Addictive Play Behavior in Massively Multiplayer Online Role- 1

Playing Games

Kuss, D. J., Louws, J., & Wiers, R. W. W. (2012). Online gaming addiction? Motives predict

addictive play behavior in Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games

Cyberpsychology, Behavior & Social Networking, 15(9), 480-485.

Abstract

Recently, there have been growing concerns about excessive online gaming. Playing

Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games (MMORPGs) appears to be particularly

problematic because these games require a high degree of commitment and time investment

from the players to the detriment of occupational, social, and other recreational activities and

relations. A number of gaming motives have been linked to excessive online gaming in

adolescents and young adults. We assessed 175 current MMORPG players and 90 non-players

using a web-based questionnaire regarding their gaming behavior, problems as consequences

of gaming and game motivations and tested their statistical associations. Results indicated that

(i) MMORPG players are significantly more likely to experience gaming-related problems

relative to non-players and that (ii) the gaming motivations Escapism and Mechanics

significantly predicted excessive gaming and appeared as stronger predictors than time

investment in game. The findings support the necessity of using measures that distinguish

between different types of online games. In addition, this study proves useful regarding the

current discussion on establishing “(online) gaming addiction” as a diagnosis in future

categorizations of psychopathology.

Keywords: Online game; addiction; MMORPG; motivations; excessive play

 Addictive Play Behavior in Massively Multiplayer Online Role- 2
Playing Games

1. Introduction

Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games (MMORPGs) have become increasingly

popular with games such as World of Warcraft being played by more than eleven million

people worldwide.1 A MMORPG can be defined as a game in which numerous players around

the globe inhabit a single virtual realm simultaneously, adopt alternative personas and interact

with one another in multiple ways and thus these games provide a variety of incentives for

play. Preliminary evidence suggests that individuals in different age groups can develop

problematic patterns of online gaming behavior, including children 2, adolescents3, and young

adults4, indicating that excessive gaming is not only a problem for socially withdrawn

adolescent gamers.5 It has been argued that some players meet criteria similar to those for

substance dependence. A recent systematic review 9 indicated that “online gaming addiction”

is indeed associated with a variety of psychophysiological symptoms and psychiatric

comorbidities, as well as a number of negative consequences. MMORPGs specifically require

a high time investment on behalf of the player 10, which may be conducive to gaming-related

problems.

As high engagement with MMORPGs was found to be associated with gaming-related

problems11, it appears important to investigate the motivations that underlie this behavior.

Yee12 measured player motivations and found that they can be categorized into three main

components. First, Achievement includes the subcomponents Advancement (i.e., in-game

rank reputation), Mechanics (i.e., using imminent game structure), and Competition. Second,

Social includes Socializing, Relationship, and Teamwork. Third, Immersion includes

Discovery (i.e., exploring the game environment), Role-Playing (i.e., adopting a different

persona), Customization (i.e., personalization of character), and Escapism (i.e., avoidance of

real world by engagement in virtual world). 12 Previous research is inconclusive regarding the

gaming motivations associated with potential addiction. In one study, it is suggested that

Immersion predicts problematic Internet use 13, whereas other findings indicate that the
 Addictive Play Behavior in Massively Multiplayer Online Role- 3
Playing Games

motivations Achievement, Escapism, and Socializing predict addictive game-play 14. In light

of this, the aims of the present research are to (i) compare MMOPRG players and non-players

regarding their experience of gaming-related problems and (ii) to assess the relationships

between specific game motivations and game problems. It is hypothesized that MMORPG

players experience significantly more problems due to gaming than non-players. Moreover, it

is predicted that the game motivations Advancement and Socializing and the subcomponents

of Immersion, namely Escapism, Role-Playing, Discovery, and Customization, as well as time

investment in game predict gaming-related problems, defined as a maladaptive pattern of

excessive and uncontrollable gaming resulting in negative consequences for the occupational

and social life of the subject. Moreover, the correlations between the gaming motivations and

the time spent gaming, as well as the gender differences with respect to gaming motivations

and the experience of gaming-related problems are investigated.

