CT PT-8-14-13

Instrument Transformers
Protective Relaying
Ed Khan
August,2013
Copyright © 2012, Quanta Technology, LLC Confidential and Proprietary 1

Disclaimer
This material being presented is based on good engineering and industry practices. It also contains views and
engineering approach of the presenter based on his personal experiences as a practicing engineer.
Neither the presenter nor Quanta Technology is responsible for any damages, direct or consequential, that may
arise as a result of applying the knowledge gained from this course. Every application in the field needs specific
approach based on all the facts surrounding the application. The material presented is general and must be
applied after taking all facts and deviations into consideration.

Current & Voltage Transformers
• Instrument transformers are expected to reproduce

the primary quantities faithfully under all system
conditions.
• The rated secondary voltages of PTs are at 67V, 100V,
120V or 240V.
• Reproduced currents are rated at either 1 or 5A. In
US the standard is 5A.
• The primary rating of PTs depends on the system
voltage
• The primary rating of CTs depends on the current
which is expected to flow in the primary of the CTs

• Standard ratings have been developed to allow easy

interchangeability.
• Instrument transformers form a very critical link in
the chain of relay protection.

• Permits small size of protection and control equipment.

• Insulation barrier allows relays and meters to connect
to other systems.
• These still-large secondary values were chosen to
supply energy for EM relays
– These values would be a lot lower if we were starting today
with electronic relays, that need little energy.
• Inaccuracy of CTs is very critical since current
magnitudes increase during faults whereas voltage
magnitudes decrease.
• Must account for errors accurately

Current Transformers
• Basic current transformers consist of

– Iron core
– Single turn primary winding
• Primary conductor
– Secondary winding
• Specific turns.

• Never open circuit the CT secondary winding with

primary current Applied
– CT insulation will be damaged due to high voltage created by the
current flowing through the high impedance magnetizing branch.

Current Transformers : Types
• Wound Type
• Window
• Bar type
• Bushing Type
• High Voltage Free Standing Type

Current Transformers : Wound Type
• Used primarily for metering but also used in

protection where low ratio such as 200/5.
• Primary more than one turn
• Used in circuits rated 15kV and below.
• Used in switchgear—indoor and outdoor

Current Transformers : Bushing Type
• Bushing type is most
prevalent
• Flux linkage is
reduced to get
better performance
• Called bushing type
since it is installed at
the base of the
bushing of
transformer or
circuit breakers.

Current Transformers : Window Type
• Window type is similar to bushing type

except air is used for separating the
primary and the secondary windings.

Current Transformers : Bar Type
• Bar type is similar to bushing type and

window type except the primary is fixed
to the primary conductor.

Current Transformers : Free Standing
• Expensive
• Not available in
live tank breaker
design
• Has to be built in
• Slip on units are
now available
• Typically higher Air Insulated Free Standing CT
accuracy
Current Transformers : Free Standing
Oil or Gas Insulated Free Standing CT

CT Polarity
Remember: CT Polarity is;

Primary Current in & Secondary current out
Theory of Operation
• Method uses the well known equation:

Isec = (Ipri / N) - I m where:
I sec - secondary current
I pri - primary current
I m - secondary excitation current
N - number of turns

Theory of Operation
The classic transformer formula is:
Vef=4.44fNABmaxX10-8 Volts
Where f is the frequency in Hertz

N is the number of secondary turns
A is the cross-sectional area of the iron core in square inches
Bmax is the iron-core flux density in lines per square inches

Theory of Operation
Voltage produced by the CT is :
Vef =Is(Rs+Zld+Zr)
Where
Rs is the secondary resistance of the CT
Zld is the lead resistance
Zr is the impedance of the relay

Factors Influencing CT Accuracy
Frequency
Frequency
“Low frequency” and “High accuracy” are not
compatible
Current Ratio
Current
“Low ratio” and “high accuracy” are
incompatible
Burden
Burden
“High burden” and “High Accuracy” are
incompatible

CT Classification
IEC Designation
1000/1
5P20 30VA
Rated Burden
(Relay. CT sec. resistance
and lead resistance)
Percent Protection 20 Times the

Error CT Nominal current
(Accuracy Limit Factor)

