STATISTICS,

 SCIENCE,  AND  
OBSERVATIONS  

Chapter 1: PSY 102

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What  are  the  use  of  statistics   in  
Psychology?

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 Data and Statistics
Data (datum-singular) consists of information coming
from observations, counts, measurements, or responses.

Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing, analyzing,

and interpreting data in order to make decisions.

A population is the collection of all outcomes, responses,

measurement, or counts that are of interest.

A sample is a subset of a population.

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1.A.  POPULATIONS  AND  
SAMPLES  

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— Population or Target Population A population
consists of all elements—individuals, items, or
objects—whose characteristics are being studied.
The population that is being studied is also called
the target population.

— Sample A portion of the population selected for

study is referred to as a sample.

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 PARAMETERS  AND  STATISTICS  
— A parameter is a value, usually a numerical value, that
describes a population. A parameter is usually derived from
measurements of the individuals in the population.

— A statistic is a value, usually a numerical value, that

describes a sample. A statistic is usually derived from
measurements of the individuals in the sample.

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 Branches of Statistics
The study of statistics has two major branches: descriptive
statistics and inferential statistics.
Statistics

Descriptive Inferential
statistics statistics
Involves the Involves using a
organization, sample to draw
summarization, conclusions about a
and display of data. population.
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1. Descriptive Statistics: Descriptive statistics consists
of methods for organizing, displaying, and
describing data by using tables, graphs, and
summary measures.

2. Inferential Statistics: Inferential statistics consists

of methods that use sample results to help make
decisions or predictions about a population

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— Sampling  error  is  the  naturally  occurring  discrepancy,  or  
error,  that  exists  between  a  sample  statistic  and  the  
corresponding  population  parameter.  

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 Exercises
1. A  researcher  is  interested  in  the  texting  habits  of  high  school  students   in  the  United  States.  
If  the  researcher  measures  the  number  of  text  messages  that  each  individual  sends  each  
day  and  calculates  the  average  number  for  the  entire  group  of  high  school  students,  the  
average  number  would  be  an  example  of  a  ___________.  

2. A  researcher  is  interested  in  how  watching  a  reality  television  show  featuring  fashion  
models  influences  the  eating  behavior  of  13-­‐year-­‐old  girls.  
1. A  group  of  30  13-­‐year-­‐old  girls  is  selected  to  participate  in  a  research  study.  The  group  
of  30  13-­‐year-­‐old  girls  is  an  example  of  a  ___________.  
2. In  the  same  study,  the  amount  of  food  eaten  in  one  day  is  measured  for  each  girl  and  
the  researcher  computes  the  average  score  for  the  30  13-­‐year-­‐old  girls.  The  average  
score  is  an  example  of  a  __________.  

3. Statistical  techniques  are  classified  into  two  general  categories.  What  are  the  two  
categories  called,  and  what  is  the  general  purpose  for  the  techniques  in  each  category?  

4. Briefly  define  the  concept  of  sampling  error.

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1.B.  BASIC  TERMS

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 Basic Terms
— Element or Member An element or member of a
sample or population is a specific subject or object
(for example, a person, firm, item, state, or country)
about which the information is collected. (Note that
elements are also called observational units.)

— Variable A variable is a characteristic under study

that assumes different values for different elements.
In contrast to a variable, the value of a constant is
fixed.

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 Basic Terms
— Observation or Measurement The value of a variable
for an element is called an observation or
measurement.

— Data Set A data set is a collection of observations on

one or more variables.

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Basic Terms

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 Exercise
Refer  to  the  data  set:

a.  What  is  the  variable  for  this  data  set?

— b.  How  many  observations  are  in  this  data  set?

— c.  How  many  elements  does  this  data  set  contain?

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 1.C.   DATA  STRUCTURES,  
RESEARCH  METHODS,  AND  
STATISTICS  

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 RELATIONSHIPS   BETWEEN  
VARIABLES:
DATA  STRUCTURE

I. Measuring  Two  Variables  for  Each  Individual:  The  

Correlational  Method  

II. Comparing  Two  (or  More)  Groups  of  Scores:  Experimental  

and  Non-­‐experimental  Methods

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 I.  Measuring  Two  Variables  for  Each  Individual:  The  
Correlational  Method  
— In  the  correlational  method,  two  different  variables  are  
observed  to  determine  whether  there  is  a  relationship  
between  them.  

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 II.A.  Comparing  Two  (or  More)  Groups  of  Scores:  
Experimental
In  the  experimental  method,  one  variable  is  manipulated  while  another  variable  is  
observed   and  measured.  To  establish  a  cause-­‐and-­‐effect  relationship   between  the  
two  variables,  an  experiment   attempts  to  control  all  other  variables  to  prevent  them  
from  influencing   the  results.  