2. Methods
2.1 Recruitment and sample

Participants were recruited through an interactive website on addiction (www.impliciet.eu)

that was advertised via Dutch gaming forums. The inclusion criteria used for this study were

‘filling out a minimum of 90% of the questions’ posed by (i) the first two questionnaires in

the case of non-MMORPG players, and (ii) all three questionnaires in the case of MMORPG

players. A total of 375 people filled out the questionnaires, of which 110 had to be excluded

due to missing data. The analytical sample included 265 participants, 189 males and 76

females with an average age of 21 years (SD = 6.5 years). Of those participants, 70.2% were

still in school, 27.2% were working and 2.6% were unemployed; 90% were Dutch, 8.3%

came from Germany and Belgium and 2.3% were born in a different country. A total of 175

persons filled out the questionnaire related to MMORPG experience and self-identified as

MMORPG players. In this group, the average age was comparable to the initial group,

whereas the gender distribution differed because the percentage of female players decreased

from 28.7% to 13.1%.

 Addictive Play Behavior in Massively Multiplayer Online Role- 4
Playing Games

2.2 Assessment
Three questionnaires were used in order to assess background variables, problematic

MMORPG play behavior and gaming motivation.

2.2.1 Background variables

The first questionnaire assessed demographics, including questions about age, gender and

education. Moreover, it included questions about habitual behaviors as well as alcohol and

drug use, and computer game preference, weekly time spent on gaming and highest number

of hours spent on a single gaming session.

2.2.2 MMORPG Problems

In order to assess problems with gaming, the Problem Video Game Playing Questionnaire

[PVP]6 was translated from English into Dutch by a bilingual speaker, translated back into

English by a native speaker and the consistency of translations was checked by yet another

party to ensure the translated questionnaire’s representation validity. 15 In the original 9-item

questionnaire, the DSM-IV116 criteria for pathological gambling and substance dependence

were used, asking participants to answer whether they had experienced specific problems

related to gaming during the past year. The scale’s internal consistency was found to be

acceptable for a scale of this size with a Cronbach’s Alpha of 0.69. The scale was significantly

correlated with frequency and duration of play, as well as with the Severity of Dependence

Scale17, indicating that its construct validity is adequate and that it may potentially be used for

populations older than the original adolescent sample. 6

2.2.3 Gaming motivations

The third questionnaire analyzed game motivations and has been validated on a sample of

3,000 MMORPG players12, which is the largest specified sample used for this population to

the present day. The included ten game motivation scales assessed Advancement, Mechanics,

Competition, Socializing, Relationship, Teamwork, Discovery, Role-Playing, Customization

and Escapism, and they were found to be internally consistent with Cronbach’s Alpha values
 Addictive Play Behavior in Massively Multiplayer Online Role- 5
Playing Games

ranging from 0.65 to 0.87. Yee’s scale is the only psychometric instrument that (i) assesses

MMORPG playing motivations, (ii) that has been validated on a large and (iii) specific

sample developed up to date.

2.3 Procedure

Data were collected by means of the Internet because this way, a large response rate was

ensured, participant recruitment as well as data collection was simplified, and costs were kept

low.18 On the website, participants were informed about the anonymity of their data and asked

to provide their informed consent. Moreover, a lottery was announced as incentive for

participation.

2.4 Statistical approach

For all analyses, all MMORPG players in the sample (N = 175) were included. First, game-

motivations were analyzed using a principal components analysis (PCA) with oblimin

rotation (to permit the possibility that factors could be correlated). Obtained scales were

compared with those reported by Yee 12 and their internal consistency was computed using

Cronbach’s Alpha. For the subsequent correlation analyses, Bonferroni corrections for

multiple comparisons were applied to control for possible Alpha error as suggested by Curtin

and Schulz19. After controlling for background variables, the motives were then used in

hierarchical regression analyses to predict problematic gaming. The final reported hierarchical

regression analysis excluded variables that were not predictive at all (p > .30 1).

3. Results

The internal consistency of the PVP was found to be adequate (Cronbach’s Alpha = 0.78). The

total PVP scores ranged from 0-9 with a mean of 3.86 (SD = 2.32) for MMOPRG players (n =

175), compared to 1.25 in the non-MMORPG group (n = 90; SD = 1.69) and the difference

between groups was statistically significant (t(265) = -10.55, p < .01). Male and female

1
The decision for this cut-off point is based on Yee’s initial analysis of game motivations. 12
 Addictive Play Behavior in Massively Multiplayer Online Role- 6
Playing Games

MMORPG players scored an average of 3.85 (SD = 2.33) and 3.91 (SD = 2.27), respectively,

compared to 1.98 (SD = 2.06) and 0.70 (SD = 1.07) for non-MMORPG players (n = 90).

