DATA PROCESSING

Introduction

Each organization, regardless of its size or purpose, generates data to keep a record of events and
transactions that take place within the business. Generating and organizing this data in a useful
way is called data processing. In this lesson, we shall discuss about various terms such as data,
information, data processing and data processing system.
DATA

Data is a set of values of subjects with respect to qualitative or quantitative variables. Some of
the different types of data.

Data and information or knowledge are often used interchangeably; however data becomes
information when it is viewed in context or in post-analysis [5]

. While the concept of data is commonly associated with scientific research, data is collected by a
huge range of organizations and institutions, including businesses (e.g., sales data, revenue,
profits, stock price), governments (e.g., crime rates, unemployment rates, lieracy rates) and non-
governmental organizations (e.g., censuses of the number of homeless people by non-profit
organizations).

Data is measured, collected and reported, and analyzed, whereupon it can be visualized using
graphs, images or other analysis tools. Data as a general concept refers to the fact that some
existing information or knowledge is represented or coded in some form suitable for better usage
or processing. Raw data ("unprocessed data") is a collection of Numbers or characters before it
has been " cleaned" and corrected by researchers. Raw data needs to be corrected to remove
Outliers or obvious instrument or data entry errors (e.g., a thermometer reading from an outdoor
Arctic location recording a tropical temperature). Data processing commonly occurs by stages,
and the "processed data" from one stage may be considered the "raw data" of the next stage.
Field data is raw data that is collected in an uncontrolled "in situ" environment. Experimental
data is data that is generated within the context of a scientific investigation by observation and
recording. Data has been described as the new oil of the digital economy. [3][4]

PROCESS
In computing, a process is the instance of a computer program that is being executed. It contains
the program code and its activity. Depending on the A list of processes as displayed by htop
operating system (OS), a process may be made up of multiple threads of execution that execute
instructions concurrently. [4][5]

While a computer program is a passive collection of instructions, a process is the actual

execution of those instructions. Several processes may be associated with the same program; for
example, opening up several instances of the same program often results in more than one
process being executed.

Multitasking is a method to allow multiple processes to share processors(CPUs) and other

system resources. Each CPU (core) executes a single task at a time. However ,multitasking
allows each processor to Switch between tasks that are being executed without having to wait for
each task to finish. Depending on the operating system implementation, switches could be
performed when tasks perform input/output operations, when a task indicates that it can be
switched, or on hardware interrupts.

A common form of multitasking is timesharing. Time-sharing is a method to allow high

responsiveness for interactive user applications. In time-sharing systems, context switches are
performed rapidly , which makes it seem like multiple processes are being executed
simultaneously on the same processor . This seeming execution of multiple processes
simultaneously is called concurrency. For security and reliability , most modern

operating systems prevent direct communication between independent processes, providing

strictly mediated and controlled inter-process communication functionality .

DATA PROCESSING

Data processing is, generally,"the collection and manipulation of items of data to produce
meaningful information. "[1]

In this sense it can be considered a subset of information processing, "the change (processing) of
information in any manner detectable by an observer.” [note 1]

The term Data Processing (DP) has also been used to refer to a department within an
organization responsible for the operation of data processing applications. [2]

Data processing may involve various processes, including:

Validation– Ensuring that supplied data is correct and relevant.

Sorting– "arranging items in some sequence and/or in different sets.

Summarization– reducing detail data to its main points.

Aggregation– combining multiple pieces of data.

Data processing functions

Analysis– the "collection, organization, analysis, interpretation and presentation of data. "

Reporting– list detail or summary data or computed information.

Classification– separation of data into various categories.

The United States Census Bureau history illustrates the evolution of data processing from
manual through electronic procedures. Manual data processing

Data Processing Activities

As discussed above, data processing consists of those activities which are necessary to transform
data into information. Man has in course of time devised Data Processing Concept.

certain tools to help him in processing data. These include manual tools such as pencil and paper,
mechanical tools such as filing cabinets, electromechanical tools such as adding machines and
typewriters, and electronic tools such as calculators and computers. Many people immediately
associate data processing with computers. As stated above, a computer is not the only tool used
for data processing; it can be done without computers also. However, computers have
outperformed people for certain tasks. There are some other tasks for which computer is a poor
substitute for human skill and intelligence.

Regardless to the type of equipment used, various functions and activities which need to be
performed for data processing can be grouped under five basic categories as shown in Fig. 2.1

Collection
Data originates in the form of events transaction or some observations. This data is then recorded
in some usable form. Data may be initially recorded on paper source documents 2.2 and then
converted into a machine usable form for processing. Alternatively , they may be recorded by a
direct input device in a paperless, machine-readable form. Data collection is also termed as data
capture.

Conversion
Once the data is collected, it is converted from its source documents to a form that is more
suitable for processing. The data is first codified by assigning identification codes. A code
comprises of numbers, letters, special characters, or a combination of these. For example, an
employee may be allotted a code as 52-53-162, his category as A class, etc. It is useful to codify
data, when data requires classification. To classify means to categorize, i.e., data with similar
characteristics are placed in similar categories or groups. For example, one may like to arrange
accounts data according to account number or date. Hence a balance sheet can easily be
prepared. After classification of data, it is verified or checked to ensure the accuracy before
processing starts. After verification, the data is transcribed from one data medium to another .
For example, in case data processing is done using a computer, the data may be transformed
from source documents to machine sensible form using magnetic tape or a disk.
Manipulation
Once data is collected and converted, it is ready for the manipulation function which converts
data into information. Manipulation consists of following activities:

Sorting
It involves the arrangement of data items in a desired sequence. Usually , it is easier to work with
data if it is arranged in a logical sequence. Most often, the data are arranged in alphabetical
sequence. Sometimes sorting itself will transform data into information.

