PSYCHOLOGICAL STATISTICS (STATPSY)
observations.
LESSON 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF RESEARCH AND
STATISTICS
Statistics - the process of collecting data in a
systematic manner, examining those data, and
making inferences from them.
COMMONLY USED TERMS IN STATISTICS AND
RESEARCH
Variable - any measurable characteristic of a
person, environment, or experimental treatment
that varies from person to person, environment to
environment, or experimental situation to
experimental situation.
Constant - a number that represents a construct
that does not change.
Dependent Variable (DV) - an outcome of interest
(e.g., some aspect of behavior) that is observed
and measured by a researcher in order to assess
the effects of the independent variable.
Independent Variable (IV)
- the variable that an experimenter uses to
describe or explain the differences in the
dependent variable or to cause changes in the
dependent variable.
- Types of Independent Variables:
 Subject Variable - based on a measurable
characteristic of the subject that the
experimenter does not directly change. A
condition of the subject that exists before
the research begins.
 Manipulated or Experimental Variable - the
type that the experimenter systematically
controls or manipulates and to which the
subjects are assigned.
Data - numbers or measurements that are
collected as a result of observations.
Reference: David, E. (2018), Psychological Statistics Handouts
Bryle Zyver | @zyverxpnd | P - 102
Data Set - a collection of measurements or
Population - a complete set of individuals, objects,
or measurements having some common
observable characteristic.
Sample - a subset of a population that shares the
same characteristics as the population.
Statistic - a number resulting from the
manipulation of sample data according to
certain specified procedures; statistics for samples
are variable rather than constant. They are
reported by Roman letters (e.g., x, s, r).
- are numbers based on direct observation
and measurement.
Parameter - a value summarizing a measurable
characteristic of a total population that is
estimated based on the value of a statistic.
Population parameters are constants. Parameters
are represented by Greek letters.
- are often inferred values based on
statistics.
SAMPLING
Simple Random Sample - a subset of a population
selected in such a way that each member of the
population has an equal an independent
opportunity to be selected.
Random Assignment - assigning subjects to
different treatment conditions in such a way that
each subject has an equal and independent
opportunity to be placed in each treatment
condition. With random assignment we ensure
that the groups are equivalent to each other
before the research begins.
 TWO BRANCHES OF STATISTICS
Descriptive Statistics - a set of statistical
procedures used to organize, summarize, and
present the data collected in a research project.
Inferential Statistics - a collection of statistical
procedures that allow one to make
generalizations about population parameters
based on sample statistics, to determine if there is
a systematic relation between the IV and the DV,
and to determine if there is a cause-and-effect
relation between the IV and the DV.
SAMPLING ERROR
Sampling Error - is the naturally occurring
discrepancy, or error, that exists between a
sample statistic and the corresponding
population parameter.
- “margin of error”
**Basic concept: Sample statistics vary from one
sample to another and typically are different from
the corresponding population parameters.
THE INFERENTIAL FUNCTION OF STATISTICS
2 Types of Inferences
1. Parameter Estimation or Generalization -
involves using samples to make estimates about
parameters. Most population parameters can
never be directly known except in cases in which
the population is small or there are sufficient funds
to study the entire population.
2. Induction - a conclusion based on observation
and experience. An induction is said to be
probably true.
Reference: David, E. (2018), Psychological Statistics Handouts
Bryle Zyver | @zyverxpnd | P - 102
FUNDAMENTALS OF RESEARCH
3 Common Features of All Scientific Research
1. An attempt to answer empirical questions
 Research Design - a systematic procedure
for collecting data in order to provide
answers to specific questions.
2. The use of publicly verifiable information
 Operational Definition - the definition that
a researcher uses to describe the
processes by which an object, event, or a
construct is measured.
 Direct Replication - repeating an
experimental manipulation under the
same conditions as the previous
experiment.
 Systematic Replication - repeating a
previous experimental preparation but
with one or more changes to the
independent variable
3. The use of systematic empiricism
- suggests that we attempt to make our
observations in a controlled manner. Specifically,
we attempt to account for alternative hypotheses
and determine if the behavior we are exploring is
due to the specific conditions we are examining
or due to other factors.
- the end products of most research efforts are
masses of information. If this information takes
numerical form, we refer to it as data.
- our task is to organize, summarize and interpret
these data.
STATISTICS IN THE CONTEXT OF RESEARCH
Statistical Analysis - is concerned specifically with
making sense out of data and permitting valid
conclusions or inferences to be drawn from these
data.
** The nature of the research design and the
quality of the data we collect impose restrictions
on the types of conclusions that can validly be
drawn.
** No statistic is meaningful by itself. A single piece
of data tells us nothing about relative frequencies
and absolutely nothing about causation.
METHODS OF GATHERING INFORMATION
1. Correlational Study
- a type of research that examines the relationship
between variables. The research does not support
cause-and-effect conclusions
- can be presented by using:
 Case I: Correlation and Linear Regression
 Correlation – shows only the relationship
between the IV and DV
 Linear Regression – IV predicts the DV
 Case II: Intact Group Design
 Intact Group Design - use of subject
variable as a grouping variable ––
significant difference among groups no
cause and effect.
 DV affects the IV
 Case III: Experimental Design
 Experimental Design - use of random
assignment to groups to identify
significant
- differences among groups
and to make cause and effect inferences
- IV causes the DV
 Control Conditions in an Experiment
 Experimental condition - individuals
receive the experimental treatment
 Control condition
- to provide a baseline for
comparison
- Individuals in a do not receive the
experimental treatment.
Reference: David, E. (2018), Psychological Statistics Handouts
Bryle Zyver | @zyverxpnd | P - 102
- Instead, they either receive no
treatment or they receive a
neutral, placebo treatment.
2. True Experiment
- a type of research where subjects are randomly
assigned to a treatment condition, the researcher
manipulates the independent variable, and
measures the dependent variable.
- Essential Elements of a True Experiment
1. The IV must be under the control of the
experimenter.
2. The subjects must be randomly assigned to
the treatments.
3. There must be controls for alternative
hypotheses.
ESTABLISHING CAUSE AND EFFECT RELATIONS
Method of Agreement - searching for the
presence of one element whenever another
element is present.
Method of Difference - bbserving two situations
that are alike in all ways except one. If different
effects are found, they are ascribed to the
variable that was not common to two situations.
Double Blind - a control procedure wherein the
subject and the researcher collecting the data
are unaware of which experimental condition the
subject is in.
Joint Method of Agreement and Difference - a
method of investigation that combines methods
of agreement and difference.
 MEASUREMENT SCALES
Constructs - internal attributes or characteristics
that cannot be directly observed but are useful for
describing and explaining behavior.
Ordinal Scale
- consists of a set of categories that are organized
in an ordered sequence.
- measurements on an ordinal scale rank
observations in terms of size or magnitude.