CT Classification:
IEC Designation
With 30VA connected
1000/1 To the this CT
the error will be within
5P20 30VA 5% provided the
current does not exceed
20X1 A=20 A

(Accuracy Limit Factor)
21
Copyright © 2012, Quanta Technology, LLC Confidential and Proprietary

CT Classification
IEC Designation
1000/1
30 VA=30 ohm at
5P20 30VA
1A secondary.
V required=
Rated 20A X 30 Ohms=
Burden 600V


Current Transformer Error Limit per IEC60044-1
For 5P and 10P class
Accuracy Current Error Phase Total Error
at Nominal Angle Error at nXIN
Current (IN) at Rated (Rated
Current (IN) Accuracy
Limit)
5P +/-
+/- 1% +/-
+/- 60 +/
+/-- 5%
Minutes
10P +/-
+/- 5% - +/
+/-- 10%

Current Transformer Standard IEC60044-1
Classification listed in above Table is used for overcurrent

Protection. For Unit protection class PX is defined in the
standard.
Use of saturation curve

is recommended

The saturation curve can be used to lay out the specifications

in terms of knee point emf (shown as red dot below), exciting
Current Im at knee point and the secondary winding resistance
Use of saturation curve

is recommended.
Also called excitation
curve

Knee Point:
That point at which further
increase of 10% of secondary
emf will require
a 50% increment
of exciting current

Current Transformers : Accuracy
• Principal cause of
inaccuracy
– Saturation
Linear CT
• Factors affecting saturation
Saturated CT
– Iron core cross section
CT –Sec I
– Number of secondary turns CT Turns Ratio
– Burden
CT – Pri I

Current Transformers : Excitation Curve
• Tapped multiratio CT shown
• Characteristic behavior of the exciting branch saturating reactor.
• Apply ac voltage to secondary of CT and plot the magnetizing current
Ie. RMS meters typically to measure & plot.
• Note voltage limiting as it approaches saturation knee.
• Magnetizing current becomes very large (and shifts phase).
Knee Full winding

voltage
Increasing
Em Ratio
Lowest tap
Vac
Log-log
I=0
plot
Im

Magnetizing or Excitation Curves
• Slight slope in saturated region from winding resistance.
Knee Full winding

voltage
Increasing
Em Ratio
Lowest tap
Vac
Log-log
I=0
plot
Im

CT Specification According to IEC
What is the CT Dimensioning factor:
5P20 20 VA
This says that at 20 (Kalf) times the nominal current and at

20VA connected load the error will be 5%.
Now if the VA is higher than 20 that the error of 5% is

not guaranteed.
Also, if the VA is lower than 20VA the we can specify

less VA for the CT
Similarly the current may be 20 times , less than 20 times or could be
more than 20 times.

Let us first define some of the terms:
KALF is the Rated CT accuracy limit factor

K*ALF is the effective CT Accuracy Limit Factor (ALF)
R BN is the rated burden resistance
R BC is the connected burden ( includes internal Ct resistance
and the external leads)
R I is the CT internal CT Resistance (referred to secondary)
I SC max is the maximum short circuit that the CT is presented
I n is the ratio of the CT

Let us first define some of the terms:
KALF has to > or = to (R BC + R I ) X K* ALF / (R BN + R I)
Now how do we get K* ALF
K* ALF is = or > K DF
Where K DF is the dimension factor for the CT

Let us work out an example:
Ct ratio is 600/1 and it is type 5P10 15 VA

So R BN is 15 VA (15/12=15 ohms)
Relay VA at the selected tap is 1.5 VA (1.5/12=1.5 ohms)
Lead resistance is 0.3 ohms
I SC MAX =30,000 A
So R BC is 1.5 +.3=1.8
R I = 4 ohms
K DF is obtained from Relay instruction manual and is 0.5 in this

instance.
Let us work out an example:
Give that K DF is 0.5

We get K* ALF =0.5 *I SC MAX / I N = 0.5 X 30000/600 =25
K ALF =(1.8 +4) X 25/ (15+4) =7.6
7.6 is less than specified ALF of 10. hence the application is OK
If K DF was 1 then K ALF calculated will be 15.2 in which case the rated
ALF of 10 will not be enough and we will have to specify
K ALF will have to chosen as 20 instead of 10.