Approximately 23% had a total score above five2, amongst which 89% were males.

In terms of the number of weekly hours spent gaming (on- and offline), non-MMORPG

players played an average of 4.74 hours (SD = 7.79) and played significantly less than

MMORPG players (M = 27.42, SD = 18.41; t(253) = -14.00, p < .01).

3.1 Gaming motivations

Gaming motivations were analyzed using a PCA with oblique rotation on the 40 items from

the game motivations questionnaires, resulting in the extraction of ten factors with

Eigenvalues greater than one. Together, those factors accounted for 66.5% of the variance in

scores. Nine of these ten factors appeared to have adequate internal consistency with

Cronbach’s Alpha values larger than 0.65. The factor Teamwork had an inadequate internal

consistency and was excluded from further analysis. Unweighted averages for every

participant were used to calculate the scale scores to investigate their associations with the

research variables as well as the background variables gender and weekly gaming hours. All

game motivation scales apart from Discovery and Socialization were found to be significantly

correlated with the dependent variable. Moreover, a significant association between PVP

scores and weekly gaming hours was found. In addition, weekly gaming hours significantly

correlated with Relationship, Advancement, Escapism, Mechanics, and Competition. The

correlations are presented in Table 1.

Table 1

2
The PVP is based on officially established diagnoses for pathological gambling and substance
dependence. In order to be diagnosed with pathological gambling, 5/10 DSM-IV TR criteria need to be
fulfilled and in the case of substance dependence, a minimum of 3/7 criteria must be endorsed. Using a
conservative approach, affirming the presence of a minimum of 5/10 criteria on the PVP, it can be
assumed that the respective player’s gaming behavior is problematic and potentially pathological.
 Addictive Play Behavior in Massively Multiplayer Online Role- 7
Playing Games

Cronbach’s Alpha- and Eigenvalues of the Nine Game Motivation Scales and
Correlations between PVP Scores, Gaming Hours and Game Motivation Scales

PVP Hours

Hours .608* 1

Cronbach’s
Motivations
Alpha

.66 .417*
.494*
MECH
COMP .74 .386* .340*
REL .312* .459*
.70
DISC .232* .288*
ROLE .69 .257* .235*
CUST .358* .250*
.67
ESC .563* .437*
SOC .215* .260*
.74
ADV
.66

.419* .230*
.79

.77

Note. PVP = total score of problems based on this questionnaire: Hours =

average weekly gaming hours; MECH = mechanics; COMP = competition;
REL = relationship; DISC = discovery; ROLE = role-playing; CUST =
customization; ESC = escapism; SOC = socializing; ADV = advancement.
* Correlations are significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) after applying
Bonferroni corrections for multiple comparisons, if >2 comparisons were
conducted.
 Addictive Play Behavior in Massively Multiplayer Online Role- 8
Playing Games

On the basis of the computed scale scores, a scale of main components was calculated,

leaving out the Teamwork scale. Advancement, Socialization and Role-Playing emerged as

game motivations with Cronbach’s Alpha values greater than .6. The correlations between the

game motivation scales are presented in Table 2.

Table 2

Correlations between the Game Motivation Scales

SOC REL ADV COMP MECH DISC ROLE CUST ESC

SOC 1
REL .547* 1
ADV .227 .077 1
COMP .378* .279* .476* 1
MECH .345* .311* .577* .370* 1
DISC .529* .296* .321* .263* .338* 1
ROLE .299* .286* .313* .319* .269* .497* 1
CUST .320* .220 .465* .301* .435* .535* .439* 1
ESC .318* .325* .440* .472* .424* .449* .565* .519* 1

Note. MECH = mechanics; COMP = competition; REL =

relationship; DISC = discovery; ROLE = role-playing; CUST =
customization; ESC = escapism; SOC = socializing; ADV =
advancement
* Correlations are significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) after applying
Bonferroni corrections for multiple comparisons.