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2  general  categories  of  variables  that  researchers  must  consider:  

1. Participant  Variables:  These  are  characteristics  such  as  age,  gender,   and  
intelligence  that  vary  from   one  individual   to  another.  Whenever  an  experiment  
compares  different  groups   of  participants  (one   group   in  treatment  A  and  a  
different   group   in  treatment  B),  researchers  must  ensure  that  participant  
variables  do  not   differ  from  one   group   to  another.  

2. Environmental  Variables:  These  are  characteristics  of  the  environment   such  as  
lighting,   time  of  day,  and  weather  conditions.  

2  Types  of  Variable

1. The  independent  variable  is  the  variable  that  is  manipulated   by  the  researcher.  
In  behavioral  research,  the  independent   variable  usually  consists  of  the  two  (or  
more)   treatment  conditions   to  which  subjects  are  exposed.  The  independent  
variable  consists  of  the  antecedent  conditions   that  were  manipulated  prior  to  
observing   the  dependent   variable.  

2. The  dependent  variable  is  the  variable  that  is  observed   to  assess  the  effect  of  
the  treatment.  

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2  Types  of  Condition

1. Individuals   in  a  control  condition  do  not  receive  the  experimental  treatment.  

Instead,  they  either  receive  no  treatment  or  they  receive  a  neutral,   placebo  
treatment.  The  purpose   of  a  control  condition   is  to  provide  a  baseline  for  
comparison   with  the  experimental  condition.  

2. Individuals   in  the  experimental  condition  do  receive  the  experimental  

treatment.  

2  characteristics  that  differentiate  experiments  :  

1. Manipulation:  The  researcher  manipulates   one  variable  by  changing   its  value  
from  one   level  to  another.   A  second  variable  is  observed   (measured)   to  deter-­‐
mine  whether  the  manipulation   causes  changes  to  occur.  

2. Control:  The  researcher  must  exercise  control  over  the  research  situation  to  
ensure  that  other,   extraneous  variables  do   not  influence   the  relationship   being  
examined

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 II.B  Comparing  Two  (or  More)  Groups  of  
Scores:  Non-­‐experimental  Methods  
— In  a  nonexperimental study,  the  “independent  variable”  that  
is  used  to  create  the  different  groups  of  scores  is  often  
called  the  quasi-­‐independent  variable.  

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1.D.  Data  Classification

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 Types of Data
Data sets can consist of two types of data: qualitative data
and quantitative data.
Data

Qualitative Quantitative
Data Data
Consists of Consists of
attributes, labels, numerical
or nonnumerical measurements or
entries. counts.
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Types of Variables

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 Levels of Measurement
The level of measurement determines which statistical
calculations are meaningful. The four levels of
measurement are: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.

Nominal
Levels Lowest
Ordinal to
of
Measurement Interval highest

Ratio

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 Nominal Level of
Measurement
Data at the nominal level of measurement are qualitative
only.
Nominal
Levels Calculated using names, labels,
of or qualities. No mathematical
Measurement computations can be made at
this level.

Colors in Names of Textbooks you

the US students in your are using this
flag class semester

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 Ordinal Level of
Measurement
Data at the ordinal level of measurement are qualitative
or quantitative.

Levels
of Ordinal
Measurement Arranged in order, but
differences between data
entries are not meaningful.

Class standings: Numbers on the Top 50 songs

freshman, back of each played on the
sophomore, player’s shirt radio
junior, senior
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 Interval Level of
Measurement
Data at the interval level of measurement are quantitative.
A zero entry simply represents a position on a scale; the
entry is not an inherent zero.
Levels
of
Measurement Interval
Arranged in order, the differences
between data entries can be calculated.

Temperatures Years on a Atlanta Braves

timeline World Series
victories

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 Ratio Level of Measurement
Data at the ratio level of measurement are similar to the
interval level, but a zero entry is meaningful.

A ratio of two data values can be

Levels
formed so one data value can be
of
expressed as a ratio.
Measurement

Ratio

Ages Grade point Weights

averages

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 Summary of Levels of
Measurement
Determine if
Put data Arrange
Level of Subtract one data value
in data in
measurement data values is a multiple of
categories order
another
Nominal Yes No No No
Ordinal Yes Yes No No
Interval Yes Yes Yes No
Ratio Yes Yes Yes Yes

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 Exercise
1. Salary
2. Zip  codes
3. Judging  (first  place,  second  place,  etc.)  
4. Religious  affiliation  
5. IQ  
6. Temperature  
7. Likert Scale

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 Exercise
1. A  survey   asks  people  to  identify  their  age,  annual  income,   and  marital  status  (single,   married,  divorced,  
etc.).  For  each  of  these  three  variables,  identify   the  scale  of  measurement  that  probably   is  used   and  
identify   whether  the  variable  is  continuous   or  discrete.  

