QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
- process of collecting and analyzing
numerical data. It can be used to find
patterns and averages, make predictions, test
causal relationships, and generalize results
to wider populations.
CHARACTERISTIC OF
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Large sample size
- To obtain more meaningful statistical
result, the data must come from a large
sample size.
Objective
- Data gathering and analysis of results are
done accurately, objectively, and are
unaffected by the researcher’s intuition and
personal guesses.
Visual result presentation
- Data is numerical, which makes
presentation through graphs, charts, and
tables possible and for better conveyance
and interpretation.
Fast data analysis
- The use of a statistical tools give way for a
less time-consuming data analysis.
Generalized data
-Data taken from a sample can be applied to
the population if sampling is done
accordingly, i.e., sufficient size and random
samples were taken.
Fast data collection
- Depending on the type of data needed,
collection can be quick and easy. For
instance, a single survey form can be
administered simultaneously to collect
various measurable characteristics like age,
gender, socio-economic status, etc.
Reliable data
- Data is taken and analyzed objectively
from a sample as a representative of the
population, making it more credible and
reliable for policymaking and decision
making.
Replication
- The Quantitative method can be repeated
to verify findings enhancing its validity, free
from false or immature conclusions.
STRENGTHS OF QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH
 Quantitative research can be
replicated or repeated.
 Findings are generalizable to the
population.
 Conclusive establishment of cause
and effect
 Numerical and quantifiable data can
be used to predict outcomes
 Fast and easy data analysis using
statistical
software.
 Fast and easy data gathering
 Very objective
WEAKNESSES OF
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
 It lacks the necessary data to
explore a problem or concept in
depth.
 It does not provide comprehensive
explanation of human experiences.
 Some information cannot be
described by numerical data such as
feelings, and beliefs.
 The research design is rigid and not
very flexible.
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  The participants are limited to
choose only from the given
responses.
 The respondents may tend to
provide inaccurate responses.
 A Large sample size makes data
collection more costly.
KINDS OF QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH
Descriptive design
- is used to describe a particular
phenomenon
by observing it as it occurs in nature.
- There is no experimental manipulation and
the researcher does not start with a
hypothesis.
- The goal is only to describe the person or
object of the study.
The correlational design
- Identifies the relationship between
variables.
- Data is collected by observation since it
does not consider the cause and
Ex post facto design
- Used to investigate a possible relationship
between previous events and present
conditions.
- The term “Ex post facto”, means after the
fact, looks at the possible causes of an
already occurring phenomenon.
A quasi-experimental design
- Used to establish the cause and effect
relationship of variables.
- Has lesser validity due to the absence of
random selection and assignment of
subjects.
Experimental design
- Used to establish the cause and effect
relationship of two or more variables.
- Provides a more conclusive result because
it uses random assignment of subjects and
experimental manipulations.
IMPORTANCE OF QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH ACROSS FIELDS
- The value of quantitative research to man’s
quest to discover the unknown and improve
underlying conditions is undeniable.
Throughout history, quantitative research
has paved the way to finding meaningful
solutions to difficulties.
- The findings of the quantitative study can
influence leaders and law-makers’ decisions
for crafting and implementing laws for the
safety and welfare of the more significant
majority.
VARIABLES IN QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH
- A Variable is anything that has a quantity
or quality that varies.
- If there is an existing relationship between
the independent and dependent variables,
then the value of the dependent variable
varies in response to the manipulation done
on the independent variable. The
independent variable is also identified as the
presumed cause while the dependent
variable is the presumed effect.
- In an experimental quantitative design, the
independent variable is pre-defined and
manipulated by the researcher while the
dependent variable is observed and
measured.
- For descriptive, correlational and ex post
facto quantitative research designs,
independent and dependent variables simply
do not apply.
