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Powder Metallurgy
Powder Metallurgy
The powder metallurgy (P/M) process is a near-net or net-shape manufacturing process that combines the
features of shape-making technology for powder compaction with the development of final material and
design properties (physical and mechanical) during subsequent densification or consolidation processes (e.g.,
sintering). It is critical to recognize this interrelationship at the outset of the design process because a subtle
change in the manufacturing process can cause a significant change in material properties.
Powder Metallurgy is a continually and rapidly evolving technology embracing most metallic and alloy
materials, and a wide variety of shapes. PM is a highly developed method of manufacturing reliable ferrous
and nonferrous parts. The European Market alone has an annual turnover of over Six Billion Euros, with
annual worldwide metal powder production exceeding one million tons.
Created by mixing elemental or alloy powders and compacting the mixture in a die, the resultant shapes are
then heated or "sintered" in a controlled atmosphere furnace to bond the particles metallurgically. The high
precision forming capability of P/M generates components with near net shape, intricate features and good
dimensional precision pieces are often finished without the need of machining.
By producing parts with a homogeneous structure, the P/M process enables manufacturers to make products
that are more consistent and predictable in their behavior across a wide range of applications. In addition, the
P/M Process has a high degree of flexibility allowing the tailoring of the physical characteristics of a product
to suit your specific property and performance requirements.
These include:
Structural pieces with complex shapes
Controlled Porosity
Controlled performance
Good performance in stress and absorbing of vibrations
Special properties such as hardness and wear resistance
Great precision and good surface finish
Large series of pieces with narrow tolerances
The unique flexibility of the P/M process enables products to be made from materials that are tailored to your
specific needs. By using specially selected materials this capability enables refinements to be engineered into
the mechanical properties of the part.
Economic Advantages
The growth of the P/M industry during the past few decades is largely attributable to the cost savings
associated with net (or near-net) shape processing compared to other metalworking methods, such as casting
or forging. In some cases, the conversion of a cast or wrought component to powder metal provides a cost
savings of 40% or higher. PM typically uses more than 97% of the starting raw material in the finished part
and is specially suited to high volume components production requirements.
There are two principal reasons for using a powder metallurgy product:
1. cost savings compared with alternative processes
2. unique properties attainable only by the PM route
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In the automotive sector, which consumes about 80% of structural P/M part production, the reason for
choosing P/M is, in the majority of cases, an economic one. P/M process enables products to be made that are
capable of absorbing up to 35% of selected fluids.
In the automotive sector, which consumes about 80% of structural P/M part production, the reason for
choosing P/M is, in the majority of cases, an economic one. P/M process enables products to be made that are
capable of absorbing up to 35% of selected fluids.
Energy Savings
The energy savings alone contribute significantly to the economic advantage offered by P/M.
An example is given below for a notch segment used in a truck transmission, where PM consumes only around
43% of the energy compared with forging and machining and the number of process steps has been greatly
reduced.
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Comparison of the PM Process and Forging and Machining (energy requirements and number of
process steps)
This is an example for a notch segment used in a truck transmission, where:
PM consumes only around 43% of the energy compared with forging and machining, and
the number of process steps has been greatly reduced
Table 1: PM process vs Forging (Source EAPM)
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P/M process
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Powder Shaping Technologies
General categories of powder shaping methods are as follows:
Binder-assisted extrusion: long structures, small powders, constant cross section, relatively
simple shapes
Injection molding: complex, small components, high-performance materials
Slip casting: very large structures, constant wall thickness, low precision
Tape casting: flat sheets, small powders, very simple shapes
In general, these methods employ binders that hold the particles together in the desired shape; the particles are
then consolidated to higher densities by sintering. The part is shaped at relatively low pressures (compared to
die compaction) with green (unsintered) porosity ranging from ~40 to 60% (ignoring the binder that is
sacrificial). Most binders are polymers such as mineral oil or polyethylene. The following binders are used in
