Rules of Syllogism

1. Rules of Syllogism – There are five rules that govern the categorical syllogism:

Rule 1: There must be three terms and only three – the major term, the minor term, and
the middle term. If there are only two terms the relationship between these two cannot
be established. And if there were more than three terms this would violate the structure
of the categorical syllogism.

Animals are living beings.

Plants are heavenly bodies.

Therefore…

Stones are minerals.

Minerals are stones.

Therefore…

A widower is a man.

A man is either male or female.

Therefore, a widower is either male or female.

Rule 2: Each term must occur twice in the syllogism: the major must occur in the
conclusion and in one premise, the minor in the conclusion and in one premise; the
middle in both premise but not in the conclusion. There must therefore be a total of
three propositions in the syllogism.

Rule 3: The middle term must be distributed at least once. If the middleterm is particular
in both premises it might stand for a different portion of its extension in each occurrence
and thus be equivalent to two terms.

All sharks are fish.

All salmon are fish.

Therefore, all salmons are sharks.

Many rich men oppress the poor.

Jones is a rich man.

Therefore, Jones oppresses the poor.

Rule 4: The major and minor terms may not be universal in the conclusion unless they
are universal in the premises. If a term is distributed in the conclusion then it must be
distributed first in the premise.

There is an illicit major term if the major term is universal in the conclusion but particular
in the premise:

All horses are animals.

All dogs are not horses.

Therefore, all dogs are not animals.

There is an illicit minor term if the minor term is universal in the conclusion but particular
in the premise:

All tigers are mammals.

All mammals are animals.

Therefore, all animals are tigers.

The rationale behind this rule is that we may not conclude about all the inferiors of a
term if the premises have given us information about only some of them. The key to
detect a violation of this rule is to examine the conclusion. If there is no term that is
distributed in the conclusion then this rule could not have been violated. If one or both
terms in the conclusion are distributed there is possibility of the rule having been
violated. If a term is distributed both in the premise and the conclusion there is no
violation of this rule.

Rule 5: If both premises are affirmative, the conclusion must be affirmative. The reason
for this rule is that affirmative premises either unite the minor or major terms, or else do
not bring them into relationship with each other at all.

All sins are detestable.

All pretenses are a sin.

Therefore, all pretenses are not detestable.

There is a need to be cautious about apparently affirmative or negative propositions:

Animals differ from angels.

Man is an animal.

Therefore, a man is not a horse.

Rule 6: If one premise is affirmative and the other negative, the conclusion must be
negative.

All crows are birds.

All wolves are not crows.

Therefore, all wolves are birds.

Some premises are apparently affirmatives but actually negative and therefore yield a
valid conclusion:

Dogs are not cats.

Greyhounds are dogs.

Therefore, greyhounds differ from cats.

Rule 7: If both premises are negative – and not equivalently affirmative – there can be
no conclusion.

Reptiles are not mammals.

Dogs are not reptiles.

Therefore…

Rule 8: If both premises are particular there can be no conclusion.

Universal Natural History and Theory of Heaven (German: Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und
Theorie des Himmels) is a work written by Immanuel Kant in 1755.

According to Kant, our solar system is merely a smaller version of the fixed star systems, such as
the Milky Way and other galaxies. The cosmogony Kant proposes in this book is closer to today's
accepted ideas than that of some of his contemporary thinkers, such as Pierre-Simon Laplace.
Moreover, Kant's thought in this volume is strongly influenced by atomist theory, in addition to the
ideas of Lucretius.