- It is important to note other factors that
may influence the outcome (dependent
variable) which are not manipulated or pre-
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defined by the researcher. These factors are
called Extraneous variables. Since
extraneous variables may affect the result of
the experiment, it is crucial for the
researcher to identify them prior to
conducting the experiment and control them
in such a way that they do not threaten the
internal validity (i.e. accurate conclusion) of
the result. Controlling the extraneous
variable can be done by holding it constant
or distribute its effect across the
treatment. When the researcher fails to
control the extraneous variable that it caused
considerable effect to the outcome, the
extraneous variable becomes a Confounding
Variable.
The variables can also be classified
according to their nature. The diagram
below shows the different classifications:
KINDS OF VARIABLES AND USES
I. Quantitative Variables
- also called numerical variables are the type
of variables used in quantitative research
because they are numeric and can be
measured.
A. Discrete variables
- are countable whole numbers. It does not
take negative values or values between fixed
points. For example: number of students in
a class, group size and frequency.
B. Continuous variables
- take fractional (non-whole number) values
that can either be a positive or a negative.
Example: height, temperature.
two levels of measurement of numerical
data
A. Interval
- are quantitative variables where the
interval or differences between consecutive
values are equal and meaningful but the
numbers are arbitrary. For example, the
difference between 36 degrees and 37
degrees is the same as between 100 degrees
and 101 degrees. The zero point does not
suggest the absence of a property being
measured. Temperature at 0 degree Celsius
is assigned as the melting point of ice. Other
examples of interval data would be year and
IQ score.
B. Ratio
- type of data is similar to interval, the only
difference is the presence of a true zero
value. The zero point in this scale indicates
the absence of the quantity being measured.
Examples are age, height, weight and
distance.
II. Qualitative Variables
- are also referred to as Categorical
Variables are not expressed in numbers but
are descriptions or categories. It can be
further divided into nominal, ordinal or
dichotomous.
A. Dichotomous
- are consisting of only two distinct
categories or values. For example, a
response to a question either be a yes or no.
B. Nominal variable
- simply defines groups of subjects. Here
you may have more than 2 categories of
equivalent magnitude. For example, a
basketball player’s number is used to
distinguish him from other players. It
certainly does not follow that player 10 is
better than player 8. Other examples are
blood type, hair color and mode of
transportation.
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C. Ordinal variable
- from the name itself denotes that a variable
is ranked in a certain order. This variable
can have a qualitative or quantitative
attribute. For example, a survey
questionnaire may have a numerical rating
as choices like 1, 2, 3, 4, 5ranked
accordingly (5=highest, 1=lowest) or
categorical rating like strongly agree,
agree, neutral, disagree and strongly
disagree. Other examples or ordinal
variable: cancer stage (Stage I, Stage II,
Stage III), Spotify Top 20 hits, academic
honors (with highest, with high, with
honors).
RESEARCH TITLE
- a concise description of the content of the
research study containing the fewest
possible words, yet adequate to describe the
contents of the paper
BASIC GUIDELINES IN MAKING A
RESEARCH TITLE
 Use an accurate description instead
of using general terms.
 Do not use abbreviations
 Do not include words like “The
study of,” “Analysis of,” “An
investigation of” or similar
construction as these would only
lengthen the title.
 Include the main dependent and
independent variables.
 Be mindful of the proper use of
grammar and punctuation.
 Capitalize all nouns, pronouns,
verbs, adjectives, adverbs as well as
the first letter of the first and last
words.
 State in a declarative form.
 The year the study should not be
indicated unless it is a historical
study.
 Use current terminology
 5 to15 words are sufficient to
describe the research study.
 Use the common name instead of
chemical formula (e.g., Ammonium
instead of NH4 )
 Write and italicize full scientific
names.
 Make sure to reflect the tone of the
paper.
GUIDE IN WRITING RESEARCH
TITLE
 Determine what it is that you wish
to accomplish or know from your
study.
 Include important keywords and
variables.
 Shorten the title by eliminating
unnecessary words.
 Correct grammar and unnecessary
errors if there is any.
 Observe proper formatting.
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
- Part of paper where you inform the reader
of the context of the study.
