Analytical Investigation on the Influence of Gravity on the Structure of

Flame in the Prediction of Combustion Dynamics

Rahul Agarwal1, Raja Sekhar Dondapati*2

1,2
School of Mechanical Engineering, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab 144411, India
er.agarwal03@gmail.com1, drsekhar@ieee.org2
Corresponding author*: Phone: +91-8427474117

Abstract
In the present study, an analytical solution for the surface area of a flame is developed, in order to account the shape
of the flame under the influence of gravity. Assuming a shape of the flame, with negligible turbulency in the medium
and zero shear force acting at the interface of the surface of the flame and the surrounding medium, the whole
structure of flame was given volumetric fragmentation, followed by pressure force analysis on the elements, which
finally accounted a function which inferred that there should be an axisymmetric variation in the shape of the flame,
where the upper region of the flame is seems to undergo a convergence. The study of flame dynamics and its
behavior accounts for various instabilities common in a combustion process. The alteration in shape of flame directly
affects the rate of heat transfer by it, which leads to consequences, like development of thermal stress, which further
leads to initiation of cracks or changes in mechanical properties, finally degrading the structure strength.

Keywords: extensive, quiescent, turbulency, instability, acoustic, swirl

1. Introduction
Flame dynamics is a complex phenomenon and the equation derived are based on the steady state equations
and stability basis, which does not hold true in practical application because of varies instability, primarily due to
thermoacoustic instability1. Thermoacoustics deals with the relation with the temperature, density and pressure
variations with acoustic waves. It is said that almost every combustion system suffers from this instability and its
relation with three fields namely flame dynamics, vortex dynamics or fluid mechanics and acoustics2.
Thermoacoustic instability also known as combustion instability is a consequence of the interactions between
the flame, flow and acoustic. It is caused by the positive feedback between acoustic and combustion3, 4, 7, 8. When the
heat released is added to a column of air undergoing vibration during rarefaction or the time of reduction of density,
the amplitude of pressure fluctuations rises, or in other words, the vibration is increased6, which when interacts with
the flame leads to the instability. Stabilization is the flame is of prime importance and various research works are
being persuaded to accumulate knowledge of the signatures before the instability. Swirls stabilized combustors are
used because of comparatively less emission of NOx, which result in high combustion efficiency. Gireeshkumaran
Thampi et al.1 did an analysis on the signature prior to flame blowout in a turbulent swirl-stabilized combustor. Flame
blowout is one the consequence of thermoacoustic instability in which the flame speed reaches a very high value
leading to non-stabilization of flame, which further quenches the flame and the temperature reduces so quickly that
the systems reach the stages of blowout. Suraj Nair et al.5did a study on the near blow-off dynamics of a bluff-body
stabilized flame for which their measurement showed that the transient dynamics comprises of two stages. In the
first stage localized ‘holes’ are present in the flame sheet and in the second stage showed large variation in wake
dynamics, violent flapping and larger straining of flame occurred.
All the above studies by these and various other authors are done to understand the complexities of
thermoacoustic instability. In this paper the determination of the shape of a flame would give us the variation of the
1
area, which further gives the heat signature pattern on a structure if enclosing or brought near to the flame, due to
the variation in heat transfer by the flame. These releases of heat give rise to thermal stresses which ultimately
causes failure of systems.
2. Methodology
The following steps were taken into account:
 Assuming an appropriate shape of the flame with further analysis would register if any changes should
be made to the shape (if any).
 Mathematical modeling of the flame by taking breaking up the flame into small differential elements.
 Analysis of pressure forces acting on the element.
 Choosing two appropriate elements, one at the bottom and one at the top contained inside the flame,
and comparing the corresponding areas of both the elements.
 Coming up with conclusion.

2.1. Analysis
Imagine a flame which is ignited by some external work, which get converted into heat, placed in an extensive
quiescent medium. An extensive medium is, in principle, an infinite medium. The reason for choosing a quiescent
medium is that this medium is theoretically at rest and the velocity of fluid at a finite distance from the flame is zero 9.
However, this fluid is an ideal one and does not occur practically.

Figure 1. Coordinate system and the shape of the element taken under consideration (a) Spherical coordinates system, (b) A small
differential element taken for investigating the shape of the flame, (c) A small element for pressure force analysis

For the analysis, spherical coordinate system have been chosen because a spherical coordinate system can be
converted into cylindrical and further into Cartesian coordinate system under specific considerations and even into
an arbitrary shaped coordinate system, i.e., a system with varying and independent positions of each particle.

2.1.2. Assumed Shape

The spherically symmetrical shape, shown in fig (2), is our assumption and further investigation will encounter
any change in the shape of the flame (if any).
Due to the temperature difference between the flame and the surrounding medium, there is a rise in
temperature in the surrounding medium, giving it a dynamic (moving) state and the medium at a finite distance from
the flame is stationary (as the medium chosen was quiescent one), due to which a velocity gradient is developed in
the surrounding region of the flame.
As the temperature inside the demarcated region tends to increase, the density of the medium ρ∞ goes on
decreasing due to which a buoyant force is generated and give rise to the condition of free convection, as shown in
fig. (2).
2
 Figure 2.Assumed shape of the flame for initial calculations