powder shaping:
Extrusion
56% water, 25% methyl cellulose, 13% glycerin, 6% boric acid
72% water, 12% hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose, 8% glycerin, 4% ammonium polyacrylate, 4%
ammonium stearate
65% polyethylene glycol, 30% polyvinyl butyryl, 5% stearic acid
Injection molding
69% paraffin wax, 20% polypropylene, 10% carnauba wax, 1% stearic acid
75% peanut oil, 25% polyethylene
50% carnauba wax, 50% polyethylene
55% paraffin wax, 35% polyethylene, 10% stearic acid
Slip casting
96% water, 4% sodium lignosulfonate, trace calcium nitrate
93% water, 4% agar, 3% glycerine
99% water, 1% ammonium alginate
97% water, 3% polyvinyl alcohol
Tape casting
77% water, 9% polyacrylate emulsion, 9% glycerin, 3% ammonium polyacrylate, 2%
ammonium hydroxide
80% toluene, 13% polyethylene glycol, 7% polyvinyl butyral
47% mineral spirits, 24% isopropanol, 8% polyvinyl butyral, 8% dibutyl phthalate, 5%
polyethylene glycol, 5% stearic acid, 3% menhaden fish oil
In most cases, the shaping process requires four steps:
Formation of a powder-binder feedstock
Shaping of feedstock using customized tooling
Extraction of the binder
Sintering densification
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Markets for Powder Metallurgy components
The predominant market for Press/Sinter structural Powder Metallurgy parts is the automotive sector. On
average across all geographical regions, around 80% of all Powder Metallurgy structural components are for
automotive applications.
Around 75% of these automotive applications are components for transmissions (automatic and manual) and
for engines.
Pulleys, sprockets and hubs, particularly those associated with the engine timing belt system
Valve seat inserts
Valve guides
PM lobes for assembled camshafts
Balancer gears
Main bearing caps
Engine manifold actuators
Camshaft bearing caps
Engine management sensor rings
Powder Metallurgy parts also find application in a range of other automotive systems:
There are other important markets for Powder Metallurgy structural parts, where components are required in
large production quantities. The second largest structural parts market is in DIY tools and domestic
appliances.
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Bearings and various gear parts are examples of Powder Metallurgy applications in DIY power tools and
domestic “white goods”.
Metal-graphite carbon brushes are also used extensively in electrical motors and generators for domestic
appliances, automobiles and power tools.
Business machines
Leisure and garden products
Industrial motors and controls
Hardware – lock parts, latches etc.
Aerospace applications
Aero-engine and land-based gas turbine applications
Aero-engine and land-based gas turbine applications for Powder Metallurgy products require extremely good
properties and the PM-based process routes in this sector generally incorporate Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP).
For nickel-based superalloy turbine discs, processing from powders has become necessary to allow the next
increments in product performance, through enhanced microstructural control and compositional capability
compared with ingot-route material. The Powder Metallurgy process generally involves isothermal forging of
a HIP billet, although “as-HIP” parts can also be used where creep strength is the sole design criterion.
Net-shape HIP titanium Powder Metallurgy products have been developed for turbine applications where
conventional processing (involving machining) is very wasteful of material and the Powder Metallurgy route
can offer cost benefits. The addition of features to forged or cast parts using powder-based additive
manufacturing techniques is also being applied for similar reasons.
Airframe sector
There is also growing interest in the use of titanium Powder Metallurgy in the airframe sector, either for cost
saving in applications already using wrought-route titanium or for potential weight reduction in replacing steel
parts.
In the Oil and Gas sector, hard metal and diamond cutting tools are regularly used for oil and gas exploration.
HIP powder products in a range of austenitic and duplex stainless steels are also being increasingly used in
off-shore applications, including manifolds and valves. HIP- and laser-cladding techniques are being used to
deposit abrasion resistant coatings on a range of off-shore components.
Hard metal and diamond cutting tools are also used for machining operations is many industrial sectors
including automotive, aerospace and general engineering.
Healthcare sector
There are many devices in the healthcare sector that contain components that can be made by powder-based
routes:
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MRI scanners used large quantities of rare earth permanent magnets, processed from powders.
Many surgical instruments and dental implants are produced by Metal Injection Moulding.
There are growing interests in producing customised medical implants using additive manufacturing and
in producing porous implant structures (to match bone stiffness and to aid osteo-integration) by PM
processing (MIM, Press/Sinter PM etc.) of materials containing space-holder additions that are removed
after forming.
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