In his introduction to the English translation of Kant's book, Stanley Jaki criticizes Kant for being a
poor mathematician and downplays the relevance of his contribution to science. However, these
criticisms are on the whole unfair, as they are blaming Kant for not knowing about twentieth-century
developments.[1]

Kant's book ends with an almost mystical expression of appreciation for nature: "In the universal
silence of nature and in the calm of the senses the immortal spirit’s hidden faculty of knowledge
speaks an ineffable language and gives [us] undeveloped concepts, which are indeed felt, but do not
let themselves be described."[2]

Hypostatic Union
This is the union of the two natures (Divine and human) in the person of Jesus. Jesus is God in flesh
(John 1:1,14; 10:30-33; 20:28; Phil. 2:5-8; Heb. 1:8). He has a fully divine nature and a fully human
nature (Col. 2:9); thus, he has two natures: God and man. He is not half God and half man. He is
100% God and 100% man. He never lost his divinity. He continued to exist as God when he
became a man and added human nature to Himself (Phil. 2:5-11). Therefore, there is a "union in one
person of a full human nature and a full divine nature." Right now in heaven there is a man, Jesus,
who is our Mediator between us and God the Father (1 Tim. 2:5). (For related information on Jesus
and His two natures, see Incarnation and the errors concerning his natures known
asEutychianism, Monophycitism, and Nestorianism.)

Ideogenesis
Colloquial, semi-formal term for what is often referred to as transapient hyper-creativity.

Ideogenesis refers to the transapient ability to engage in creative leaps with no apparent intermediate
steps.
Modosophont intellects may occasionally experience a moment of inspiration which leads in time to a
new idea, artwork, or invention. In contrast, transapients appear to employ a creative process which
results in the creation of full-blown products (ideas, artwork, and inventions) all at once. This appears
to be a constant or near-constant capability of many transapient sophonts.

As an example of the ideogenic process, a modosophont might experience a snatch of rhythmic noise
that inspires them to imagine a tune, which they may eventually turn into the basis for a piece of
music, usually at some point days, weeks, or months after the initial experience. In contrast, a
transapient experiencing the same bit of noise might think up several dozen pieces of complete music,
usually in at least half a dozen styles, and a similar number of literary, visual, and performance art
works, each supported by several hundred thousand words of commentary, notes, and scholarly
writings on the subject of its own work (Note also that this same experience may also inform other
decisions and creations of the transapient sophont, from structural analysis of the surroundings based
on sonic propagation from the originating events to perception of others' reactions to the events
leading to insights into their backgrounds, personalities, and perhaps other factors). All within a few
minutes of hearing the inspirational noise in the first place.

Whether transapients truly gain creative inspiration from all aspects of their existence at all times or
have the ability to turn this ability on and off at will seems to be a matter of personal choice and
preference. Certainly even those transapients most given to creative impulse seem perfectly able to
ignore or channel their inspirations when they choose to. What has been firmly established is that this
creative process is not simply a product of speed of thought. Although some ai and virtual sophonts
have successfully duplicated the appearance of ideogenesis by running themselves on high speed
processors and specialized mental overlays, this does not explain how a transapient can produce a
similar level of work while apparently running at a much slower chronorate. The transapient creative
process seems to owe more to other processes (perhaps massive parallelism) than it does to sheer
clock speed.

The theory of ideogenesis = Aristotle's answer to the origin of ideas, i.e. how ideas are formed in
our mind. We do not have innate ideas. When we are born our minds are a blank table “tabula
rasa,” and all our ideas must be acquired. The mind cannot form an idea, if there is nothing to
think about.
The steps to the theory of ideogenesis are: X, Sensible Qualities, External Qualities, Sense
Impressions of X, Central Sense, Perception of X, Instinct or Sense Memory or Sense
Imagination, Phantasm of X, Agent Intellect, Abstraction, Abstracted Essence of X, Passive
Intellect, Forms the Idea of X.
First you start with an object to be known, defined by X. X’s sensible qualities are taken in by
our external senses. The sense impressions of X are analyzed by the Central Sense. The
perception of X is a higher level knowledge, but only when X is present. The sense memory is
the image to be retained in us. The phantasm of X is the memory of X when X is no longer
present, which is also the highest level of knowledge the senses can provide. The agent intellect
(the mind!) will then perform the act of abstraction. The act of abstraction is the act by which the
mind separates one aspect of a thing from its other aspects. The abstracted essence of X refers to
the general characteristics, i.e. most things of X will have these similar qualities. Passive intellect
is the mind doing the activity of forming an idea.
Based on this theory, Aristotle’s view is that 1) everything in the mind begins with the senses,
and 2) knowledge begins in the senses and ends in the mind.