Operational Definition Interval Scale

- identifies a measurement procedure (a set of
operations) for measuring an external behavior
and uses the resulting measurements as a
definition and a measurement of a hypothetical
construct.
- Two Components of an OD:
•It describes a set of operations for measuring
a construct.
•It defines the construct in terms of the resulting
measurements.
- consists of ordered categories that are all
intervals of exactly the same size.
- equal differences between numbers on scale
reflect equal differences in magnitude.
- zero point on an interval scale is arbitrary
Ratio Scale - is an interval scale with the additional
feature of an absolute zero point. With a ratio
scale, ratios of numbers do reflect ratios of
magnitude.

Discrete Variable - consists of separate, divisible

categories. No values can exist between two
neighboring categories.

Continuous Variable - there are an infinite number

of possible values that fall between any two
observed values.
- is divisible into an infinite
number of fractional parts.

Real Limits
- boundaries of intervals for scores that are
represented on a continuous number line.
- located exactly halfway between the scores. LESSON 2: MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
- Each score has two real limits:
•upper real limit Central Tendency - is a statistical measure to
•lower real limit determine a single score that defines the center
of a distribution.
Nominal Scale - the goal of central tendency
- consists of a set of categories that have different is to find the single score that is most typical or
names most representative of the entire group.
- measurements on a nominal scale label and
categorize observations, but do not make any
quantitative distinctions between observations.

