2 Tables Charts Review PDF

Presenting Data in
Tables and Charts

Organizing and Presenting
Data Graphically
 Data in raw form are usually not easy to use for
decision making
 Some type of organization is needed
 Table
 Graph
 Techniques reviewed here:
 Bar charts and pie charts
 Pareto diagram
 Ordered array
 Stem-and-leaf display
 Frequency distributions, histograms and polygons
 Cumulative distributions and ogives
 Contingency tables
 Scatter diagrams
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 2-2
History of Graphical Development
• First geographic maps were drawn on clay

tablets.
• 17th Century: combined map skills and
statistical skills to construct maps.
• Trade winds and monsoons on a world map.
• Chart patterns of disease.
• Later sophistication showed distribution of 1.3
million galaxies.
“Graphical excellence
consists of the efficient
communication of complex
quantitative ideas.”
“At their best, graphics are
instruments for reasoning
about quantitative
information.”
Tabular and Graphical Procedures
Data
Qualitative Data Quantitative Data
Tabular Graphical Tabular Graphical

Methods Methods Methods Methods
•Frequency •Bar Graph •Frequency •Dot Plot

Distribution •Pie Chart Distribution •Histogram
•Rel. Freq. Dist. •Rel. Freq. Dist. •Ogive
•% Freq. Dist. •Cum. Freq. Dist. •Scatter
•Crosstabulation •Cum. Rel. Freq. Diagram
Distribution
•Stem-and-Leaf
Display
•Crosstabulation
Types of Data
Ty p es o f Dat a
Data
Data
Numerical
Numerical Categorical
Categorical
(Quantitativ
(Quantitative)
e) (Qualitativ
(Qualitative)
e)
Discrete
Discrete Continuous
Continuous
Tables and Charts for
Categorical Data
Categorical
Data
Tabulating Data Graphing Data
Summary Bar Pie Pareto

Table Charts Charts Diagram
Tabular Presentation
Table is defined as a systematic arrangement of related data in

which classes of numerical facts or data are given each a row and
their subclasses are given each a column in order to present the
relationships of the sets or numerical facts on data in a definite,
compact, and understandable form or forms.
The purpose of a table is to facilitate the study and interpretation,
the making of inferences and implications. Table construction for
data presentation is a part of analysis because the data are
separated and grouped according to class or category.
Example:
Graphical Presentation
A graph is a chart or drawing that shows the

relationship between changing things. They are a
diagram displaying the relationship between
numbers or amounts. A graph or chart is used to
present facts in visual form.
When Diagram and when Graph?

Diagram: When data split into different categories.
Bar: Same type of variable against different year/time.
Pie: Categorical data
Graph: Long series of data / Frequency Distribution.
Graphical Presentation
Purpose of the Chart Appropriate Chart Type

Compare categorical data Column Chart; Bar Chart,
Compare series of data over time Area Chart, Line Chart, Column Chart
(stacked), High-Low Chart
Percentage of total comparisons Pie Chart, Donut Chart, Stacked Bar
or Column Chart
Relationship between two variables Scatter Plot
Relationship between three variables 3-Dimension Surface Plot
Different Types of Variables
A Quantitative Variable is naturally measured as a number for which
meaningful arithmetic operations make sense. Examples: Height, age,
crop yield, GPA, salary, temperature, area, air pollution index (measured in
parts per million), etc.
Categorical Variable is any variable that is not quantitative is categorical.
Categorical variables take a value that is one of several possible
categories. As naturally measured, categorical variables have no numerical
meaning. Examples: Hair color, gender, field of study, college attended,
political affiliation, status of disease infection.
An Ordinal Variable is a special type of categorical variable for which the
levels can be naturally ordered. The example above provides a good
illustration of an ordinal variable. Even if we ignore the numbers, we still
may order the responses. Awful is "worse than" Poor; Poor is worse than
OK; OK is worse than Good; Good is worse than Great. A natural ordering
exists for these categories. Contrast this with a categorical variable such
as hair color. There is no natural ordering for the various colors of hair.
Type of Graphs
Graphic Representation
Graph
Diagram
Bar Pie Histograms Ogive
Tables Frequency
Polygons
Organizing Numerical Data
Numerical Data 41, 24, 32, 26, 27, 27, 30, 24, 38, 21
Frequency Distributions
Ordered Array
Cumulative Distributions
21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 38, 41
2 144677
Stem and Leaf Histograms Ogive
3 028
Display
4 1
Tables Polygons
The Ordered Array
A sequence of data in rank order:

