REVIEWER IN RESEARCH (PART 1)
CHAPTER 3 – METHODOLOGY
RESEARCH DESIGN
- Explain why you use quantitative
research in your study
- Explain the specific quantitative
approach used and why this is chosen
CONTEXT AND PARTICIPANTS
- Explain the context of the study or the
time and place where the study is
conducted.
- Explain relevant details about the
participants.
o number of participants
o demographic characteristics (age,
gender, socio-economic status)
o other relevant background
information.
INSTRUMENT
- Describe instrument 1 and justify its use
o Explain how it is validated and
revised
o If it is adopted, explain the reason
for its adoption
o describe its reliability and validity
DATA GATHERING PROCEDURE
- Explain the specific steps that you will
undertake to complete the data gathering
phase
DATA ANALYSIS
- Describe the statistical test that you will
use to analyze your data. Justify your
choice.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
Research Design
- an overall strategy that a researcher uses
to logically and coherently integrate the
various components of a study
- descriptive, correlational, ex post facto,
quasi-experimental, and experimental.
Descriptive Research Design
- aims to observe and report on a certain
phenomenon, type of behavior, or trait as
it takes place or manifests itself.
- One limitation of the descriptive research
design is its inability to establish
causal relationship, that is, one variable
cannot be claimed as the cause of another
variable.
- used when little is known about a topic
or when the study is exploratory in
nature.
Correlational Type
- determine whether an increase or
decrease in one variable corresponds to
the increase or decrease in another
- does not seek to establish a cause-effect
relationship but mere association among
variables
- like in the descriptive type, experimental
manipulation is not used
- Variables are still measured as they occur.
Ex post facto type
- infer a cause from the already existing
effects
- does not use experimental manipulation
- it cannot be said that a change in the
variables takes place in the actual study.
- the ex post facto research design is used
when the study being conducted is
exploratory and little is known about
the phenomenon or behavior being
studied.
The last two kinds of research design can be
distinguished for the presence of an intervention
applied to the subjects of the study.
INTERVENTION or treatment
- involves the manipulation of the
independent variable in an experiment.
- presence of the intervention can be
attributed as the cause of changes in the
dependent variable
- The group of participants subjected to
the intervention are referred to as the
treatment group
- the control group refers to the
participants not subjected to the
intervention
- interventions are utilized in quasi-
experimental and experimental studies
Quasi-experimental research design
- establish a casual relationship between
two variables.
- effect is presumed to have occurred
during the study itself. This means that
 experimental manipulation is applied
to the subjects to some extent
- should be noted that quasi-experimental
designs divide the subjects into intact
groups. As its name suggests, an intact
group has already been
establishedbefore the study takes
place
- it may be a group of individual with same
educational background, same nationality,
or age bracket.
- it is necessary to ensure matching
between the two groups based on relevant
observable characteristics such as
education, aptitude, age, and wealth
- there is lack of randomness in this type
of research design.
- provides limited conclusiveness in
establishing the casual relationship
between variables
Experimental type
- establish a cause-effect relationship.
- experimental type applies variable
manipulation more extensively
- it does not only assign groups but specific
individuals to the control and treatment
groups
SAMPLES AND SAMPLING METHODS
Sampling
- the process of systematically selecting
individuals, units, or groups to be
analyzed during the conduct of study
The following are ways that you can use to
determine the sample size for your study:
1. Heuristics
It refers to the rule of thumb for the
sample size used in a study. The following are the
suggested sample sizes in the different
quantitative research designs(Lunenberg and
Irby, 2008).
2. Literature Review
You may want to read studies similar to
yours and check the sample size that they used.
These studies can serve as a reference in proving
the validity of the sample size that you plan to
use.
3. Formulas
The formula below by the National
Education Association in the United States can be
used to compute for the needed sample size.
Quantitative
studies often
employ
random
sampling.
Random
Sampling (Probability Sampling)
- involves the selection of a group of
participants from a larger population by
chance
- the researcher is expected to obtain
samples that will represent the population
where they are taken
Types of Random Sampling in Quantitative
Research
Simple Random Sampling
- all individuals in a given population have
an equal chance of being selected. It is
considered the best way to obtain a
representative sample.
- fishbowl technique wherein you select
participants by drawing out names from a
transparent glass bowl.
Stratified Sampling
- best used when the characteristics of the
subgroups may influence the variables
being measured.
- the population is divided into subgroups
(or strata)
 - samples are then selected from these
subgroups, and not from the population as
a whole
- between the scores given by two or more
Cluster Sampling
- involves the grouping of the population
into subgroups or clusters
- clusters are not created based on specific
characteristics or traits; thus, they are
heterogenous
- Specific participants are not selected from
each subgroup/cluster, instead whole
subgroups or clusters are selected to
meet the planned sample size
- this type of random sampling is the
possible inadequate representation of
each type of characteristic among the
population
- To overcome inadequacy, a large
number of samples should be used
from different subgroups or clusters.
Systematic Sampling
- participants are selected from a list based
on their order in the population or on a
predetermined interval
- this interval is obtained by dividing the
population size by the sample size for the
study
INSTRUMENTS IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Instruments
- tools used to gather data for a particular
research topic
- common instruments used for quantitative
research are tests (performance-based or
paper-and-pencil), questionnaires,