Anselm: Ontological Argument for

God’s Existence
One of the most fascinating arguments for the existence of an all-perfect God is the ontological
argument. While there are several different versions of the argument, all purport to show that it is
self-contradictory to deny that there exists a greatest possible being. Thus, on this general line of
argument, it is a necessary truth that such a being exists; and this being is the God of traditional
Western theism. This article explains and evaluates classic and contemporary versions of the
ontological argument.

Most of the arguments for God’s existence rely on at least one empirical premise. For example, the
“fine-tuning” version of the design argument depends on empirical evidence of intelligent design; in
particular, it turns on the empirical claim that, as a nomological matter, that is, as a matter of law,
life could not have developed if certain fundamental properties of the universe were to have differed
even slightly from what they are. Likewise, cosmological arguments depend on certain empirical
claims about the explanation for the occurrence of empirical events.
In contrast, the ontological arguments are conceptual in roughly the following sense: just as the
propositions constituting the concept of a bachelor imply that every bachelor is male, the
propositions constituting the concept of God, according to the ontological argument, imply that God
exists. There is, of course, this difference: whereas the concept of a bachelor explicitly contains the
proposition that bachelors are unmarried, the concept of God does not explicitly contain any
proposition asserting the existence of such a being. Even so, the basic idea is the same: ontological
arguments attempt to show that we can deduce God’s existence from, so to speak, the very definition
of God.

uestion: "What is the hypostatic union? How can Jesus be both God and man at
the same time?"

Answer:The hypostatic union is the term used to describe how God the Son,
Jesus Christ, took on a human nature, yet remained fully God at the same
time. Jesus always had been God (John 8:58,10:30), but at the incarnation
Jesus became a human being (John 1:14). The addition of the human nature
to the divine nature is Jesus, the God-man. This is the hypostatic union, Jesus
Christ, one Person, fully God and fully man.

Jesus' two natures, human and divine, are inseparable. Jesus will forever be
the God-man, fully God and fully human, two distinct natures in one Person.
Jesus' humanity and divinity are not mixed, but are united without loss of
separate identity. Jesus sometimes operated with the limitations of humanity
(John 4:6,19:28) and other times in the power of His deity (John
11:43;Matthew 14:18-21). In both, Jesus' actions were from His one Person.
Jesus had two natures, but only one personality.

The doctrine of the hypostatic union is an attempt to explain how Jesus could
be both God and man at the same time. It is ultimately, though, a doctrine we
are incapable of fully understanding. It is impossible for us to fully understand
how God works. We, as human beings with finite minds, should not expect to
totally comprehend an infinite God. Jesus is God’s Son in that He was
conceived by the Holy Spirit (Luke 1:35). But that does not mean Jesus did
not exist before He was conceived. Jesus has always existed (John
8:58,10:30). When Jesus was conceived, He became a human being in
addition to being God (John 1:1,14).

Jesus is both God and man. Jesus has always been God, but He did not
become a human being until He was conceived in Mary. Jesus became a
human being in order to identify with us in our struggles (Hebrews 2:17) and,
more importantly, so that He could die on the cross to pay the penalty for our
sins (Philippians 2:5-11). In summary, the hypostatic union teaches that Jesus
is both fully human and fully divine, that there is no mixture or dilution of either
nature, and that He is one united Person, forever.

Read more:http://www.gotquestions.org/hypostatic-union.html#ixzz3DiEhJFqZ

question: "What is the difference between the soul and spirit of man?"