Current Transformers : Example
Isc Primary is 20,000A
Ratio of Ct 1000/1
Relay burden is 10VA
CT winding resistance is 4 Ohms
Lead resistance is 3 ohms
What IEC rated CT should I specify

such as 5Pxx yy VA to meet the requirement
Find xx and yy
xx is the ALF and yy is total rated burden

Use any margin factor you want to account for margin
of errors.
ALF is 20000/1000=20
Relay Burden 10VA

CT winding resistance is 4 ohms =4*1^2=4*1=4VA
Lead resistance is 3 ohms =3*1^2=3*1=3VA
Total burden is 17VA
I would specify 20VA and a ALF of 25
5P25 20VA

Isc Primary is 30,000A
Ratio of Ct 2000/5
Relay burden is 20VA
CT winding resistance is 2 Ohms
Lead resistance is 3 ohms
What IEC rated CT should I specify

such as 5Pxx yy VA to meet the requirement
Find xx and yy
xx is the ALF and yy is total rated burden

Use any margin factor you want to account for margin
of errors.
Isc secondary=30000/400=75
ALF is 75/Inom=75/5=15
Burden is Relay 100VA

CT winding resistance is 4 ohms =4*(5^2)=2*25=100VA
Lead resistance is 3 ohms =3*5^2=75VA
Total burden is 275VA
I would specify 300VA and a ALF of 15
5P15 300VA

Three-phase CT connections
52
Wye connected CTs I>> I>> I>>

(most common)
IG>> Ground relaying

with residual
Only one safety
connection
ground in CT circuit!

Three-phase CT connections
• Delta connected CTs used mainly in electromechanical
transformer differential protection applications.
• Residual connection can produce residual current when
phases are perfectly balanced.
– Small CT ratio errors – don’t add up to zero
– Distortion of currents causes residual harmonics
• Flux-cancelling zero-sequence donut or BYZ CT – the only
accurate way to measure small ground currents.
– No problems with phase CT
differences
– Not practical for HV/EHV
– Widely used at MV/LV

CT issue: dc offset of fault current
• Actually a decaying exponential offset.
• Stored flux in inductive circuit - instantaneous current cannot change
suddenly, although magnitude has jumped.
• Long time constants of 20 to 50 ms associated with HV or EHV lines
with impedance angles of 75 to 89 degrees.
• Measurement errors of relay elements including DFT (decaying
exponential has power-frequency component).
• Causes saturation of main and/or relay current transformers.
i1(t) = Imax[cos(ω θ) - e-t/Tcos θ]

ωt-θ for t≥
≥0
= 0 for t<0

CT saturation from dc
• Not disastrous for
Primary current
overcurrent or
distance protection.
• CT recovers and
Secondary current relay trips
eventually.
Flux density
• Serious problem for
Saturation flux fast differential
Saturation starts
Saturation ends
relays.

CT Saturation – AC or DC offset Transient
• Ct core may reach saturation flux density
when high current through burden leads to
a large secondary output voltage
(compliance voltage).
• Ct core may also reach saturation flux
density due to a dc offset (decaying
exponential) in the fault current
– Can be worse with remnant flux in core.
• The output current suddenly decays from a
scaled primary signal to near zero.
CT Saturation – AC or DC offset Transient
• Recovers and reproduces current again when flux drops
below saturation – often at next zero crossing.
• May saturate on multiple successive cycles.
• DC saturation influences only the half-cycles having the
polarity of the offset.
• AC saturation (large currents and high burden) truncates
every half cycle.
– Extreme AC case - a bunch of alternating spikes.
• Relays may not get enough current to operate.
• Understand using CT model.