Reference: David, E. (2018), Psychological Statistics Handouts

Bryle Zyver | @zyverxpnd | P - 102
 FINDING THE CENTER OF A DISTRIBUTION
a. Mean
- also known as the arithmetic average
- is computed by adding all the scores in the
distribution and dividing by the number of scores.
- The mean for a population is identified by the
Greek letter mu, μ (pronounced “mew”), and the
mean for a sample is identified by M or (read “x-
bar”).
- Formula for population mean
- Formula for sample mean
- Characteristics of the Mean
1. Changing the value of any score will change
the mean.
2. Adding a new score to a distribution, or
removing an existing score, will usually change
the mean. The exception is when the new score
(or the removed score) is exactly equal to the
mean.
3. If a constant value is added or subtracted to
every score in a distribution, the same constant
will be added or subtracted to the mean.
Ex.:
Meron kang 6 scores which is 4, 2, 3, 3, 2, 3, pag
pinag-add mo sila 17 total, tas 17 divide mo sa
6 (kase 6 scores) yung mean mo is 2.83. Pag
Reference: David, E. (2018), Psychological Statistics Handouts
Bryle Zyver | @zyverxpnd | P - 102
nag-add ka ng 1 point kada score, pag ni-
repeat mo yung step, yung mean na nakuha
mo kanina is madadagdagan lang ng 1 point.
4. If every score in a distribution is multiplied by
(or divided by) a constant value, the mean will
change in the same way.
• Multiplying (or dividing) each score by a
constant value is a common method for
changing the unit of measurement. (Para
lumiit yung value) To change a set of
measurements from minutes to seconds, for
example, you multiply by 60 (kase 1 minute is
equal to 60 seconds); to change from inches
to feet, you divide by 12 (kase 1 foot is equal
to 12 inches)
b. Median
- the median is the midpoint of the list if the scores
in a distribution are listed in order from smallest to
largest
- the median is the point on the measurement
scale below which 50% of the scores in the
distribution are located.
- the goal of the median is to locate the midpoint
of the distribution.
-there are no specific symbols or notation to
identify the median. APA uses Mdn.
- Pag odd number yung total number of scores,
automatically yung nasa gitna yung median. Pag
even number yung scores, pag add mo yung
dalawang nasa gitna then divide mo sa 2.
c. Mode
- is the score or category that has the greatest
frequency in a distribution.
- it can be used to determine the typical or most
frequent value for any scale of measurement,
including a nominal scale
- there are no symbols or special notation used to
identify the mode or to differentiate between a
sample mode and a population mode.
Ex.:
Yung mode diyan Is Luigi, hindi 42. Yung 42 yung
highest sa table or ilang beses (frequent) umulit.
Kung sino yung nakakuha ng highest na score,
yun yung mode.
- it is possible to have more than one mode.
Specifically, it is possible to have two or more
scores that have the same highest frequency.
 Bimodal - a distribution with two modes.
 Multimodal - a distribution with more than
two modes.
 No mode - Adistribution with several equally
high points.
**WHEN TO USE THE MEDIAN AND MODE IS NOT
INCLUDED HERE**
PRESENTING MEANS AND MEDIANS IN GRAPHS
Graphs
- can be used to report and compare measures
of central tendency
- it allows several means (or medians) to be shown
simultaneously so it is possible to make quick
comparisons between groups or treatment
conditions.
- Kinds of Graphs:
1. Line Graph
2. Histogram - uses numerical variables, walang
space yung bars, mode
3. Bar Graph - uses categories, may space yung
bars, mean and median
Reference: David, E. (2018), Psychological Statistics Handouts
Bryle Zyver | @zyverxpnd | P - 102
LESSON 3: FREQUENCIES, PERCENTILES AND DATA
EXPLORATION
Frequency Distribution
- is an organized tabulation of the number of
individuals located in each category on the scale
of measurement.
- Two elements:
1. The set of categories that make up the
original measurement scale.
2. A record of the frequency, or number of
individuals in each category.
Shape of a Frequency Distribution
1. Symmetrical Distribution - in a symmetrical
distribution, it is possible to draw a vertical line
through the middle so that one side of the
distribution is a mirror image of the other.
2. Skewed Distribution - the scores tend to pile up
toward one end of the scale and taper off
gradually at the other end.
3. Tail - the section where the scores taper off
toward one end of a distribution.
4. Positively Skewed - a skewed distribution with
the tail on the right-hand side; the tail points
toward the positive (above-zero) end of the X-
axis. (From left na mataas pababang right)
5. Negatively Skewed - the tail points to the left of
zero. (From left na mababa pataas ng right)
Percentiles 12 is equal to 32%. Yun non yung percentile rank
- the rank or percentile rank of a particular score is ng 7.0 na hinahanap mo kanina pa.
defined as the percentage of individuals in the
distribution with scores at or below the particular Eh pano pag score yung nawawala tapos
value. percentage yung given???
- When a score is identified by its percentile rank,
the score is called a percentile.

