M.

Ed 1st year
PC 2: Psychology of Learning and Development

Unit III: Learner Engagement in the Process of Knowledge Construction

• Forms of learner’s engagement: modeling, observation, demonstration, exploration, discovering, analysing,

contextualisation, collaboration, multiple interpretations, critical reflection (based on action, observation, selected
reading, discussion etc.).
• Restructuring classrooms to facilitate/maximise learning: Individualized/ self-learning; Group learning: cooperative
learning, collaborative learning; learning strategies-theoretical explanation for their relative use.
• Use of local knowledge and children’s out of the school experiences in learning.
• Role of motivation in learning: Meaning of motivation, various approaches to

motivation (humanistic approach; cognitive approach, attribution theory-Weiner);

Strategies for motivating learner-Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

• Forms of learner’s engagement: modeling, observation, demonstration, exploration,
discovering, analysing, contextualisation, collaboration, multiple interpretations, critical
reflection (based on action, observation, selected reading, discussion etc.)
• In their most elementary form, engagements can be seen as supporting the activities in the
learning process. From a pedagogical perspective, a learning process taking the form of a
number of cognitive activities (which when combined), satisfies the learning goal. Learners
construct their knowledge during the activity. Most activities in the learning process are
composed of engagements, where a number of people share and exchange knowledge.
Engagements are then combined to form a larger learning process. This maybe:
• Students engaging with content, which may be simply reading material or it may be
• studying using a simulation program,
• Students engaging with each other while working in groups on a common project where
• students distribute responsibilities but must coordinate their activities.
• Teachers engaging with students to provide guidance or to assess progress.
• Students engaging with administration to setup and manage a study program.
• Modeling Learning Processes in Terms of Engagements. Modeling, which is also called observational
learning or imitation, is a behaviorally based procedure that involves the use of live or
symbolic models to demonstrate a particular behavior, thought, or attitude that a pupil may
want to acquire or change. Modeling is sometimes called vicarious learning, because the
learner need not actually perform the behavior in order to learn it.
• Modeling therapy is based on social learning theory. This theory emphasizes the importance
of learning from observing and imitating role models, and learning about rewards and
punishments that follow behavior. The technique has been used to eliminate unwanted
behaviors, reduce excessive fears, facilitate learning of social behaviors, and many more.
Modeling may be used either to strengthen or to weaken previously learned behaviors.
Modeling when used alone has been shown to be effective for short-term learning. It is,
however, insufficient for long-lasting behavior change if the target behavior does not
produce rewards that sustain it. Modeling works well when it is combined with role-play and
reinforcement .
• Modeling can be done in several different ways, including live modeling, symbolic modeling,
participant modeling, or covert modeling.
• Observational learning is learning that occurs through observing the behavior of
others. It is a form of social learning which takes various forms, based on various
processes. In humans, this form of learning seems to not need reinforcement to
occur, but instead, requires a social model such as a parent, sibling, friend, or teacher
with surroundings. Particularly in childhood, a model is someone of authority or
higher status in an environment.
• Through observational learning, individual behaviors can spread across a culture
through a process called diffusion chain. This basically occurs when an individual first
learns a behavior by observing another individual and that individual serves as a
model through whom other individuals learn the behavior, and so on.
• Bandura claims that children continually learn desirable and undesirable behavior
through observational learning. Observational learning suggests that an individual's
environment, cognition, and behavior all incorporate and ultimately determine how
the individual functions and models.
• Bandura's social cognitive learning theory states that there are four stages involved in
observational learning:
• Attention: Observers cannot learn unless they pay attention to what's happening around
them. This process is influenced by characteristics of the model, such as how much one likes
or identifies with the model, and by characteristics of the observer, such as the observer's
expectations or level of emotional arousal.
• Retention/Memory: Observers must not only recognize the observed behavior but also
remember it at some later time. This process depends on the observer's ability to code or
structure the information in an easily remembered form or to mentally or physically rehearse
the model's actions.
• Initiation/Motor: Observers must be physically and/intellectually capable of producing the
act. In many cases the observer possesses the necessary responses. But sometimes,
reproducing the model's actions may involve skills the observer has not yet acquired. It is one
thing to carefully watch a circus juggler, but it is quite another to go home and repeat those
acts.
• Motivation: The observer must have motivation to recreate the observed behavior.