interviews, and observations.
The last two instruments are used moreoften in
qualitative research. However, they can also be
employed in quantitative studies as long as the
required responses or analyzed data are
numerical I nature.
When using instruments that are prone to
subjectivity, you may consider having another
coder or evaluator to help you gather and
analyze your data. This is to improve the
validity and reliability of data. Then, compute
for the inter-coder or inter-rater agreement.
Inter-coder or inter-rater agreement
- refers to the level of concurrence
raters.
There are three ways of developing an
instrument for quantitative research.
1. Adopting an Instrument
- you will utilize an instrument that has
been used in well-known institutions or
reputable studies and publications.
- you do not have to spend time
establishing its validity and reliability since
they have been tested by their developers
and other researchers.
Sometimes, however, the available tests do not
generate the exact data that you want to obtain.
In this case, you may either modify an existing
instrument or create your own instrument.
As you develop your instrument, be guided by the
instruments used in studies similar to yours.
Make sure, however, that the items contained in
your instruments are aligned with your research
questions or objectives. Remember that
inadequacies in your research instrument will
yield inaccurate data, thereby making the
results of your study questionable.
2. Instrument Validity
Validity
- refers to the degree to which an
instrument measures what it is supposed
to measure
- has several types, namely, face validity,
content validity, construct validity,
concurrent validity, and predictive validity.
Face Validity
- when it “appears” to measure the
variables being studied.
- checking for face validity is a subjective
process, it does not ensure that the
instrument has actual validity.
Content Validity
- the degree to which an instrument
covers a representative sample of the
variable to be measured.
Construct Validity
 - the degree to which an instrument
measures the variables being studied as
a whole
- the instrument is able to detect what
should exist theoretically
- A construct is often an intangible or
abstract variable such as personality,
intelligence or moods
- If your instrument cannot detect this
intangible construct, it is considered
invalid.
Criterion Validity
- the degree that an instrument
predictsthecharacteristics of a variable
in a certain way
- This means that the instrument produces
results similar to those of another
instrument in measuring a certain
variable.
Concurrent Validity
- when it is able to predict results similar to
those of a test already validated in the
past
- an instrument has predictive validity when
it produces results similar to those of
another instrument that will be
employed in the future.
INSTRUMENT RELIABILITY
Reliability
- the consistency of the measures of an
instrument.
- four types of reliability: test-retest
reliability, equivalent forms reliability,
internal consistency reliability, and inter-
rater reliability.
Test-retest reliability
- achieved by
administeringaninstrument twice to
the same group of participants and then
computing the consistency of scores.
Equivalent forms reliability
- measured by administering two tests
identical in all aspects except the
actual wording of items
- the two tests have the same coverage,
difficulty level, test type, and format.
Internal Consistency Reliability
- measure of how well the items in two
instruments measure the same construct.
Inter – rater reliability
- measures the consistency of scores
assigned by two or more raters on a
certain set of results.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
- section reports and explains the data
that you have obtained in your
research
- can be considered the “meat” of your
paper
- provides and analyzes your findings
Results Portion
- presents the data that you have collected
- limits itself to the presentation of facts
and key findings as they are
- presented in textual and tabular or
graphical forms
Discussion Portion
- provides the explanation for the
results that you have reported
- an important part of a research because it
tests your skills in thinking critically,
solving problems, as well as in
understanding and explaining phenomena
with enough depth
Conclusion Section
- composed of four subsections (summary
of findings, conclusions drawn, limitations
of the study, useful recommendations)
Summary
- briefly restates your major findings
that correspond to each of the research
questions or objectives
- each summary must be written in only one
or two sentences
Strategies in writing summary
1. Refrain from providing detailed figures or
elaborating your major findings
2. Avoid making interpretations and
conclusions from findings
3. Be directed and brief in writing your
summary
4. Refrain from introducing new data
 Recommendations - used mainly for assessing various skills
- Provides an actual course of action and types of behavior
through which these areas of concern can
be addressed
- Stating how future studies can address the
limitations encountered
Standardized tests
Guidelines - scored uniformly across different areas
- Accordance with the conclusions and and groups
limitations of your study
- As specific as possible for them to Non- standardized tests
become workable and practical - administered to specific sets of people
- Concisely and clearly
- Refrain from offering recommendations Achievement test
that could have been easily addressed - measures the extent of the skills and the
as you were conducting your study knowledge that a person has acquired
after considerable period of time
Data Collection -
- activity that allows the researcher to Aptitude test
obtain relevant information regarding - assesses one’s skills and knowledge to
specified research questions or objectives predict one’s ability to perform a certain
- performed through utilizing instruments kind of work
which researcher has developed or
adopted TYPES OF TEST QUESTIONS
- instruments: questionnaires, tests,
interviews, observation Recall questions
- require the participants to retrieve
Questionnaires information from memory
- paper-based or electronic tool for Cloze test
collecting information about a particular - The cashier____ the payment from the
research interest customers
- can be structured, semi-structured or
unstructured Identification
- What is the capital of Australia?
Structured questionnaire
- uses close-ended questions or Recognition questions
indicators - provide options to choose from