- Part of the paper where you justify the
need to conduct a research study about the
topic selected by establishing the research
gap.
RESEARCH QUESTION
Nature of quantitative research problem
- deals more with the precision and
specificity of the problem
- describes trends and patterns of a
phenomenon
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RESEARCH QUESTIONS
- help clarify and specify the research
problem
- sub-problems of your research problem
and are informative in nature
- specify the method of collecting and
analyzing data, and the type of data to be
collected
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD
RESEARCH QUESTION
1. Feasible
- amount of time, energy, money,
respondents, and even your current situation
as a student-researcher.
2. Clear
- how the questions are stated lead to
agreement of meaning of the readers of your
study
3. Significant
- ask if your research questions are relevant
or important to ask.
4. Ethical
- Always consider the welfare of people,
animals or whosoever are involved in
your study.
FORMULATING RESEARCH
QUESTIONS
Research question
- generally classified into two: general and
specific
- The general question of the study is
derived from the research problem while the
specific questions are anchored on the
general research problem
Descriptive research
- focus on observing, describing, and
reporting factors or aspects of the research
problem.
- how often/frequently, how many/much,
what is/are, to what extent/degree, and the
likes are used in these questions.
Correlational research
- aim to determine the relationships among
two or more variables in your research
problem.
- usually begin with the phrases “Is there a
significant relationship... ” or “What is the
relationship between/among... ” .
Ex post facto research
- attempt to identify the causes of the
phenomenon in the context of your research
problem
- no control or manipulation of variable has
been done in order to cause the effect.
- cause of the problem already exists before
you conducted your study
Experimental and quasi experimental
- answers to these questions are brought
about by manipulation
- provide explanation to the causal
relationship of variables
SCOPE AND DELIMITATION
Scope
- specifies the coverage of your study such
as variables, population or participant, and
timeline.
Delimitation
- cites factors of your study that are not
included or excluded or those you will not
deal in your study.
COMPONENTS OF SCOPE AND
DELIMITATION
 Topic of the Study
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  Objectives or Problems to be
Addressed
 Time Frame
 Locale of the Study
 Characteristics of the Respondents
 Method and Research Instruments
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
Hypothesis
- tentative statement about the relationship
between two or more variables
- specific and testable prediction on what
you expect to happen with the variables in
your study
- proposes a possible relationship
between the independent variable and the
dependent variable
- an “educated guess” of what possibly the
result would be of your research
TYPES OF RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
1. Simple Hypothesis
- prediction of the relationship between two
variables
- shows a connection between one
independent variable and a single dependent
variable.
2. Complex Hypothesis
- reflects the relationship between the
independent variable and the dependent
variable.
- expresses a connection between two or
more independent variables and two or more
dependent variables.
3. Empirical Hypothesis
- “working hypothesis. ”
- presumed to explain certain facts and
relationships of phenomena
- comes to life when a theory is being put to
the test, using observation and experiment.
4.Logical Hypothesis
• expresses explanation with limited
evidence that can be verified logically
• reflects a relationship of the variables
which anchored based on logical phenomena
5. Statistical Hypothesis
- analysis of a portion of a population that
can be verified statistically.
- variables in a statistical hypothesis can be
transformed into quantifiable sub-variable to
assess it statistically.
6. Null Hypothesis
- Ho
- exists when you consider that there is no
relationship between the independent and
dependent variables or that there is an
insufficient amount of information to claim
a scientific hypothesis
7. Alternative Hypothesis
- Ha
- an alternate statement expressed to be
tested in order to generate the desired output
when the empirical or working hypothesis is
not accepted
DIRECTIONAL AND NON-
DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS
Directional Hypothesis
- relates the relationship between the
variables and can also predict its nature.
- illustrates the direct association of the
impact of the independent variable with the
dependent variable, whether it is positively
or negatively affected.
Non-Directional Hypothesis
- no principle involved but there is a premise
- reflects the association of the independent
variable to the dependent variable without
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predicting the exact nature of the direction
of the relationship.