Interpolation - the process of estimating

intermediate values in a frequency distribution.
Interpolation Process - a single interval is
measured on two separate scales (for example,
time and dollars). The endpoints of the interval are
known for each scale.
- the interpolation process requires four steps.
Ex.: Hinahanap mo yung percentage ng isang
score
Step 1: Width of interval lang ulit nung sa taas and
sa baba, both score and percentage pa din wag
makulit.
Step 2: Kung mapapansin mo, mababa ng 20
points yung 40% na score na hinahanap mo dahil
60 (yung percent sa taas) minus 40 is 20. Edi yung
interval mo non is 20/50 or 2/5 (lowest term bes)
(20 na difference ng 60 and 40 tapos over 50 dahil
60 minus 10)

Step 3: 2/5 multiply mo sa 5 edi 2/5 equivalent sa

0.4, i-multiply mo lang sa 5 (yung interval ng 9.5
and 4.5) edi yung sagot 2 points bes.
Step 1: Find the width of the interval. Makikita yon
Step 4: 9.5 yung score sa taas diba, edi minus mo
sa Scores (X) gamit yung score na nasa taas at
lang yung 2 na nakuha mo sa step 3. Edi yung
baba nung hinahanap na score bale 6.5 and 7.5.
sagot 7.5. X = 7.5 non (yun yung sagot fren)
Tapos sa percentage naman, same din taas and
baba so 20% and 44%.

STEM AND LEAF DISPLAYS

Step 2: Yung score na pinapahanap is 0.5 yung
interval. Bakit? Kase 7.0 yung score tapos sa taas
Stem and Leaf Display - this technique requires
niya 7.5 then sa baba 6.5. Difference is 0.5
that each score be separated into two parts: The
first digit (or digits) is called the stem, and the last
Step 3: Yung sa percentage naman, 44% minus
digit is called the leaf.
20% edi 24%, kunin mo lang ½ non or divide mo
lang sa 2 or multiply mo sa 0.5 ikaw bahala bes
For example, X = 85 would be separated into a
HAHAHA edi 12 points/percentage.
stem of 8 and a leaf of 5.
Step 4: 44% yung score sa taas diba, ngayon
subtract mo lang yung 12 points/percentage na
nakuha mo kanina sa step 3 sa 44%. Bale 44 minus