CT Model
• The three most important parts of the CT model
– Ideal CT secondary model
– Exciting branch model
– Secondary winding resistance
• Ideal CT secondary model - a perfect current source
– Perfect N:5 transformation of primary current waveform
– Infinite source imp. – ext.source can’t push current through it
– Drives precise current through loop by developing any needed
voltage.
Rct R wiring
Zes
Ie
R relays

CT Model : Exciting Branch
• Exciting branch : saturating iron core reactor
– Leakage impedance Zes is very high, and inductive
– When secondary current is small, lagging exciting current Ie
shunts a noticeable portion away from external circuits.
– Causes magnitude and phase measurement errors at small
fractions of rated current.
– Flux in core - Φ = ∫v dt
• When integral of applied voltage gets large, flux reaches
saturation level.
• When reactor saturates, impedance becomes very low, and
mostly resistive.
Rct R wiring
Zes
Ie
R relays

CT Model : Open Circuit
• Open-circuit case – high voltage, limited
only by exciting branch saturation.
• Hazardous, especially for high quality
CT:1-2 kV!!
• Never open a live CT circuit – you’ll know
if you do it!
• Relay test switches and test blocks for CT
circuits have shorting feature that keeps
CT circuit closed. R R wiring ct
Zes
Ie
R relays

CT Model : Short Circuit
• Short circuit case – perfect current wave!
But…
– We never have a perfect short because we can’t
get rid of secondary winding resistance Rct
– Zes and Ie thus always have some impact on Ir.
• Total secondary burden including winding &
wiring resistance & relay impedance increase
voltage across Zes, and error current Ie.
Rct R wiring
Zes
Ie
R relays

Polarity of CTs : External Fault
If If
Protected
Equip
Res Res
OP
External Fault: Iop =0

Polarities are correct

Polarity of CTs : Internal Fault
If If
Protected
Equip
Res Res
OP
Internal Fault: Iop > 0

Polarities are correct

Polarity of CTs : External Fault
If If
Protected
Equip
Res Res
OP
External Fault: Iop >0

Polarities are incorrect

Polarity of CTs : Internal Fault
If If
Protected
Equip
Res Res
OP
Internal Fault: Iop = 0

Polarities are incorrect

CTs cannot carry high short circuit currents for long

duration.
CTS have a short time rating and is specified by
Manufacturer in terms of short time current and the time for
which it can flow.
Some standard times are 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, or 3.0

Voltage Transformer
• Two Types are of voltage transformers are
available:
– Iron Core
– Capacitance Coupled
• Primary ratings can be either in Line-Line or
Line-Neutral
• Standard secondary L-L rating is 120V

Voltage Transformer : Accuracy
• Have to be careful of the total burden
• Phase angle error—Not very critical for
relaying except that the error should not
be very high
• Ratio error needs to be accounted for.
• Standard states that :
– Internal compensation should make this
factor 1 at standard burden.
– At other burdens the application must be
reviewed
– Appropriate Ratio Correction Factor (RCF)
applied
Voltage Transformer : Polarity
Subtractive Polarity
Additive Polarity

Voltage Transformer : Connections

Voltage Transformer : Connections

Voltage Transformer
• 36 kV & below :
– Dry type iron core design is used
• For higher voltage ratings oil filled iron core
PTs are common
– Hence CCVT are used at voltages above 132 kV
– Above 132 kV, iron core becomes expensive
• Accuracy of iron core is much better than a
CCVT

Capacitive Voltage Transformer
• Much cheaper to insulate than EHV
iron-core transformer. C1
• Transformer tapped at 5 kV typ. for
burden ability. L ZL
ZF
• L & C1+C2 tuned to power frequency. C2
T
Ld Drain Coil
• Convenient carrier signal line tuner LT

coupling (LT).
• Higher capacitance = more $
– Better transient response, heavier
burden, broader band carrier tuning.

CVT Transient Response
• A wound iron-core VT is accurate and has no significant
errors for relaying.
• A CVT is accurate for steady-state power frequency
measurement as long as L is tuned to C1 + C2.
• For transient conditions, the tuned circuit generates its own
transient response that can fool relays.
e′(t) e′(t)
e2′(t)
e2′(t)
θ = π/2 θ=0

CVT transient Response & Relays
• E/M distance elements (cylinder units) have minimum
sensitivity to dc offsets.
• Also, E/M distance relays use tuned circuits to maintain
torque for close in fault with voltage collapse – 1 to 2
cycles damping.
• E/M relays showed little problem with CVTs.
• Solid-state analog relays used signal polarity comparison
with little prefiltering, for high speed.
• These relays would often false trip from subsidence
transients in CVTs.
• Most modern µP relays use DFT filter and are less likely
to false trip for this.
• For very fast relays, ask the vendor for CVT specs.