To investigate which game motivations and background variables contribute to the

prediction of gaming problems, a hierarchical multiple regression analysis with PVP scores as

the dependent variable was performed. The background variables were entered in block one

and the nine game motivations and main components were entered in block two. On the basis

of these results, another hierarchical multiple regression analysis was performed taking into
 Addictive Play Behavior in Massively Multiplayer Online Role- 9
Playing Games

consideration only the relevant predictors, i.e. those based on p-values smaller than .3, as

presented in Table 3.

The background variables gender and weekly time spent gaming explained 39% of the

variance (F (2) = 83.67, p < .001). Furthermore, 23% of the variance were explained by the

game motivations (F-change (7) = 16.45, p < .001). From the predictors, only Escapism (Beta

= .36, p < .001), Mechanics (Beta = .21, p < .05), and weekly gaming hours (Beta = .17, p < .

05) were significant. Thus, the hypothesis that problematic gaming is associated with the

game motivation Escapism was supported. Moreover, adding the game motivations into the

model in step 2 lessened the effect of gender in the first step of the analysis (Beta = -.15, p <

Table 3

Multiple Regression on PVP-Scores

B SE B β

Step 1
Constant 2.59 0.43
Gender -0.82 0.28 -0.15**
Gaming hours/week 0.07 0.01 0.56**
Step 2
Constant -2.52 1.02
Gender 0.67 0.46 0.10
Gaming hours/week 0.02 0.01 0.17*
Mechanics 0.55 0.22 0.21*
Relationship 0.30 0.22 0.11
Escapism 0.96 0.23 0.36**
Advancement 0.25 0.20 0.11
Competition 0.31 0.22 0.12
Socializing -0.29 0.22 -0.10
Roleplaying -0.31 0.21 -0.11
 Addictive Play Behavior in Massively Multiplayer Online Role- 10
Playing Games

Note. R² = .39 for Step 1; R² = .46 (ps < .001). ** p < 0.01; * p < 0.05.

.005) to become non-significant in predicting problematic gaming when the gaming

motivations were added.

4. Discussion

The purpose of this study was to compare MMORPG gamers and non-MMORPG players

regarding their experience of gaming-related problems and to assess the associations between

gaming motivations, time investment and gaming-related problems. This research supports

the hypothesis that MMORPG players were significantly more likely to experience gaming-

related problems than players who do not engage in playing MMORPGs. It may partially be

explained by MMORPG-imminent characteristics, such as the endlessness of these types of

games, as well as variable reinforcement schedules 20 that encourage continued game-play

similar to gambling21. Moreover, playing MMORPGs has been linked to addiction 11, as well

as physiological consequences, such as seizures 22. Taken together, it appears that excessive

playing of MMORPGs may put a player at risk to develop gaming-related problems.

In addition to this, it appears that the gaming motivations Escapism and Mechanics

were found to be significantly associated with gaming related problems, offering partial

support to the findings of both, Caplan et al. 13 and Zanetta Dauriat et al.14. Escapism (as

subcomponent of Immersion) and Mechanics (as subcomponent of Achievement) were found

to be significant predictors of gaming-related problems. However, only a single

subcomponent for each main motivation cluster appeared to be significant rather than all

subcomponents, which provides further details on Caplan et al.’s findings 13. Therefore,

players who play MMORPGs to escape from reality experienced more problems as a

consequence of gaming which is supported by research 23. Escapism is a good predictor of

problematic gaming and this suggests that it plays an important role in the maintenance of

problematic behaviors. Mechanics on the other hand is a game motivation that is based on the
 Addictive Play Behavior in Massively Multiplayer Online Role- 11
Playing Games

structural characteristics of the game (i.e., the game’s setup). Players who want to improve

their performance in the game need to get to know the game and the best strategies to play it

which requires a high level of time investment and energy on their behalf. Thus, Mechanics

was found to predict problematic gaming in the current study. Moreover, the association

between problematic gaming and weekly gaming hours is also supported by Yee. 12 It appears

that the longer people play, the more likely they are to experience occupational and social

problems because of the large time investment in the game. 23 Nevertheless, after including

game motivations in the model, it appeared that the effect of weekly gaming hours on

problematic gaming was reduced. Therefore, gaming motivations are stronger predictors of

problematic gaming than time investment which is in line with other researchers’ findings

indicating that time investment is but one small factor in pathological video-gaming. 24