Reference: David, E. (2018), Psychological Statistics Handouts

Bryle Zyver | @zyverxpnd | P - 102

Tignan mo yung 5, ibig sabihin non may score na
56, 52, 57, 59 para lang madali tignan yun yon
hahaha.
BOX AND WHISKER PLOT
Box and Whisker Plot - is a way of summarizing a
set of data measured on an interval scale. It is
often used in explanatory data analysis.
This type of graph is used to show the shape of the
distribution, its central value, and its variability.
In a box and whisker plot:
1. The ends of the box are the upper and lower
quartiles, so the box spans the interquartile range
2. The median is marked by a vertical line inside
the box
3. The whiskers are the two lines outside the box
that extend to the highest and lowest
observations.
Ex.:
Reference: David, E. (2018), Psychological Statistics Handouts
Bryle Zyver | @zyverxpnd | P - 102
Yung lower observation mo is 15 then highest
naman 29.
Yung lower quartile is 19 then upper quartile
naman 25.
Yung median 21.5 haha.
LESSON 4: VARIABILITY
Variability – provides a quantitative measure of
the differences between scores in a distribution
and describes the degree to which the scores
are spread out or clustered together.
Two Purposes of Variability
1. Variability describes the distribution
- Specifically, it tells whether the scores are
clustered close together or are spread out over a
large distance. Usually, variability is defined in
terms of distance.
2. Variability measures how well an individual
score (or group of scores) represents the entire
distribution.
- This aspect of variability is very important for
inferential statistics, in which relatively small
samples are used to answer questions about
populations
**In short, mas maiksi yung interval ng bawat
score mas maganda or greatest variability siya
non.
RANGE
Range – the distance covered by the scores in a
distribution, from the smallest score to the largest
score.
**Basta pag range, dalawang score lang
ginagamit – yung highest and lowest score.
 STANDARD DEVIATION
Standard Deviation –uses the mean of the
distribution as a reference point and measures
variability by considering the distance between
each score and the mean.
- The most commonly used and the most
important measure of variability.
Steps in Computing SD:
Step 1. Determine the deviation. Yung score
minus mean (given yung mean dapat)
Step 2. Calculate the mean of the deviation.
Add mo lang mga score tas divide mo kung ilan
sila. Usually sagot ditto zero. So proceed to step
3.
Step 3. I-square mo lang yung mga deviation
para positive mga sagot (tawag dito Squared
Deviation). Tas add mo ulit silang lahat. And then
divide mo siya sa kung ilan yung scores na meron
ka. Dun sa picture sa taas 40 yung sum tas 5 yung
number of scores, divide mo lang then 8 sagot.
Edi 8 yung variance mo
Step 4: Standard deviation is equal to the square
root of variance. Edi square root mo lang yung 8.
So yung sagot bale is 2.83 charaannnnn.
Reference: David, E. (2018), Psychological Statistics Handouts
Bryle Zyver | @zyverxpnd | P - 102
MEASURING VARIANCE AND STANDARD
DEVIATION FOR A POPULATION
Sum of Squares or SS – is the sum of the squared
deviation scores.
Definitional Formula:
**Mas madali gamitin yung computational
formula**
Ex.: Find the sum of squares:
Yung X yung score yung X2 yung na-square na X.
Pag-add mo lang sila tas substitute mo lang sa
formula then yun na yung sagot which is 22.
Mean Square or MS – is often used to refer to
variance, which is the mean squared deviation.
Population Variance – is represented by the
symbol σ2 and equals the mean squared
distance from the mean. Population variance is
obtained by dividing the sum of squares by N.
Formula:
Population Standard Deviation – is represented by
the symbol σ and equals the square root of the
population.
Formula: or
Ex.: dividing the sum of squares by n -1. (Para mas
malapit siya sa average non kaya minus 1)

Formula:

Sample Standard Deviation – is represented by

the symbol s and equal the square root of the
sample variance.

Formula:

or
Variance =

Ex.:
Standard Deviation =

MEASURING STANDARD DEVIATION AND

VARIANCE FOR A SAMPLE

**May issue yung sample variability dito. Bakit?

Kasi diba pag sinabing sample yun yung
representation ng population. Ibig sabihin non
pag gumamit ka ng sample instead of
population, mataas yung tendency na hindi
accurate yung makuha mong statistic kase nga
certain portion lang yung nasama hindi yung
buong population.

**Pag nangyari yon, may possibility na maging

bias yung sample statistic mo. Either overestimate
siya (mas mataas sa average na dapat makuha
mo) or underestimate (mas mababa sa average
na dapat makuha mo).

**So para maiwasan yung bias na yon,

corrections are made. Remember na capital N is
for population while small n is for sample.

