x (r = ÿ0.88; p < 0.05).
The increase in weight gain and the improved ability to utilise the SDBM-based diets
efficiently particularly, for birds fed on diets which contained 50 and 75 g SDBM kgÿ1
might have been caused by the positive effect of SDBM as indicated by the high indices
of correlation for weight gain and feed conversion (r = 0.70 and ÿ0.88, respectively).
This could further be explained on the basis of a greater efficiency in the conversion of
feed into tissue which in turn was the result of adequate amounts of the various nutrients
required for proper growth, particularly amino acids, such as lysine, which is the first-
 A. Donkoh et al. / Animal Feed Science and Technology 81 (1999) 299±307 305

Table 3
Effect of solar-dried blood meal on performance and blood components aof broiler chickens over the period from
14 to 49 days of age

Response criteria Level of solar-dried blood meal (g kgÿ1) SEMb rc

0 25 50 75

Feed intake (kg) 3.76 3.72 3.76 3.74 0.02 ÿ0.14

Protein intake (kg) 0.81 0.82 0.83 0.82 0.004 0.63
ME intake (MJ) 43.50 43.08 43.35 43.09 0.10 ÿ0.60
Weight gain (kg) 1.79 1.78 1.84 1.82 0.01 0.70d
Feed conversion ratio 2.10 2.09 2.04 2.05 0.02 ÿ0.88d
Mortality (%) 0.83 0.83 1.67 0.83 0.42 0.26
Carcass yield 0.797 0.807 0.790 0.795 0.0035 ÿ0.44
Red blood cell count (millions mÿ3) 2.47 2.40 2.44 2.46 0.02 0.04
Haemoglobin (g 100 mlÿ1) 13.80 13.40 13.70 13.80 0.10 0.20
Haematocrit (%) 33.90 33.80 33.90 33.90 0.03 0.26
Total plasma protein (g 100 mlÿ1) 4.62 4.68 4.60 4.64 0.02 ÿ0.08
a
Estimated at 4 and 6 weeks of age and the mean calculated.
b
Standard error of means.
c
Correlation coefficient.
d
p < 0.05.

most limiting amino acid. The data in Table 1 indicated that as the concentration of
SDBM in the diets increased, the lysine contents of the diets increased. The broiler diets
containing the highest levels of SDBM (50 and 75 g kgÿ1) for example, were calculated
to contain 14.2 and 15 g lysine kgÿ1, respectively, which were above the value of
12 g kgÿ1 reported to be adequate for broiler chickens by NRC (1994). The dietary
requirement for protein is actually a requirement for amino acids. Thus, the higher growth
rates observed for birds fed on diets containing higher concentrations of SDBM might be
caused by the increased amount of lysine available for growth when true growth is
considered as deposition of amino acids (of which lysine is the most critical under
practical conditions of feed formulation). This ultimately affected the efficiency of feed
conversion into tissue.
Furthermore, blood meal contains a very high level of leucine but both its isoleucine
content and digestibility are relatively low and there is evidence that a high level of
leucine may elevate the isoleucine requirement of animals such as the rat (Harper et al.,
1955; Spolter and Harper, 1961; Rook, 1983; McDonald et al., 1996), the chick (D'Mello
and Lewis, 1970; NRC, 1994), turkey poult (D'Mello, 1975) and the pig (Oestemer et al.,
1973; Taylor et al., 1984; NRC, 1988). Fisher (1968), working with chickens, and diets
containing 110±130 g blood meal kgÿ1, concluded that not only was isoleucine limiting,
but also methionine and arginine. These results suggest that careful attention to a complex
web of interacting amino acids is necessary (Crawshaw, 1994). The benefit of such a
measure, as evidenced by the results of the present study, suggest isoleucine or any other
essential amino acid deficiency should not have existed in the SDBM-based diets. This is
also corroborated by the studies of Dafwang et al. (1986) who noted the complementary
effects for laying hens of using both fish and blood meals. Ranjhan (1993) also reported
on a feeding trial in which supplementation of a poultry diet with 30, 60 and 90 g of
306 A. Donkoh et al. / Animal Feed Science and Technology 81 (1999) 299±307