• A method demonstration is a teaching method used to communicate an idea with the
aid of visuals such as flip charts, posters, power point, etc. A demonstration is the
process of teaching someone how to make or do something in a step-by-step process.
As you show how, you “tell” what you are doing.
• Demonstration method is a visual approach to examining information, ideas and
processes. It is a teaching method that allows students to see the teacher actively
engaged as a learner and a model rather than merely telling them what they need to
know. Demonstrations often occur when students have a hard time connecting
theories to actual practice or when students are unable to understand application of
theories. People can also communicate values and ideas through demonstrations. This
is often done in plays, movies, and film. Pictures without words can show or
demonstrate various types of actions and consequences.
• Exploration: Exploration is a learning method wherebY peopIe learn how to use an
object or a system Just by playing with it. There is no tutor nor documentation. The
only way to know the svstem is to interact with in and the unique feedback comes
from the interaction. In such situations, exploration is so-called "free" whereas it is
called "guided" hence one benefits from some external assistance. The characteristics
of the explorer and of the object to be discovered have to be well defined because of
their potential effect in the outcome of exploration.
• Exploration has numerous advantages. It is a learning-by-doing method (Anzai &
Simon 1979) where learners are active and deeply in learning. It allows them to have
control, set their goals and self –initiated problem solving.
• Exploration-based learning is an active learning approach. Students' abilities are
dynamically balanced with difficulty level in the system to provide exhilarating and
fulfilling learning experiences
• Discovering, analysing, contextualisation, collaboration, multiple interpretations,
critical reflection.
• Discovery learning is a technique of inquiry-based learning and is considered a
constructivist based approach to education. It is also referred to as problem-based
learning, experiential learning and 21st century learning. It is supported by the work
of learning theorists and psychologists Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, and Seymour
Papert. "Practice in discovering for oneself teaches one to acquire information in a
way that makes that information more readily viable in problem solving“ (Bruner,
1960). The mantra of this philosophical movement suggests that we should 'learn by
doing'.
• The label of discovery learning can cover a variety of instructional techniques which
can range from implicit pattern detection, to the elicitation of explanations and
working through manuals to conducting simulations. Discovery learning can occur
whenever the student is not provided with an exact answer but rather the materials in
order to find the answer themselves.
There are multiple essential components that are required for successful discovery-
based learning which include the following:
• Teacher guidance where the emphasis is on building upon students’ reasoning and
connecting to their experiences
• Classroom culture where there is a shared sense of purpose between teacher and
students, where open-mindedness and dialogue are encouraged
• Students are encouraged to ask questions, inquire through exploration and collaborate
with teacher and peers
Contextual learning is based on a constructivist theory of teaching and learning. Learning
takes place when teachers are able to present information in a way that students are able
to construct meaning based on their own experiences
The definition of contextualize means to analyze a word or event in terms of the words
or concepts surrounding it. Contextualized Teaching and Learning (CTL), also known
as Contextualized Instruction, is defined as a "diverse family of instructional strategies
designed to more seamlessly link the learning of foundational skills and academic or
occupational content by focusing teaching and learning squarely on concrete
applications in a specific context that is of interest to the student" (Mazzeo,
2008,Medrich, Calderon, & Hoachlander, 2003). In other words, CTL is a process built
on the recognition that some students learn more effectively when they are taught in a
hands-on, real-world context rather than in an abstract manner.
The primary goal of CTL is to utilize the "context supported by traditional academics
to drive instruction" thus engaging students in active learning to assist them in making
meaning (N. N. Badway, 2010).
• Critical Reflection. Critical reflection is a “meaning-making process” that helps us set
goals, use what we've learned in the past to inform future action and consider the
real-life implications of our thinking.
• Reflective practice is the ability to reflect on one's actions so as to engage in a process
of continuous learning. According to one definition it involves "paying critical
attention to the practical values and theories which inform everyday actions, by
examining practice reflectively and reflexively.
• Critical reflection is a reasoning process to make meaning of an experience. Critical
reflection is descriptive, analytical, and critical, and can be articulated in a number of
ways such as in written form, orally, or as an artistic expression. In short, this process
adds depth and breadth to an experience and builds connections between course
content and the experience.
• If you are considering using critical reflection, there are four steps to think about:
1. Identify the student learning outcomes related to the experience. What do you expect