Sample Variance – is represented by the symbol

s2 and equals the mean squared distance from
the mean. Sample variance is obtained by

Reference: David, E. (2018), Psychological Statistics Handouts

Bryle Zyver | @zyverxpnd | P - 102
 SAMPLE VARIABILITY AND DEGREES OF FREEDOM
For a sample of n scores, the degrees of freedom,
or df, for the sample variance are defined as df=
n – 1. The degrees of freedom determine the
number of scores in the sample that are
independent and free to vary.
In general, as a result, the sample with a sample
of n scores, the first n -1 scores are free to vary,
but the final score is restricted said to have n -1
degrees of freedom.
BIASED AND UNBIASED STATISTICS
A sample statistic is unbiased if the average
value of the statistic is equal to the population
parameter. (The average value of the statistic is
obtained from all the possible samples for a
specific sample size, n.)
A sample statistic is biased if the average value
of the statistic either underestimates or
overestimates the corresponding population
parameter.
PRESENTING THE MEAN AND STANDARD
DEVIATION IN A FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION GRAPH
*Dito naman, pag nag-p’present ng graph,
dapat maliit lang yung standard deviation and
kitang-kita yung difference ng bawat frequency.
Yung tipong isang tingin lang madali lang
malaman kung ano yung pinapakita nung
graph.
TRANSFORMATIONS OF SCALE
2. Adding a constant to each score does not
change the standard deviation.
Reference: David, E. (2018), Psychological Statistics Handouts
Bryle Zyver | @zyverxpnd | P - 102
Ex. X1= 41, X2= 43, μ= 40, σ= 10
Bale yung X1, X2 dagdagan mo ng 2, edi 43 and
45 na sila non, hindi magbabago yung standard
deviation (pagitan) nila which is 2 pa din
2. Multiplying each score by a constant causes
the standard deviation to be multiplied by the
same constant.
Ex. Pag na-multiply ng 2 yung 41 and 43,
magbabago yung standard deviation nila
wherein kung 2 yung dating SD magiging 4 siya
kase na-multiply sa 2.
Error variance – is used to indicate that the
sample variance represents unexplained and
uncontrolled differences between scores.
*As the error variance increases, it becomes
more difficult to see any systematic differences or
patterns that might exist in the data.
LESSON 5: z-SCORES: LOCATION OF SCORES AND
STANDARDIZED DISTRIBUTIONS
A raw score by itself does not necessarily provide
much information about its position within a
distribution.
The process of transforming X values into z-scores
serves two useful purposes:
1. Each z-score tells the exact location of the
original X value within the distribution.
2. The z-scores form a standardized distribution
that can be directly compared to other
distributions that also have been transformed
into z-scores.
**Need i-transform yung x values into z-scores
para mas malinis tignan yung graph kase liliit
yung standard deviation non and di kalat-kalat
yung values at the same time medaling i-
compare sa ibang graph kase standard form na
siya.
A z-score specifies the precise location of each X
value within a distribution.
The sign of the z-score (+ or −) signifies whether
the score is above the mean (positive) or below
the mean (negative).
The numerical value of the z-score specifies the
distance from the mean by counting the number
of standard deviations between X and μ.
Z-score formula:
Ex.: A distribution of scores has a mean of μ = 86
and a standard deviation of σ = 7. What z-score
corresponds to a score of X = 95 in this
distribution?
DETERMINING A RAW SCORE FROM A z-SCORE
Ex.:For a distribution with a mean of μ= 60 and σ
= 8, what X value corresponds to a z-score of z =
−1.50?
Formula:
Answer: X = 48
Why? Substitute the values.
Edi nakuha na yung z multiplied by σ, which is -12
60 plus -12 non siya edi 48. Yun bale yung raw
score na hinahanap mo.
Reference: David, E. (2018), Psychological Statistics Handouts
Bryle Zyver | @zyverxpnd | P - 102
STANDARDIZED SCORES
Standardize a distribution by transforming the
scores into a new distribution with a
predetermined mean and standard deviation
that are whole round numbers.
The goal is to create a new (standardized)
distribution that has “simple” values for the mean
and standard deviation but does not change