blood meal kgÿ1 gave the same performance as the control diet which contained maize,
groundnut cake and fishmeal. Wahlstrom and Libal (1977), working with pigs, concluded
that blood meal could constitute 600 g of the supplemental protein kgÿ1 diet, in
combination with either soybean meal or meat meal to support similar feed intake and pig
performance.
The level of SDBM in the diet gave a correlation coefficient of ÿ0.44 when linearly
regressed against carcass yield indicating SDBM exerted no influence on this parameter.
A total of five mortality cases were recorded during the experimental period (Table 3).
Of this number, two (1.67%) occurred among birds fed on the 50 g SDBM kg ÿ1 and one
(0.83%) each from the other remaining treatments. The mortality values were rather
variable and show no trends that can be attributed to SDBM. Post-mortem autopsies
indicated no specific causes for deaths.
The levels of SDBM in the diet did not affect red blood cell count, haemoglobin,
haematocrit and total plasma protein values.
The findings, under the conditions of this study, showed no toxic effects in terms of
gross tissue changes in the liver. The histological characteristics of the liver from birds on
the control diet were similar to those from birds on SDBM-based diets.
It is concluded that SDBM is a suitable alternative protein source to be investigated in
greater detail.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank Gyedu±Baah Apanin and F.A. Kwarteng for technical assistance, T.
Edusei and P. Wallace of Animal Research Institute of Ghana for chemical analysis and
Ms. Gladys Ndziba for her secretarial assistance.

References

Association of Official Analytical Chemists, 1990. Official Methods of Analysis, 15th ed., AOAC, Arlington,
Virginia, USA.
Christie, G., 1978. Haematological and biochemical findings in an anaemia induced by the daily bleeding of ten-
week cockerels. Br. Vet. J. 134, 358±365.
Crawshaw, R., 1994. Bloodmeal: a review of its nutritional qualities for pigs, poultry and ruminant animals.
National Renderers Association Technical Review, United Kingdom, 594, p. 7.
Dacie, J.V., Lewis, S.M., 1975. Practical Haematology, 5th Edn. Churchill Livingston, Edinburgh.
Dafwang, I.I., Olumu, J.M., Offiong, S.A., Bello, S.A., 1986. The effect of replacing fishmeal with bloodmeal in
the diets of laying chickens. J. Anim. Prod. Res. 6, 81±92.
Dale, N.M., Fuller, H.L, Oven drying vs. freeze drying of excreta in true amino acid availability and true
metabolizable energy assay. Poult. Sci. 62 (1983) 1407±1408 (Abstr.).
D'Mello, J.P.F., 1975. Amino acid requirements of the young turkey: leucine, isoleucine, and valine. Br. Poult.
Sci. 16, 607±615.
DMello, J.P.F., Lewis, D., 1970. Amino acid interactions in chick nutrition 3. Interdependence in amino acid
requirements. Br. Poult. Sci. 11, 367.
Fisher, H., 1968. The amino acid deficiencies of bloodmeal for the chick. Poult. Sci. 47, 1478±1481.
Hamm, D., Searcy, G.K., 1976. Some factors which affect the availability of lysine in bloodmeals. Poult. Sci. 55,
582±587.
 A. Donkoh et al. / Animal Feed Science and Technology 81 (1999) 299±307 307