 Shows range (min to max)
 Provides some signals about variability
within the range
 May help identify outliers (unusual observations)
 If the data set is large, the ordered array is
less useful
The Ordered Array
(continued)
 Data in raw form (as collected):
24, 26, 24, 21, 27, 27, 30, 41, 32, 38
 Data in ordered array from smallest to largest:
21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 38, 41
Stem-and-Leaf Diagram
 A simple way to see distribution details in a

data set
METHOD: Separate the sorted data series

into leading digits (the stem) and
the trailing digits (the leaves)
Example
Data in ordered array:
21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 38, 41
 Here, use the 10’s digit for the stem unit:

Stem Leaf
 21 is shown as 2 1
Example
(continued)
21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 38, 41
 Completed stem-and-leaf diagram:

Stem Leaves
2 1 4 4 6 7 7
3 0 2 8
4 1
Using other stem units
 Using the 100’s digit as the stem:
 Round off the 10’s digit to form the leaves
Stem Leaf
 613 would become 6 1
 776 would become 7 8
 ...
 1224 becomes 12 2
Using other stem units
(continued)
 Using the 100’s digit as the stem:

 The completed stem-and-leaf display:
Data:
Stem Leaves
613, 632, 658, 717, 6 136
722, 750, 776, 827, 7 2258
841, 859, 863, 891, 8 346699
894, 906, 928, 933,
9 13368
955, 982, 1034,
1047,1056, 1140, 10 356
1169, 1224 11 47
12 2
Tabulating and Graphing
Numerical Data
Numerical Data 41, 24, 32, 26, 27, 27, 30, 24, 38, 21
Ordered Array O g ive
Cumulative Distributions 120
21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 38, 41

100
80
60
40
20
0
10 20 30 40 50 60
2 144677 Ogive
Stem and Leaf Histograms
3 028
Display 7
4 1 4
Tables Polygons
3
10 20 30 40 50 60
Graph Selection Guidelines
Line Graph
Linear graphs- are good devices to show variation of

values over successive periods of time.
a. Time series linear charts
- used to depict the variations of a variable over a period of
time.
b. Time series composite multi linear charts.
- are used when comparison are made between or among
categories on the same variables or variation of two or more
variables over period of time.
c. Frequency polygon
- used to graph class or grouped frequency distribution.
Line Graph
d. Ogive
- is used to graph cumulative frequencies (partial sums of
frequencies), eight cumulative upward (from lower classes
to upper class) or cumulative frequencies downward (from
upper classes to lower classes.
e. Band Chart
- is a form of line graph of the time series variety. It shows
the proportional variations of the components parts of a
whole over a period of time.
Time Series
Time Series Data on a graph
Tabulating Numerical Data:
Frequency Distributions (continued)
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58
Relative
Class Frequency Frequency Percentage
10 but under 20 3 .15 15
20 but under 30 6 .30 30
30 but under 40 5 .25 25
40 but under 50 4 .20 20
50 but under 60 2 .10 10
Total 20 1 100
Histogram
 a set of rectangles erected vertically. It is a rectangular

diagram. Since the rectangles are drawn with specified
width and height, histogram is a two dimensional
diagram. The width of a rectangle equals the class
interval and height. The area of each rectangle is
proportional to the frequency of the respective class.
Graphing Numerical Data:
The Histogram
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58
H is t o g r a m
7 6
6
Fr e q u e n c y
5
5 4
4 3
No Gaps
3 2 Between
2
Bars
1 0 0
0
5 15 25 36 45 55 M ore
Class Midpoints
Frequency Polygon
 Frequency Polygon has been derived from the word polygon"

which means many sides. In statistics, it means a graph of a
frequency distribution. A frequency polygon is obtained from
a histogram by joining the mid-points of the top of various
rectangles with the help of straight lines. In order that total
area under the polygon remains equal to the area under
histogram, two arbitrary classes, each with zero frequency,
are added on both ends.
The Frequency Polygon
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58
Frequenc y
4
3
5 15 25 36 45 55 M ore
Class Midpoints
Frequency Curve
 If the points, obtained in the case of frequency