Unstructured questionnaire Open-ended questions

- allows participants to respond to open- - prompt participants to answer in greater
ended questions detail

Semi-structured questionnaire Non-performance based

- have characteristics of both - Discuss the importance of establishing
friendships in the workplace
face-to-face method
- capture the non-verbal cues as well as DATA-PROCESSING TECHNIQUES
their emotions and behavior
online method Editing
- administering of questions through filling - process wherein the data collected are
out web-based forms checked for consistency, accuracy,
organization, and clarity
Tests Coding
 - process where the gathered data are
classified into categories, numerals,
symbols or other systems of labeling
Tabulation
- process of condensing the raw data into a
more compact form
PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF
TABLES AND GRAPHS
Non-prose materials
- graphic or visual representations of sets of
data or information
- graphs and tables
Tables
- help condense and classify information
using columns and rows
- contain at least two columns with heading
that indicate the important information
being examined
- boxheads - headings on the top
- stubs – headings on the far left columns
Graphs
- focus on immediately representing how a
change in one variable related to
another
ANOVA (Analysis of Variance)
- statistical tool used for testing differences
among the means of two or more groups
of sample
One-way ANOVA
- tests differences among groups
concerning one variable
TSS = SSB + SSW
Two-way ANOVA
- used for determining the relationships
between two independent nominal
variables (factors) an one dependent
interval or continuous variable
SS1 + SS2 + SS1.2 = TSS
Multiple Regression
- statistical tool used for testing the
relationship between one dependent
variable and at least two independent
variable

Bar graph T-tests

- contains vertical and horizontal bars - parametric statistical technique that tests
and comparisons of amounts and the difference between two means
quantities Mean
Line graph - average score
- shows trends and changes in the data
Circle graph (pie graph) Variance
- shows the relationship of parts to a - how spread out the values
whole, usually in percentages and
proportions Standard Deviation
- square root of variance
USING STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES IN
ANALYZING DATA
Pearson’s r
- parametric statistical method used for
determining whether there is a linear
relationship between variables

Spearman’s rho
- non-parametric statistical techniques that
tests the relationship between ordinal
variables