Harper, A.E., Benton, D.A., Elvehjem, C.A., 1955. L-leucine, an isoleucine antagonist in the rat. Arch. Biochem.
57, 1.
Humason, G.L., 1979. Animal Tissue Techniques, 4th ed., Freeman, San Francisco, CA, p. 661.
Ilori, J.O., Miller, E.L., Ulrey, D.E., Ku, P.K., Hogberg, M.G., 1984. Combinations of peanut meal and blood
meal as substitutes for soybean meal in corn-based growing finishing pig diets. J. Anim. Sci. 59, 394±399.
Kakade, M.L., Liener, I.E., 1969. A simplified procedure for the determination of available lysine in protein and
protein food stuffs. Anal. Biochem. 27, 273±280.
King, R.H., Campbell, R.G., 1978. Bloodmeal as a source of protein for grower/finisher pigs. Anim. Feed Sci.
Technol. 3, 191±200.
. Kirk, R.W., Bistner, S.I., Ford, R.B., 1990. Clinical Procedures ± Blood Collection. In: Handbook of Veterinary
Procedures and Emergency Treatment, 5th ed., W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia, USA, pp. 448±455.
Kratzer, F.H., Green, N., 1957. The availability of lysine in bloodmeal for chicks and poults. Poult. Sci. 36, 562±
565.
Maxwell, M.H., 1981. Production of a Heinz body anaemia in the domestic fowl after ingestion of dimethyl
disulphide: a haematological and ultrastructural study. Res. Vet. Sci. 30, 233±238.
McDonald, P., Edwards, R.A., Greenhalgh, J.F.D., Morgan, C.A., 1996. Evaluation of foods ±protein. In: Animal
Nutrition, 5th ed., Addison Wesley Longman Ltd., Essex, United Kingdom, pp. 284±312.
Miller, E.L., 1967. Determination of tryptophan content of feeding stuffs with particular reference to cereals. J.
Sci. Food Agric. 18, 381±386.
Moore, S., 1963. On the determination of cystine as cysteic acid. J. Biol. Chem. 238, 235±237.
Moughan, P.J. , 1991. Towards an improved utilization of dietary amino acids by the growing pig. In:. Haresign,
W., Cole, D.J.A. (Eds.), Recent Advances in Animal Nutrition, 1991, Butterworths, London, pp. 45±64.
Moughan, P.J., Donkoh, A., 1991. Amino acid digestibility in non-ruminants ± a review. In: Farrell, D.J. (Ed.),
Recent Advances in Animal Nutrition in Australia, University of New England, Armidale, Australia, pp.
172±184.
National Research Council, 1988. Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals. Nutrient Requirements of
Swine, 9th revised ed., National Academy Press, Washington, DC., USA.
National Research Council, 1994. Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals. Nutrient Requirements of
Poultry, 9th revised ed., National Academy Press, Washington, DC., USA.
Oestemer, G.A., Hanson, L.E., Mende, R.J., 1973. Leucine±isoleucine interrelationship in the young pig. J.
Anim. Sci. 36, 674.
Oser, B.L., 1965. Hawk's Physiological Chemistry, 14th ed., McGraw-Hill Book, New York, NY.
Ousterhout, L.E., Wood, E.M., 1970. Available lysine in fish meals, chemical (TNBS) method compared with
chick assay. Poult. Sci. 49, 1423.
Ranjhan, S.K., 1993. Agro-industrial by-products as component of livestock rations. In: Animal Nutrition in the
Tropics, 3rd revised ed, Vikas Publishing House PVT Ltd., New Dehli, India, pp. 222±258.
Rook, J.A.F., 1983. Nutritional Imbalances. In: Rook, J.A.F., Thomas, P.A.C., (Eds.), Nutritional Physiology of
Farm Animals, Longman Inc., New York, USA, pp. 369±414.
Sibbald, I.R., 1986. The TME system of feed evaluation: Methodology, feed composition data and bibliography.
Animal Research Center Contribution 85-19, ON, Canada.
Spolter, P.D., Harper, A.E., 1961. Leucine±isoleucine antagonism in the rat. Am. J. Physiol. 200, 513±518.
Statistical Analysis Systems Institute Inc., 1987. Procedures Guide for Personal Computers, Version 6 ed., SAS
Institute Inc., Cary, NC.
Taylor, S.J., Cole, D.J.A., Lewis, D., 1984. Amino acid requirements of growing pigs. 5. The interaction between
isoleucine and leucine. Anim. Prod. 38, 257±261.
Wahlstrom, R.C., Libal, G.W., 1977. Dried bloodmeal as a protein source in diets for growing-finishing swine. J.
Anim. Sci. 44, 1050±1053.