CVT : Ferro Resonance Risk
• Combination of iron-core inductance & capacitance.
• When Ferro resonance occurs, large, damaging distorted
voltage appears at output.
– Ferro resonance suppression circuit helps to control the
problem.
• Sometimes, the circuit doesn’t work unless the CVT is
heavily burdened, approaching its rating.

Any Questions?
Thank you

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Instrument Transformers

Copyright © 2012, Quanta Technology, LLC Confidential and Proprietary 1

Copyright © 2012, Quanta Technology, LLC Confidential and Proprietary 2

• Instrument transformers are expected to reproduce

Copyright © 2012, Quanta Technology, LLC Confidential and Proprietary 3

• Standard ratings have been developed to allow easy

Copyright © 2012, Quanta Technology, LLC Confidential and Proprietary 4

• Permits small size of protection and control equipment.

Copyright © 2012, Quanta Technology, LLC Confidential and Proprietary 5

• Basic current transformers consist of

Copyright © 2012, Quanta Technology, LLC Confidential and Proprietary 6

• Never open circuit the CT secondary winding with

Copyright © 2012, Quanta Technology, LLC Confidential and Proprietary 7

Copyright © 2012, Quanta Technology, LLC Confidential and Proprietary 8

• Used primarily for metering but also used in

Copyright © 2012, Quanta Technology, LLC Confidential and Proprietary 9

Copyright © 2012, Quanta Technology, LLC Confidential and Proprietary 10

• Window type is similar to bushing type

Copyright © 2012, Quanta Technology, LLC Confidential and Proprietary 11

• Bar type is similar to bushing type and

Copyright © 2012, Quanta Technology, LLC Confidential and Proprietary 12

Oil or Gas Insulated Free Standing CT

Copyright © 2012, Quanta Technology, LLC Confidential and Proprietary 14

Remember: CT Polarity is;

• Method uses the well known equation:

Copyright © 2012, Quanta Technology, LLC Confidential and Proprietary 16

The classic transformer formula is:

Where f is the frequency in Hertz

Copyright © 2012, Quanta Technology, LLC Confidential and Proprietary 17

Voltage produced by the CT is :

Copyright © 2012, Quanta Technology, LLC Confidential and Proprietary 18

Copyright © 2012, Quanta Technology, LLC Confidential and Proprietary 19

Percent Protection 20 Times the

Copyright © 2012, Quanta Technology, LLC Confidential and Proprietary 20

Percent Protection 20 Times the

Copyright © 2012, Quanta Technology, LLC Confidential and Proprietary

Percent Protection 20 Times the

Copyright © 2012, Quanta Technology, LLC Confidential and Proprietary 22

Copyright © 2012, Quanta Technology, LLC Confidential and Proprietary 23

Classification listed in above Table is used for overcurrent

Use of saturation curve

Copyright © 2012, Quanta Technology, LLC Confidential and Proprietary 24

The saturation curve can be used to lay out the specifications

Use of saturation curve

Copyright © 2012, Quanta Technology, LLC Confidential and Proprietary 25

Copyright © 2012, Quanta Technology, LLC Confidential and Proprietary 26

Copyright © 2012, Quanta Technology, LLC Confidential and Proprietary 27

Knee Full winding

Copyright © 2012, Quanta Technology, LLC Confidential and Proprietary 28

Knee Full winding

Copyright © 2012, Quanta Technology, LLC Confidential and Proprietary 29

This says that at 20 (Kalf) times the nominal current and at

Now if the VA is higher than 20 that the error of 5% is

Also, if the VA is lower than 20VA the we can specify

Copyright © 2012, Quanta Technology, LLC Confidential and Proprietary 30

Let us first define some of the terms:

KALF is the Rated CT accuracy limit factor

I SC max is the maximum short circuit that the CT is presented

I n is the ratio of the CT

Copyright © 2012, Quanta Technology, LLC Confidential and Proprietary 31

Let us first define some of the terms:

KALF has to > or = to (R BC + R I ) X K* ALF / (R BN + R I)

Now how do we get K* ALF

Where K DF is the dimension factor for the CT