any individual’s location within the distribution.
USING z-SCORES TO STANDARDIZE A DISTRIBUTION
*If every X value is transformed into a z-score,
then the distribution of z-scores will have the
following properties:
1. Shape - the distribution of z-scores will have
exactly the same shape as the original
distribution of scores. If the original distribution is
negatively skewed, for example, then the z-score
distribution will also be negatively skewed.
Transforming raw scores into z-scores does not
change anyone’s position in the distribution.
**Pinadali mo lang tignan yung score di mo
naman iniba yung value so dapat mag-remain
yung shape ng distribution.
2. The Mean - the z-score distribution will always
have a mean of zero.
3. The Standard Deviation - the distribution of z-
scores will always have a standard deviation of 1.
* The advantage of having a standard deviation
of 1 is that the numerical value of a z-score is
exactly the same as the number of standard
deviations from the mean. For example, a z-score
of z = 1.50 is exactly 1.50 standard deviations
from the mean.
 TRANSFORMING Z-SCORES TO A DISTRIBUTION
WITH A PREDETERMINED μ AND σ
*The procedure for standardizing a distribution to
create new values for μ and σ is a two-step
process:
1. The original raw scores are transformed into z-
scores. (Tamang transform lang ng values para
malinis tignan eto formula)
2. The z-scores are then transformed into new X
values so that the specific μ and σ are attained.
(Gamitin mo yung formula na to)
Ex. An instructor gives an exam to a psychology
class. For this exam, the distribution of raw scores
has a mean of μ = 57 with σ = 14. The instructor
would like to simplify the distribution by
transforming all scores into a new, standardized
distribution with μ = 50 and σ = 10. To
demonstrate this process, we will consider what
happens to two specific students: Maria, who has
a raw score of X = 64 in the original distribution;
and Joe, whose original raw score is X = 43.
Transform each of the original raw scores into z-
scores. For Maria, X = 64, so her z-score is
For Joe, X = 43, and his z-score is:
Edi ayan tapos mo na Step 1. Basis mo diyan is
raw scores and original mean and standard
deviation which is 57 and 14. Step 2 ka na.
Reference: David, E. (2018), Psychological Statistics Handouts
Bryle Zyver | @zyverxpnd | P - 102
Pano nagging 55 and 40? Ginamit yung formula
sa X value which is:
Try naten yung kay Maria. 0.50 yung z-score niya.
Sabi nung prof bet niya na μ = 50 and σ = 10
yung bagong mean and SD niya.
Edi 0.50 multiply sa 10 so 5. Tapos add mo lang
yung 50 so 55 yung sagot. Yun na yung X-value
wag makulit. Ganon din kay Joe tamang gaya
lang ng process haha.
Although z-scores are most commonly used in
the context of a population, the same principles
can be used to identify individual locations within
a sample. The definition of a z-score is the same
for a sample as for a population, provided that
you use the sample mean and the sample
standard deviation to specify each z-score
location. Thus, for a sample, each X value is
transformed into a z-score so that:
1. The sign of the z-score indicates whether the X
value is above (+) or below (−) the sample mean,
and
2. The numerical value of the z-score identifies
the distance from the sample mean by
measuring the number of sample standard
deviations between the score (X) and the
sample mean (M).
LESSON 6: CONVERTING z-SCORES TO PERCENTILE,
T-SCORES
Characteristics of the Normal Distribution Curve
1. The scale along the bottom of the distribution is
in z-score units, that is, μ = 0, σ = 1
2. It has a bell-shaped distribution that is
symmetrical (skewness, s3 = 0.0) and mesokurtic
(kurtosis, s4 = 3.0).
3. The proportion of the curve that is under the
different parts of the distribution have
corresponding values such that
•If we convert a raw score into a z-score, we
can determine its percentile rank.
•We can use this to determine proportions of
the distribution that is between specific parts.
COMPARISON OF SCORES
**Basta lagi mong tatandaan na sa distribution
graph, lagging 50% yung sa gitna kase yun nga
yung mean so yun yung gitna okay besss.
Case 1: Area between 0 and any z-score
- The area reading for the z-value in the z-score