polygon are joined with the help of a smooth
curve, we get a frequency curve.
The Frequency Curve
Cumulative Frequency
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58
Cumulative Cumulative
Class Frequency % Frequency
10 but under 20 3 15
20 but under 30 9 45
30 but under 40 14 70
40 but under 50 18 90
50 but under 60 20 100
The Ogive (Cumulative % Polygon)
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58
O g iv e
1 2 0
1 0 0
8 0
6 0
4 0
2 0
1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0
An ogive is a graph showing the curve of a

cumulative distribution function
There are two ways of constructing an ogive or cumulative
frequency curve. (Ogive is pronounced as O-jive). The curve
is usually of 'S' shape.
Tabulating and Graphing Categorical Data:
Univariate Data
Categorical Data
Graphing Data
Tabulating Data
The Summary Table
Pie Charts
Bar Charts Pareto Diagram
The Summary Table
Summarize data by category
Example: Current Investment Portfolio

Investment Amount Percentage
Type (in thousands $) (%)
Stocks 46.5 42.27

Bonds 32.0 29.09
CD 15.5 14.09
(Variables are Savings 16.0 14.55
Categorical)
Total 110.0 100.0
Bar and Pie Charts
 Bar charts and Pie charts are often used

for categorical data
 Height of bar or size of pie slice shows the

frequency or percentage for each
category
Bar Chart Example
Current Investment Portfolio
Stocks 46.5 42.27

Bonds 32.0 29.09
CD 15.5 14.09 Investor's Portfolio
Savings 16.0 14.55
Total 110.0 100.0 Savings
CD
Bonds
Stocks
0 10 20 30 40 50
Amount in $1000's
Pie Chart Example
Stocks 46.5 42.27

Bonds 32.0 29.09 Savings
CD 15.5 14.09 15%
Savings 16.0 14.55 Stocks
Total 110.0 100.0 42%
CD
14%
Percentages
are rounded to
Bonds the nearest
29% percent
Pareto Diagram
 Used to portray categorical data (nominal scale)

 A bar chart, where categories are shown in
descending order of frequency
 A cumulative polygon is often shown in the
same graph
 Used to separate the “vital few” from the “trivial
many”
Pareto Diagram Example
45% 100%
40% 90%
% invested in each category
80%
cumulative % invested
35%
70%
30%
(bar graph)
(line graph)
60%
25%
50%
20%
40%
15%
30%
10%
20%
5% 10%
0% 0%
Stocks Bonds Savings CD
What is a Frequency Distribution?

 A frequency distribution is a list or a table …
 containing class groupings (ranges within which
the data fall) ...
 and the corresponding frequencies with which
data fall within each grouping or category
Why Use a Frequency Distribution?
 It is a way to summarize numerical data

 It condenses the raw data into a more
useful form...
 It allows for a quick visual interpretation of
the data
Class Limits and Class Interval
 Each class limit or grouping (k) has the same
width
 Number of classes (k) = 1 + 3.322 log N
 Or Number of classes is usually set at least 5
but no more than 15 groupings
 Determine the width of each interval by
range
Width of interval 
number of desired class groupings
 Round up the interval width to get desirable
endpoints
Class Boundary and Class Mark
 Class boundaries never overlap; The boundaries
have one or more decimal place than the raw
data and therefore do not appear in the data.
There is no gap between the upper boundary of
one class and the lower boundary of the next
class. The lower boundary is found by
subtracting 0.5 units from the lower class limit
and the upper class boundary is found by adding
0.5 units to the upper class.
 Class Mark is the number in the middle of the
class.
Frequency Distribution Example
Example: A manufacturer of insulation randomly

selects 20 winter days and records the daily
high temperature
24, 35, 17, 21, 24, 37, 26, 46, 58, 30,
32, 13, 12, 38, 41, 43, 44, 27, 53, 27
(continued)
 Sort raw data in ascending order:

12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58
 Find range: 58 - 12 = 46
 Select number of classes: 5 (usually between 5 and 15)
 Compute class interval (width): 10 (46/5 then round up)
 Determine class boundaries (limits): 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60
 Compute class midpoints: 15, 25, 35, 45, 55
 Count observations & assign to classes
(continued)
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58
Relative
Class Frequency Percentage
Frequency
10 but less than 20 3 .15 15
20 but less than 30 6 .30 30
30 but less than 40 5 .25 25
40 but less than 50 4 .20 20
50 but less than 60 2 .10 10
Total 20 1.00 100
Cumulative Frequency
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58
Cumulative Cumulative
Class Frequency Percentage
Frequency Percentage
10 but less than 20 3 15 3 15

20 but less than 30 6 30 9 45
30 but less than 40 5 25 14 70
40 but less than 50 4 20 18 90
50 but less than 60 2 10 20 100
Total 20 100
The Histogram
 A graph of the data in a frequency distribution

is called a histogram
 The class boundaries (or class midpoints)
are shown on the horizontal axis
 the vertical axis is either frequency, relative
frequency, or percentage
 Bars of the appropriate heights are used to
represent the number of observations within
each class
Histogram Example
Class
Class Midpoint Frequency
10 but less than 20 15 3 Histogram : Daily High Tem perature
20 but less than 30 25 6
30 but less than 40 35 5 7
6
5
Frequency
4
3
2
(No gaps 1
between 0
bars)
5 15 25 35 45 55 65
Class Midpoints
Class
Class Midpoint Frequency
30 but less than 40 35 5 Frequency Polygon: Daily High Temperature
7
6
5
Frequency
4
3
2
(In a percentage 1
polygon the vertical axis 0
would be defined to 5 15 25 35 45 55 65
show the percentage of
observations per class) Class Midpoints
Graphing Cumulative Frequencies:
Lower
class Cumulative
Class boundary Percentage
Less than 10 0 0
20 but less than 30 20 45 Ogive: Daily High Temperature
40 but less than 50 40 90 100
Cumulative Percentage
80
60
40
20
0
10 20 30 40 50 60
Class Boundaries (Not Midpoints)
Multivariate Categorical Data
 Contingency Table for Investment Choices ($1000’s)
Investment Investor A Investor B Investor C Total
Category
Stocks 46.5 55 27.5 129
Bonds 32.0 44 19.0 95
CD 15.5 20 13.5 49
Savings 16.0 28 7.0 51
Total 110.0 147 67.0 324
(Individual values could also be expressed as percentages of the overall total,

percentages of the row totals, or percentages of the column totals)
Multivariate Categorical Data
(continued)
 Side-by-side bar charts

C o m p arin g In vesto rs
S a vin g s
CD
B onds
S toc k s
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
In ve s t o r A In ve s t o r B In ve s t o r C
Side-by-Side Chart Example
 Sales by quarter for three sales territories:
1st Qtr 2nd Qtr 3rd Qtr 4th Qtr
East 20.4 27.4 59 20.4
West 30.6 38.6 34.6 31.6
North 45.9 46.9 45 43.9
60
50
40
East
30 West
North
20
10
0
1st Qtr 2nd Qtr 3rd Qtr 4th Qtr
Scatter Diagrams
 Scatter Diagrams are used to

examine possible relationships
between two numerical variables
 The Scatter Diagram:

 one variable is measured on the vertical
axis and the other variable is measured

on the horizontal axis
Scatter Diagrams
Scatter Diagram Example
Volume Cost per

per day day
23 131 Cost per Day vs. Production Volume
24 120 250
26 140 200
Cost per Day
29 151 150
33 160
100
38 167
50
41 185
0
42 170
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
50 188 Volume per Day
55 195
60 200
Time Series Plot
 A Time Series Plot is used to study patterns

in the values of a variable over time. A time-
series plot can be used if your dependent
variable is numerical and your independent
variable is time.
 The Time Series Plot:

 one variable is measured on the vertical axis and
the time period is measured on the horizontal axis