students to gain as a result of this activity? Understand multiple points of view? Be
able to propose solutions to a problem?
2. Once you identify the outcomes, then you can design the reflection activities to best
achieve the outcomes. Remember, that critical reflection is a continuous process.
3. Engage students in critical reflection before, during, and after the experience.
4. Assess their learning. A rubric that outlines the criteria for evaluation and levels of
performance for each criterion can be useful for grading reflection products and
providing detailed feedback to students.
Use of local knowledge and children’s out of the school experiences in learning.
• 'Learning experiences' means learning activities undertaken in the school for shaping
the learners‘ orientation to the content and ultimately enabling them to comprehend
it effectively. 'Learning Experience' is the learning process. An experience is making
personal observations of a situation/environment and interacting with people in
varied situations/environments resulting in gain in knowledge, skills and attitude. In
other words, learning are the out come of experience.
• For learning experience to take place we require three components. These three
components are: selected learning situations, learning activities undertaken by concerned students
and their interactions. All these together will comprise the learning experience. These
learning experiences can be in theory, i.e., theoretical learning experiences, can be in
practical, i.e., skill learning in the laboratory and live setting, i.e., in hospitals, clinics
and various community settings. Many experiences will also comprise combination of
both theory and practical simultaneously.
Principles of Selection of Learning Experience
• In selecting learning experiences, i.e., deciding on learning situations and activities
the principles required to be kept in mind are:
• Selection of learning experiences should be made considering the philosophy,
purposes and objectives of the programme.
• Learning activities should be in relation to those real life situations where the students
are expected to practice after being qualified.
• Selection should be in a manner that there is an effective integration betwgzn theory
and practice, i.e., between What is Taught in the Class Room and What is Practised in
Learning Situations?
• Selection should be made for such experiences which will assist the students in
effective learning and which would provide opportunities for performing identified
tasks of their expected jobs.
• For providing learning experience, a cone of experience formulated by Edgar Dale can be helpful for
more clarity. His suggestion to the learner experiences is to go as low on the scale as you need to, in
order to but go as high as you can, for most effective learning experiences.
12. Verbal symbols
11. Visual symbols (signs, stock, figure)
10. Radio and recordings
9. Still pictures
8. Motion pictures
7. Educational television
6. Exhibits
5. study trips
4. Demonstrations
3. Dramatised experiences plays, puppets and role playing
2. Contrived experiences, model simulations ~
1. Direct purposeful experiences.
Organising experiences:
• Observing something happen, say, the process of seed germination, in a real situation or observing
different stages of milk collection, processing and packaging different kinds of products in a dairy
farm.
• Participating in an exercise involving body and mind such as planning a role play around a theme and
presenting it.
• Talking about and reflecting on something the child has experience of (e.g. dialogue on gender-
differentiated practices in the family and society or participating in mental game of numbers).
• Making something, say, a system of gear wheels or trying out an experiment to lift a load using a
system of pulleys.
• After the experience, teachers could organise a discussion, an exercise involving, writing, drawing and
display to identify along with the children questions to be thought about and answered so that learners
could connect the experience with textbook knowledge and other references and deepen the
experience. Such experiences and post - experience activities would be valuable at any level of
schooling. Only the nature and complexity of the experience would need to change over the years.
Language is key to organizing experiences. Hence, there should be a proper coordination between the
kind of experience and the level of language development.
Role of motivation in learning: Meaning of motivation, various approaches to motivation (humanistic approach;
cognitive approach, attribution theory-Weiner); Strategies for motivating learner-Intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation.
• The term ‘motivation’ has been derived from the word ‘motive’. Motive may be defined as an
inner state of our mind that activates and directs our behaviour. It makes us move to act. It is
always internal to us and is externalized via our behaviour. Motivation is one’s willingness to
exert efforts towards the accomplishment of his/her goal.
• Fred Luthans defined motivation as a “process that starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency
or need that activates behaviour or a drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive”.
• According to Stephen P. Robbins “motivation is the willingness to exert high levels of efforts toward
organisational goals, conditioned by the effort ability to satisfy some individual need”.
• In the opinion of Gray and Starke “motivation is the result of processes, internal or external to the
individual, that arouse enthusiasm and persistence to pursue a certain course of action”.