2. An  English  professor   uses  letter  grades  (A,  B,  C,  D,  and  F)  to  evaluate  a  set  of  student  essays.  What  kind  
of  scale  is  being  used  to  measure  the  quality  of  the  essays?  

3. The  teacher  in  a  communications   class  asks  students  to  identify   their  favorite  real-­‐ ity television   show.  
The  different  television   shows   make  up  a  ______  scale  of  measurement.  

4. A  researcher  studies   the  factors  that  determine  the  number  of  children  that  couples  decide  to  have.  
The  variable,  number   of  children,   is  a  ______________  (discrete/continuous)   variable.  

5. a.  When  measuring  height  to  the  nearest  inch,  what  are  the  real  limits  for  a  score  of  68  inches?  

6. b.  When   measuring  height  to  the  nearest  half  inch,   what  are  the  real  limits   for  a  score  of  68  inches?  

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1. What are the variables under study?

2. Categorize each variable as quantitative or qualitative.

3. Categorize each quantitative variable as discrete or continuous.

4. Identify the level of measurement for each variable.

5. The railroad is shown as the safest transportation industry. Does that

mean railroads have fewer accidents than the other industries?
Explain.

6. What factors other than safety influence a person’s choice of

transportation?

7. From the information given, comment on the relationship between

the variables.

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1.E.  Experimental  Design

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 Designing a Statistical Study
— GUIDELINES
1. Identify the variable(s) of interest (the focus) and the
population of the study.
2. Develop a detailed plan for collecting data. If you use a
sample, make sure the sample is representative of the
population.
3. Collect the data.
4. Describe the data.
5. Interpret the data and make decisions about the
population using inferential statistics.
6. Identify any possible errors.

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 Methods of Data Collection
In an observational study, a researcher observes and
measures characteristics of interest of part of a population.
In an experiment, a treatment is applied to part of a
population, and responses are observed.
A simulation is the use of a mathematical or physical model
to reproduce the conditions of a situation or process.
A survey is an investigation of one or more characteristics
of a population.
A census is a measurement of an entire population.

A sampling is a measurement of part of a population.

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 Random Sampling
— Random samples are selected by using chance
methods or random numbers. One such method is
to number each subject in the population.

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 Stratified Samples
A stratified sample has members from each segment of a
population (called strata). This ensures that each segment
from the population is represented.

Freshmen Sophomores Juniors Seniors

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 Cluster Samples
A cluster sample has all members from randomly selected
segments of a population. This is used when the population
falls into naturally occurring subgroups.

All members
in each
selected group
are used.

The city of Clarksville divided into city blocks.

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 Systematic Samples
A systematic sample is a sample in which each member of
the population is assigned a number. A starting number is
randomly selected and sample members are selected at
regular intervals.

Every fourth member is chosen.

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 Convenience Samples
A convenience sample consists only of available members
of the population.

Continued.
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 Exercise
Example:
You are doing a study to determine the number of years of
education each teacher at your college has. Identify the sampling
technique used if you select the samples listed.

1.) You randomly select two different departments and survey each
teacher in those departments.

2.) You select only the teachers you currently have this semester.

3.) You divide the teachers up according to their department and

then choose and survey some teachers in each department. Continued.
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 The  Misuse  of  Statistics  
1. Sources of data not given: At times, the source of data is not given. In the absence of the
source, the reader does not know how far the data are reliable. Further, if he wants to refer
to the original source, he is unable to do so.

2. Defective data: Another misuse is that sometimes one gives defective data. This may be
done knowingly in order to defend one's position or to prove a particular point.

3. Unrepresentative sample: In statistics, several times one has to conduct a survey, which
necessitates to choose a sample from the given population or universe.

4. Inadequate sample: Earlier, we have seen that a sample that is unrepresentative of the
universe is a major misuse of statistics.

5. Unfair Comparisons: An important misuse of statistics is making unfair comparisons from

the data collected.

6. Unwanted conclusions: Another misuse of statistics may be on account of unwarranted

conclusions.

7. Confusion of correlation and causation: In statistics, several times one has to examine the
relationship between two variables.

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50
Summation  Notation

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 Summation  Notation

Sometimes mathematical notation helps

express a mathematical relationship concisely.
This section describes the summation
notation that is used to denote the sum of
values.

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Summation  Notation

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EXAMPLEs

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 References
— Statistics  for  the  Behavioral  Sciences   by  Gravetter &  Wallnau

— Elementary  Statistics:  A  Step  by  Step  Approach   by  Bluman

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