It should be noted that in this study, gaming related problems were found to be

associated with motives to compete and master the mechanics of the online game which is

quite different from what is observed in recognized (i.e., substance-related) addictive

disorders, and frames the issue of excessive gaming as a trade-off: One loses in other areas of

life, but gains in areas of mechanics and competition. No such trade-off is observed in the

other addictive behaviors. Therefore, it raises important questions about (i) the extent to

which the problems that are observed are rightly treated as psychopathology, and (ii) what this

actually means for the classification of a behavioral addiction such as “online gaming

addiction”. It appears that there is a thin line between high engagement (that may be indicated

by the Mechanics and Competition motivations) and addiction, a finding that has already been

suggested by previous studies,25, 26 where excessive time-investment can lead to problematic

gaming (especially once the Escapism motive starts to play a role) or can naturally lead to

reduced time-investment.cf. 27
A lack of capacity and/or motivation to inhibit excessive

behavior could be a characteristic shared between behavioral addictions and substance

dependence.28-30 Accordingly, future research can be informed by more specifically addressing

this distinction, possibly by using qualitative techniques that enable the collection of detailed
 Addictive Play Behavior in Massively Multiplayer Online Role- 12
Playing Games

data on players’ motivations and addiction experiences, and their trajectories to behavioral

addiction or return to less problematic levels of gaming.

The following limitations of the study as well as suggestions for future research should

be noted. First, a convenience sample was used that consisted of online respondents which

might limit the overall generalizability of the findings to other populations. Second, future

research may be helped by including prospective methods in order to understand causality

between gaming motivations and gaming problems as well as potential gaming addiction.

Third, although Salguero and Moran’s PVP Scale 6 was found to be valid and to have

adequate internal consistency, it does not (i) discriminate computer from console games, (ii)

distinguish between online and offline games, and (iii) specify the respective (online) game

genres. Recent research suggests that the assessment of potential “online gaming addiction”

must be specific and it requires the utilization of validated and reliable psychometric

instruments.9 This study’s finding that MMORPG players are more likely to experience

gaming-related problems relative to non-MMORPG players furthermore emphasizes the

necessity to distinguish between playing different types of games. This has important

implications for future research, particularly regarding the choice of measurement instruments

used to assess problematic online gaming.

In addition to this, the PVP scale was initially devised to be used on adolescent

populations aged between 13 and 18 years6. In their original analysis, the authors cross-

validated the construct validity of their scale by correlating their participants’ PVP scores with

scores on the Severity of Dependence Scale 17 that has been validated on an adult population.

On this basis, in the present study it was assumed that the PVP is valid and applicable for a

population that is older than the original adolescent sample. Therefore, future research needs

to address these problems in measurement and specificity. Furthermore, it needs to be noted

that the present sample was relatively small and therefore generalization to other populations
 Addictive Play Behavior in Massively Multiplayer Online Role- 13
Playing Games

may be difficult. Nevertheless, because it was very specific in that it included MMORPG

players, the results may tentatively be generalized to players of these games.

To conclude, understanding the motivations associated with the development of

addictive behaviors related to playing online games (MMORPGs in particular) will promote

future research and will pave the way for addiction prevention and treatment approaches.

Discerning motivations for “addictive game behaviors” serves the purpose of informing

clinical practice and research in the new field of problematic online gaming. The reasons for

playing online games serve as a first step to understand how initial high engagement can

develop into a potential behavioral addiction. Moreover, understanding that specific gaming

motivations such as Escapism and Mechanics appear to be more strongly associated with

gaming related problems relative to other motivations and the time spent gaming will

particularly benefit the psychoeducational aspect of therapy both for the patient as well as for

their significant others. Accordingly, it is time investment that is problematic per sé, but

motivations appear as factors significant in predicting problems. Once more empirical

knowledge is gathered about the motivations and symptoms that distinguish leisure time,

excessive and potentially addicted players from one another, specific prevention efforts and

treatment approaches can be developed. In terms of prevention, young persons who play for

particular reasons could be identified as population at risk and therefore be targeted

specifically. With regards to treatment, cognitive behavioral therapy protocols will benefit

from the established knowledge in order to specifically target modifications in behaviors and

cognitions related to the motivations identified.

 Addictive Play Behavior in Massively Multiplayer Online Role- 14
Playing Games

References