Calculating
Arithmetic manipulation of data is called calculating. Items of recorded data can be added to one
another, subtracted, divided or multiplied to create new data as shown in fig. 2.2(a). Calculation
is an integral part of data processing. For example, in calculating an employee's pay , the hours

worked multiplied by the hourly wage rate gives the gross pay . Based on total earning, income-
tax deductions are computed and subtracted from gross-pay to arrive at net pay .

Summarizing
To summarize is to condense or reduce masses of data to a more usable and concise, you may
summarize a lecture attended in a class by writing small notes in one or two pages. When the
data involved is numbers, you summarize by counting or accumulating the totals of the data in a
classification or by selecting strategic data from the mass of data being processed. For example,
the summarizing activity may provide a general manager with sales-totals by major product line,
the sales manager with sales totals by individual salesman as well as by the product line and a
salesman with sales data by customer as well as by product line.

Comparing
To compare data is to perform an evaluation in relation to some known measure. For example,
business managers compare data to discover how well their companies are doing. They many
compare current sales figures with those for last year to analyze the performance of the company
in the current month.

Storing
To store is to hold data for continued or later use. Storage is essential for any organised method
of processing and re-using data. The storage mechanisms for data processing systems are file
cabinets in a manual system, and electronic devices such as magnetic disks/magnetic tapes in
case of computer based system. The storing activity involves storing data and information in
organised manner in order to facilitate the retrieval activity. Of course, data should be stored
only if the value of having them in future exceeds the storage cost.

Retrieving
To retrieve means to recover or find again the stored data or information. Retrieval techniques
use data storage devices. Thus data, whether in file cabinets or in computers can be recalled for
further processing. Retrieval and comparison of old data gives meaning to current information.

Communication
Communication is the process of sharing information. Unless the information is made available
to the users who need it, it is worthless. Thus, communication involves the transfer of data and
information produced by the data processing system to the prospective users of such information
or to another data processing system. As a result, reports and documents are prepared and
delivered to the users. In electronic data processing, results are communicated through display
units or terminals.

Reproduction
To reproduce is to copy or duplicate data or information. This reproduction activity may be done
by hand or by machine.

The Data Processing Cycle The data processing activities described above are common to all
data processing systems from manual to electronic systems. These activities can be grouped in
four functional categories, viz., data input, data processing, data output and storage, constituting
what is known as a data processing cycle.

(i) Input

The term input refers to the activities required to record data and to make it available for
processing. The input can also include the steps necessary to check, verify and validate data
contents.

(ii) Processing

The term processing denotes the actual data manipulation techniques such as classifying, sorting,
calculating, summarizing, comparing, etc. that convert data into information.

(iii) Output

It is a communication function which transmits the information, generated after processing of

data, to persons who need the information. Sometimes output also includes decoding activity
which converts the electronically generated information into human-readable form.
Data Processing System

The activity of data processing can be viewed as a "system". According to James O'brien a
system can be defined as "a group of interrelated components that seeks the attainment of a
common goal by accepting inputs and producing outputs in an organised process". For example,
a production system accepts raw material as input and produces finished goods as output.

Similarly , a data processing system can be viewed as a system that uses data as input and
processes this data to produce information as output.

There are many kinds of data processing systems. A manual data processing system is one that
utilizes tools like pens, and filing cabinets. A mechanical data processing system uses devices
such as typewriters, calculating machines and book-keeping machines. Finally , electronic data
processing uses computers to automatically process data.

Commercial data processing

Applications
Commercial data processing involves a large volume of input data, relatively few computational
operations, and a large volume of output. For example, an insurance company needs to keep
records on tens or hundreds of thousands of policies, print and mail bills, and receive and post
payments.

Data analysis In science and engineering, the terms data Processing and information systems are
considered too broad, and the term data processing is typically used for the initial stage followed
by a data analysis in the second stage of the overall data handling.

Data analysis uses specialized algorithms and statistical calculations that are less often observed
in a typical general business environment. For data analysis, software suites like SPSS or SAS,
or their free counterparts such as DAP, gretl or PSPP are often used.

Data processing systems

Big data Computation

Decision-making software

1. Data processing is distinct from word processing, which is manipulation of text specifically
rather than data generally ." data processing" . Webopedia. Retrieved June 24,2013.
Conclusion
Data processing most often refers to Electronic data processing, computer processes

that convert data into information or knowledge. Data processing may also refer to: ...

Data analysis; processing data with the goal of highlighting, drawing conclusions, and

supporting decision making.

REFERENCES

1. French, Carl (1996). Data Processing and Information Technology (10th ed.) . Thomson. p. 2.
ISBN 1844801004.

2. Illingwor th, Valerie (11 December 1997). Dictionary of Computing. Oxford Paperback
Reference (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780192800466.

3. Google N gram viewer . Retrieved June 26,2013.

4. Silberschatz, Abraham; Cagne, Greg; Galvin, Peter Baer (2004). "Chapter 4. Processes".
Operating system concepts with Java(Sixth ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-48905-0.

5. Vahalia, Uresh (1996). "Chapter 2. The Process and the Kernel". UNIX Internals: The New
Frontiers. Prentice-Hall Inc. ISBN 0-13-101908-2.

6. Google N gram viewer . Retrieved April 28,2018.

5. "Data vs Information - Difference and Comparison | Diffen " . www .diffen.com.