table is the required probability
Ex.:
1. Given the μ = 100 and σ = 15 on a standard IQ
test.
Frank obtained a score of 125 on the IQ test.
a. What percentage of cases fall between his
score and the mean?
b. What is his percentile rank in the general
population?
Solution:
a.
Transform mo lang yung score ni Frank into z-
score. Edi 1.67 siya, tignan mo non yung statistical
table yung 1.67 column D ata to edi .4525 siya.
Gawin mong percentage non either multiply mo
sa 100 or move two decimal places to the right
so magiging 45.25% siya. Yun yung percentage
of cases simula mean hanggang sa score niya.
Reference: David, E. (2018), Psychological Statistics Handouts
Bryle Zyver | @zyverxpnd | P - 102
b. Percentile rank = 50 + 45.25 = 95.25%
San galling yung 50? Kase diba yung z-score niya
1.67, so mataas sa mean, edi positive so nasa
right side siya. Diba yung gitna automatic 50 na?
Edi add mo nalang 50 sa 45.25 bale yung sagot is
95.25%. Yun yung percentile rank niya.
Case 2: Area in any tail
- Find the area given for the z-value in the z-score
table. Subtract the area found from .5000 to find
the probability
Or, see proportion in the tail of distribution (C).
Ex. 1: Corrine scores 93 on the IQ test. What is her
percentile rank?
Solution:
The usual, convert mo score niya into z-score tas
hanapin mo yung sagot which is 0.47 sa table
column C edi .32 (round off to the nearest tenths)
tas gawin mong percent edi 32%. Yun yung
percentile rank niya.
Ex. 2: Tilda scores 108 on the test. What percent
of test takers obtained a score above hers.
Solution:
Convert ulit ng z-score edi 0.53. Tas hanapin mo
0.53 sa table column C edi 0.20 siya. Di yun yung
sagot kasi yung hinahanap is percentage of test
takers na mas mataas score sa kanya so need
mag-subtract ng 50 (dahil nasa right side siya)
edi 0.30 or 30% yung final answer.
Case 3: Area between two z-scores on the same
side of the mean
- Find the areas given for both z values in the z-
score table. Subtract the smaller area from the
larger area to get the probability.
Ex. Gamitin natin yung sa kanina.
What is the percentage of area between a score
of 123 and a score of 135?
Step 1: Find the z corresponding to x = 123
Convert mo lang z-score tas hanapin mo yung
value niya sa table column D which is 1.53 nga
edi 0.4370 siya percent ulit fren 43.70% na haha
Step 2: Find the z corresponding to x = 135
Step 3: Subtract the two areas to obtain area
between 123 and 135
49 – 43.70 = 5.30%
**Pinag-minus kase nga area between 123 and
135 lang yung hinahanap, yung nakita mo is
percentile rank ng 123 and 135 each hindi yung
from 123 to 135 kaya pinag-subtract. 5.30% yung
area bale hahaha.
Case 4: Area between 2 z-values on opposite
sides of the mean
- Find the areas given for both z values in the z-
score table. Add the two areas obtained from
the table to get the probability.
What percentage of cases fall between a score
of 120 and a score of 88?
Step 1: Find the z corresponding to x = 120
Reference: David, E. (2018), Psychological Statistics Handouts
Bryle Zyver | @zyverxpnd | P - 102
Step 2: Find the z corresponding to x = 88
Step 3: Add the two areas to obtain area
between 88 and 120
40.82 + 28.81 = 69.63%
**Bat pinag-add, kase opposite sides sila, yung
isa nasa positive side yung isa nasa negative
side. Eh area nila yung hinahanap from 88 to 120
so dun nakuha yung 69.63% na percentage of
cases.
FINDING THE NUMBER OF CASES THAT FALL WITHIN
AN AREA
For the same standard IQ test with a μ = 100 and
σ = 15 involving 5,000 cases determine the
number of cases that fall within the areas
previously obtained.
1. The number of test takers who scored higher
than Tilda’s score of 110.
Answer: 5,000 x .30 = 1,500 cases
**San galling yung .30??? Sa Case 2 Example 2
5,000 daw yung involve na cases multiply mo
lang sa 0.30. Yung 30% kanina yun yung
equivalent percentage ng 1,500 sa 5,000.
Gets???
2. The number of cases that fall between a score
of 123 and a score of 135?
Answer: 5,000 x .053 = 265 cases
3. What percentage of cases fall between a
score of 120 and a score of 88?
Answer: 5,000 x .6963 = 3,482 cases
**Always take note na pag percentage or
proportion tinatanong, percent form yung sagot.
Pag number of cases, whole number.