• HUMANISTIC APPROACH ON MOTIVATION: Human needs and motivation
Human needs Physiological or physical needs: food, drink, oxygen, sleep, rest,
excretion, sex Psychological needs: security, love, self esteem, self actualization.
• Humanistic theories of motivation are based on the idea that people also have strong
cognitive reasons to perform various actions. This is famously illustrated in Abraham
Maslow's hierarchy of needs, which presents different motivations at different levels.
• First, people are motivated to fulfill basic biological needs for food and shelter, as
well as those of safety, love, and esteem. Once the lower level needs have been met,
the primary motivator becomes the need for self-actualization, or the desire to fulfill
one's individual potential.
• Cognitive theories of motivation seek to explain human behavior as a product of the
careful study and active processing and interpretation of information received. Such a
perspective runs counter to rationalizing human behavior as a result of automatic
responses governed by preprogrammed rules or innate mechanisms involving drives,
needs and reactions. The actions of humans, in addition to what motivates them to
engage in particular actions, are therefore, the product of deliberate thought
processes such as beliefs, expectations, knowledge about things and past experiences.
• Proponents of the Cognitive Theory of Motivation assert that people’s expectations
guide their behavior, usually, in ways that would bring about desirable outcomes.
• Cognitive motivation is said to be rooted on two basic factors. The first involves
information available to the individual. Initially, an individual will process a situation
based on whatever input is immediately available to his senses. The second factor
involves the individual’s past experience, which the person refers to when trying to
make sense of information presently available and in determining how to respond or
relate to the current situation.
• Attribution theory is the study of how individuals explain events that take place in
their lives. Definition of attributions: a think as being caused "Why did I successfully
accomplish this work?" "Why did Jack flunk math?" The answers to these questions
reflect a person's beliefs about the causes of results. Knowing learners' attributional
beliefs can help the instructors to address the value aspect.
• Weiner’s attribution theory is mainly about achievement. Attributions are classified
along three causal dimensions: 1. locus of control (two poles: internal vs. external) 2.
stability (do causes change over time or not?) 3. controllability (causes one can control
such as skills vs. causes one cannot control such as luck, others’ actions, etc.)
• Locus of control: internal-external The first dimension is an internal-external
continuum to the individual. Locus means the cause is within (internal) or outside
(external) an individual. For instance, factors like mood and ability are internal causes,
whereas luck and teacher bias are external causes.
• Stability: stable-unstable Stability means the cause is unchanging. "I'm good at playing
guitar since I've practiced over one year". In this case, the ability of playing guitar is a
stable cause for this person. "I got an A in math this time because the test is very
easy, everyone had an A." Someone performed very well just by chance, and the easy
test is an inconsistent or unstable cause.
• Controllability: controllable-uncontrollable Controllability refers to the factors that we
can control to influence results. Factors like skill and competence are classified as
controllable, whereas luck and mood are classified as uncontrollable.
Types of Motivation
• Deci and Ryan suggest that there are two types of motivation. Intrinsic motivation is
the force that compels a person to fulfill his / her inner potential and interests.
Moreover, intrinsic motivation corresponds to the inherent desire of an individual to
express his / her authentic self through selected actions and behavior, across
different settings, whether at work or at play. This particular type of motivation is said
to be quite effective as people who are intrinsically-motivated feel that they can
influence and determine the outcomes of their efforts. The notion of intrinsic
motivation helps explain why some people prefer a lower-paying job that they like
over a more lucrative one which may offer more material rewards but not as much
enjoyment.
• Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, is experienced when a person’s actions are
influenced by the desire to attain goal objects or rewards. Rewards may be tangible,
such as food or money, or intangible, such as pride and recognition.