Answer:The soul and the spirit are the two primary immaterial aspects that
Scripture ascribes to humanity. It can be confusing to attempt to discern the
precise differences between the two. The word “spirit” refers only to the
immaterial facet of humanity. Human beings have a spirit, but we are not
spirits. However, in Scripture, only believers are said to be spiritually alive (1
Corinthians 2:11;Hebrews 4:12;James 2:26), while unbelievers are spiritually
dead (Ephesians 2:1-5;Colossians 2:13). In Paul's writing, the spiritual was
pivotal to the life of the believer (1 Corinthians 2:14;3:1;Ephesians
1:3;5:19;Colossians 1:9;3:16). The spirit is the element in humanity which
gives us the ability to have an intimate relationship with God. Whenever the
word “spirit” is used, it refers to the immaterial part of humanity that “connects”
with God, who Himself is spirit (John 4:24).

The word “soul” can refer to both the immaterial and material aspects of
humanity. Unlike human beingshavinga spirit, human beingsaresouls. In its
most basic sense, the word “soul” means “life.” However, beyond this
essential meaning, the Bible speaks of the soul in many contexts. One of
these is humanity’s eagerness to sin (Luke 12:26). Humanity is naturally evil,
and our souls are tainted as a result. The life principle of the soul is removed
at the time of physical death (Genesis 35:18;Jeremiah 15:2). The soul, as with
the spirit, is the center of many spiritual and emotional experiences (Job
30:25;Psalm 43:5;Jeremiah 13:17). Whenever the word “soul” is used, it can
refer to the whole person, whether alive or in the afterlife.

The soul and the spirit are connected, but separable (Hebrews 4:12). The soul
is the essence of humanity’s being; it is who we are. The spirit is the aspect of
humanity that connects with God.

Read more:http://www.gotquestions.org/soul-spirit.html#ixzz3DiF4TFiv

A soul is that which gives life to a living body. A spirit is that which can
exist and act without a body. We see by their different definitions that soul
and spirit are not necessarily to be equated. The only case where we find a
soul which is also a spirit is in that of the human soul.

Soul

Soul is the principle of life in a living body. The soul is the substantial form of the body. It
gives life, confers the nature, provides order and unity of purpose to the living organism.
The soul has no organ and cannot be detected by empirical examination. The soul is the
remote efficient cause and radical principle of all the acts of the organism. The activity of
each organ and its coordination with the other organs for the good of the whole body cannot
be explained without a universal intrinsic principle of life which animates and organizes the
organs and which itself is not one of them.

Material Soul

The material soul is called material not because it is made of matter but because it is
dependent upon matter for its be and for its do. The material soul is the principle of life of a
creature which will cease to exist at death, namely, the plant or the brute animal. While the
body depends for its life upon its soul, the material soul depends upon a suitable
organization of the body for it to be able to maintain its own existence and its vivifying
influence. For the material soul is not created i.e. made out of nothing, but is educed from
the potency of the matter and returns to the potency of matter when the body through age
or disease or injury is no longer able to support the soul. We do not say that life comes from
non-life but that actual life can come from virtual life. For example an apple seed is not
actually an apple tree but contains one virtually. If the seed is planted and the right
conditions exist then the matter will become sufficiently disposed for the soul to arise and
actually (rather than virtually) give life and order to the beginnings of an actual (rather than
a virtual) apple tree. The material soul is not a thing in its own right but the principle of a
thing. It cannot exist by itself but only as the form of the living body.
Vegetative Soul

The vegetative soul is that which gives life to a plant. It is the lowest soul but not the lowest
substantial form. The lowest substantial forms, which are not souls, are those of non-living
things. The distance between vegetative life and non-living creation is infinite because it is
the difference between be and be-not (and there is no middle between these). The
vegetative soul is therefore infinitely superior to the substantial forms of inanimate things
(e.g. water, gold, nitrogen). The vegetative soul is the root or radical principle of the plant's
powers and acts: nutrition, growth and generation. The vegetative soul is formally one i.e.
is one soul and virtually one i.e. has the power of one soul. The vegetative soul is
intrinsically dependent on matter and returns to the potency of matter when the body fails.