Time Series Plot
 A time series is a sequence of observations which are ordered
in time (or space). If observations are made on some
phenomenon throughout time, it is most sensible to display
the data in the order in which they arose, particularly since
successive observations will probably be dependent. Time
series are best displayed in a scatter plot. Time is called the
independent variable (in this case however, something over
which you have little control). There are two kinds of time
series data:
1. Continuous - where we have an observation at every instant of
time, e.g. lie detectors, electrocardiograms. We denote this using
observation X at time t, X(t).
2. Discrete - where we have an observation at (usually regularly)
spaced
Business Statistics, intervals.
A First Course We denote
(4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. this as Xt. Chap 2-64
Time Series Plot
Pictographs
 Pictograph or Pictogram uses pictorial symbols. It

immediately suggests the nature of the data being
shown. These are also known as catrograms. Pictures
are more attractive to laymen than other forms of graphic
presentations. But these are not suitable everywhere. It
may suit cases involving population of people of a state
or number of vehicles in a metropolitan city like Delhi or
Murnbai. Stick figures may be used to indicate
population growth; and for showing population of human
beings, we can draw human figures in scale.
Pictographs
Percentage Number of Disabilities Due to Stroke
(2001-2005) at TGMC
48%
40%
37%
34%
30%
23%
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Statistical Maps
 Statistical maps are used when quantitative

data have to be shown by geographical
location. To plot data on a statistical map, a
dot or a pin may be used to represent a
number or quantity. Maps may also be
shaded or hatched or use self-explanatory
symbols to represent a number or a
quantity for a particular area in the maps.
Statistical Maps
Statistical Map showing the Incidents of Cholera in Brgy. X
Misusing Graphs and Ethical Issues
Guidelines for good graphs:

 Do not distort the data
 Avoid unnecessary adornments (no “chart junk”)
 Use a scale for each axis on a two-dimensional
graph
 The vertical axis scale should begin at zero
 Properly label all axes
 The graph should contain a title
 Use the simplest graph for a given set of data
Summary
 Data in raw form are usually not easy to use for
decision making -- Some type of organization is
needed:
 Table  Graph
 Techniques reviewed in this handout:
 Bar charts, pie charts, and Pareto diagrams
 Ordered array and stem-and-leaf display
 Frequency distributions, histograms and polygons
 Cumulative distributions and ogives
 Contingency tables and side-by-side bar charts
 Scatter diagrams and time series plots

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Presenting Data in

Tables and Charts

• First geographic maps were drawn on clay

Tabular Graphical Tabular Graphical

•Frequency •Bar Graph •Frequency •Dot Plot

Tabulating Data Graphing Data

Summary Bar Pie Pareto

Table is defined as a systematic arrangement of related data in

A graph is a chart or drawing that shows the

When Diagram and when Graph?

Purpose of the Chart Appropriate Chart Type

Relationship between three variables 3-Dimension Surface Plot

Bar Pie Histograms Ogive

A sequence of data in rank order:

 Data in raw form (as collected):

24, 26, 24, 21, 27, 27, 30, 41, 32, 38

 Data in ordered array from smallest to largest:

21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 38, 41

 A simple way to see distribution details in a

METHOD: Separate the sorted data series

 Here, use the 10’s digit for the stem unit:

 Completed stem-and-leaf diagram:

 Using the 100’s digit as the stem:

Cumulative Distributions 120

21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 38, 41

Linear graphs- are good devices to show variation of

Time Series Data on a graph

 a set of rectangles erected vertically. It is a rectangular

 Frequency Polygon has been derived from the word polygon"

 If the points, obtained in the case of frequency

An ogive is a graph showing the curve of a

Bar Charts Pareto Diagram

Example: Current Investment Portfolio

Stocks 46.5 42.27

 Bar charts and Pie charts are often used

 Height of bar or size of pie slice shows the

Stocks 46.5 42.27

Stocks 46.5 42.27

 Used to portray categorical data (nominal scale)

What is a Frequency Distribution?

 It is a way to summarize numerical data

Example: A manufacturer of insulation randomly

 Sort raw data in ascending order:

 Count observations & assign to classes

10 but less than 20 3 15 3 15

 A graph of the data in a frequency distribution

(Individual values could also be expressed as percentages of the overall total,

 Side-by-side bar charts

 Scatter Diagrams are used to

 The Scatter Diagram:

axis and the other variable is measured

Volume Cost per

 A Time Series Plot is used to study patterns

 The Time Series Plot:

the time period is measured on the horizontal axis

 Pictograph or Pictogram uses pictorial symbols. It

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

 Statistical maps are used when quantitative

Statistical Map showing the Incidents of Cholera in Brgy. X

Guidelines for good graphs:

 Avoid unnecessary adornments (no “chart junk”)

 Use a scale for each axis on a two-dimensional

 Properly label all axes