- relationship is not specified as negative or
positive.
GUIDELINES IN FORMULATING
HYPOTHESIS
 Spend time researching about your
topic and other related studies
 Dependent and independent variable
must be included in hypothesis.
 Relationship of your variables must
be reflected in your hypothesis
 Simple and specific as possible
 Concise and comprises clear and
specific language
 Should be testable
 Must be falsifiable
CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK
Theoretical Framework
- formal theory
- primarily support the problem
- tends to be used in quanti research
Conceptual Framework
- show the relationship among the ideas and
how they relate to research study.
TWO VARIED TYPES OF
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
1. IV-DV model
IV- the researcher changes
DV- being tested
2. IPO Model
INPUT- IV
PROCESS- Methodology, Research
instrument, Statistical Treatment
OUTPUT- DV, result/outcome
DEFINITION OF TERMS DEFINITION
OF TERMS
1. Conceptual Definition
- dictionary/encyclopedia (general)
2. Operational Definition
- based on the study (specific)
WORDS TO USED
 Not common
 Specific/unique meaning
BENIFITS OF HAVING A DEFINITION
OF TERMS
 Useful place to include technical
terms
 Clarify the definition of terms
 Makes it easier to revisit or check
the meaning of a term
 Ensure the reader can understand the
technical terminologies and jargons
GUIDELINES ON HOW TO WRITE
THE DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Write a brief introductory statement
 Write the words/terms that would be
included
 The term should be arranged
alphabetically
 It can be underlined or not
 It does not have to be lengthy
 It can be bold
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  Acronym/Initials should be defined
clearly
 Brief and basic
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
- Compilation of studies to a specific area of
research
- Evaluates, classifies and summarizes all
the relevant previous studies conducted on a
specified topic.
- Justify your research by exposing the gaps
of previous study
- Provides support and full comprehension
of the development in the field
3 Ways of using Literature Review
 Providing context as a foundation
 Compare your findings from other
previous related studies
 Starting what contribution your study
Purpose of Literature Review
 Discover the connection of your
research
 Identify more theories/concept
 Determine the relationship of your
research w/ previous studies to
prevent duplication
 Acquire knowledge on the accuracy
& significance of your question
 Acquaint yourself w technical
terminologies
 Determine possible gaps, conflicts
and open questions left from other
researchers
 Clarify misconceptions & help
refocus, polish and contribute
(I DIDN’T INCLUDE THE
STRUCTURE KASI BASIC LANG
NAMAN)
TYPES OF LITERATURE REVIEW
1. Context Review
- Focus on contextual aspect
- Relates the study to a larger body of
knowledge
- Merging it into a wider framework
2. Historical Review
- Organized according to the period of time
- Chronological order-oldest period of time
going to the most recent
3. Integrative Review
- Introduce & summarize the recent
knowledge of the study
- Emphasize the agreement & disagreements
of knowledge
4. Methodological Review
- Summarizes the strengths & gaps in
methodological aspects illustrates the effects
of different methodologies
5. Self-study Review
- Demonstrate understanding of a specific
body of knowledge
- Contains existing proofs
6. Theoretical Review
- Introduces several theories or concepts
- Particular on the theories and concepts and
compare them to the current study
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 TYPES OF SOURCES FOR A
LITERATURE REVIEW
General references
- Researcher refers to track down others
sources
- identifies and locate information

Secondary references
- Provides second-hand information
STEPS IN WRITING LITERATURE
REVIEW
 Find/search for relevant literatures
 Log/catalouge & synthesize
 Outline & write up
IN-TEXT CITATIONS AND
REFERENCING STYLES
- A reference to a literature being used in
your study
- Gives acknowledgement to the author
- Citations include author’s name, date,
publisher info, journal info
In-text citation
- made within the body of text in the paper
- it leads the reader to source where a
particular info has been taken of
- should be reflected when you prefer,
paraphrase, summarize or quote from
another author
References
- includes only the sources that you have
mentioned
Bibliography
- all sources you used is included