Sensitive Soul

The sensitive soul is that which gives life to a brute (animal). The sensitive soul is infinitely
superior to the vegetative soul because it confers on the animal the ability to know and
desire. Animals are knowers and plants are non-knowers - this is the difference between be
and be-not, an infinite gulf.

The sensitive soul is the root or radical principle of the animal's powers and acts: vegetative
functions, senses and sensations, sense appetites and passions. The sensitive soul is
formally one i.e. is one soul and virtually two i.e. has the power of two souls - vegetative
and sensitive. For the animal has the perfection of the plant and more. The sensitive soul is
intrinsically dependent on matter and returns to the potency of matter when the body of the
animal fails.

Human Soul

The human soul is that which gives life to a man. The human soul is both a soul and a spirit,
but it is not two things - it is one spiritual soul. Because it is spiritual the human soul is
created immediately by God in the body prepared by the parents - it is not educed from the
potency of matter. The human soul being spiritual is also immortal and so it lives on after
the body dies. The human soul is not only a principle of life, it is also a thing in itself - as a
spirit - and can thus exist without the body.

The human soul is infinitely superior to the souls of animals and plants because it is spiritual
and immortal and has the properties of intellect and free will. The human soul united with
its body is the root or radical principle of all man's acts, habits and powers. Because man is
both corporeal and spiritual certain of his powers are organic i.e. belonging to body and
soul, and others are inorganic i.e. belonging to the soul alone. The organic powers e.g.
nutrition, sight, imagination, irascible appetite etc have organs in the body and fail when
the body dies. They are said to remain radically in the separated soul. The inorganic powers,
i.e. intellect and will, are spiritual and so have no organ in the body, but continue to exist
and operate in the soul when it is separated from the body at death.

The human soul is formally one i.e. is one soul and virtually three i.e. has the power of
three, vegetative, sensitive and intellective.

Spirit

A spirit is what does not depend on matter for its existence. The human soul is a spirit but
by nature a spirit which gives life to a body. Hence it is not a spirit in every respect. Being
the formal principle of a living body, it is also a soul: the only soul which is also a spirit. But
a pure spirit is one which is not a soul.

Angel

An angel is a pure spirit. Each angel was created immediately by God at the beginning of
time. The angelic powers of intellect and will are far more perfect and powerful than those
of man because they are not restricted by limitations of the body. They do not know as we
do, but are co-created with a participation of the divine knowledge. As pure spirits the
angels have great power over the material universe. The angels are graded in such a way
that the second least angel has all the perfection of the least angel and more, the third least
angel has all the perfection of the second least and more and so on to the greatest angel
who has all the perfection of all other angels and more. The angels are by nature immortal.
They are sometimes called "the intelligences" and "separated substances".

The angels were not created in their merely natural state but were created with grace and
the supernatural virtues and gifts of the Holy Ghost. Those who chose to love God above all
things were immediately rewarded with the Beatific Vision. Those spirits who chose to love
themselves above all things lost grace and fell into Hell where they as devils suffer
everlasting torment. There are possibly more angels than men. The holy angels are sent by
God to help us to Heaven. God permits the fallen angels to tempt us so that we may prove
our love of and faithfulness to God.

God

God is the Supreme Spirit. He is uncreated. He is more than immortal or everlasting. He is

eternal - without beginning or end. He is Creator of all things. He conserves creatures in
their existence and moves them to their acts. God is infinite in every perfection. There is no
change in Him - He can neither increase nor diminish. Yet in God there is infinite activity - a
life of infinite knowledge and love. God is Pure Act. There is in Him no potency to be realized
nor any perfection which can be lost.