2.1.3. Analytical Approach

A differential control volume [dr. rsinθ. dΦ. rdθ] is taken for shape analysis in spherical coordinates (r, Φ, θ).
Under a constant temperature T (τ) =T (constant), at a particular instant, throughout the volume of the flame, be
a flame pressure pf. The reason for choosing a constant temperature is to give stability to the flame structure. If the
temperature was to increase, the flame would have gone a volumetric expansion until the flame pressure is balanced
by the external surrounding pressure, or if the temperature was to decrease, the pressure would also tend to
decrease and the flame would have gone a volumetric contraction until the surrounding pressure balances external
surrounding pressure.
Figure 3.Coordinate system along with the element (a) Spherical
coordinates system, (b) A small differential element with their respective lengths
of edges

Under a constant temperature T, at a particular instant, the pressure force exerted by the surrounding medium
is psur.
Where,
τ denotes time parameter,
Radius varies from 0 to ro
θ varies from 0 to 2π, and Φ varies from 0 to 2π.

2.1.4. Pressure force balancing

In the force balancing, first all the areas of the respective sides are evaluated and then the force analysis is
done.

2.1.4.1. Calculation of areas of the differential element

Area of face ABFE= rsinθdΦrdθ = r 2 sinθdΦdθ = A2 (say)

Area of face ACGE=Area of BDHF= rdθdr = A4
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 Area of face ABDC=Area of face EFHG= rsinθdΦdr =A1 (say)
Area of face CDHG:
In figure 3(b), θ∗ is an angle subtended from point E and is the angle between IEG. Similarly, Φ∗ is the angle
subtended from point B and is the angle between DBJ.
From figure 3(b), (for very small θ*),
IG
tanθ = EG (1)
Since the angle is very small,
tanθ∗ ≈ θ
Therefore, IG = θ∗ dr (2)
Using the same pattern,
JD
tanΦ∗ = BD (3)
Since the angle is very small,
tanΦ∗ ≈ Φ∗
Therefore, JD = Φ∗ dr (4)
Now, length of line segments,
CG = CI + IG (5)
CG= rdθ + θ∗ dr (6)
CD = CJ + JD (7)
CD = rsinθdΦ + Φ∗ dr (8)
Therefore, area of CDHG = [rsinθdΦ + Φ∗ dr][rdθ + θ∗ dr] = A3 (say)

2.1.4.2 Pressure force balance equations

The forces acting on the differential element are:
 Weight of the elementary control volume acting vertically downward.
 Pressure from the surrounding quiescent medium acting radially inward.
 Internal pressure throughout the volume of flame.
Figure 4.Surface areas of different planar regions of the element for pressure force analysis when viewed from front, (a) Left and right
planes of the element, (b) Pressure forces acting on the upper and lower surfaces of the element, (c) Front and the back planes of the
differential element.

Consider plane ACGE and BDHF (from fig. 4(a))

On both the faces ACGE and BDHF, pressure force of flame is acting with one pressure force acting in opposite
direction with respect to other.
Since the area of ACGE is same as BDHF, net pressure force acting is zero.

Consider faces EFHG and ABDC (from fig.4 (b))

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 The interest lies in finding the height from the face EFHG to face ABDC. With the assumptions taken prior, it is
fairly suitable to assume that the mean height is at the half of the distance of point G from E. To avoid any kind of
discrepancy, this distance could also be found by using the summation function over half the distance and dividing
the lumped part by the total number of elementary heights taken over this half distance.
dr
Let the mean height be present at a distance of 2
be h∗ . Let the small angle subtended from point E and B be
θ and Φ∗ .
∗
dr
Then from the figure, the mean height h∗ = rdθ + 2 θ∗
In the assigned coordinates system, flame pressure force acting on the face ABDC and the weight of the
elementary element is taken as negative because of its orientation being downward and the flame pressure force
acting on EFHG is taken positive because of its orientation pointing upward.
Originally flame pressure pf is a function of both a function of temperature T and mean height h∗ , but
according to the assumption of defining flame pressure to be independent of T(constant), this pressure is(here) only
a function of h*, i.e.,
∂pf ∂p
dpf = ∂T
dT + ∂h∗f dh∗ (9)

∂pf
=0
∂T
dp
Therefore, dpf = dh∗f dh∗ (10)

In the above expression ∂ changes to d because pressure varies with only one parameter h*(here)

1 dh∗ dh∗2 dh∗3 dh∗4

−ρf [r 2 sinθdrdθdΦ]g + pf [r sin θdrdΦ] − {pf + p′f + p′′
f + p′′′
f + p′′′′
f + ⋯ } rsinθdrdΦ = 0 (11)
0! 1! 2! 3! 4!

dp dh∗ d2 p dh∗2 d3 p dh∗3 d4 p dh∗4

−ρf [r 2 sinθdrdθdΦ]g + pf [r sin θdrdΦ] − {pf + dh∗f 1!
+ dh∗2f 2!
+ dh∗3f 3!
+ dh∗4f 4!
+ ⋯ } rsinθdrdΦ = 0 (12)
dpf
The term which represents the change in flame pressure with respect to mean height h* is a comparatively
dh∗
small term then pf and the square, cubic or quadratic power on these terms are even small. There neglecting the
d 2 pf d 3 pf d 4 pf
higher order terms , , we get,
dh∗2 dh∗3 dh∗4
dp
−ρf [r 2 sinθdrdθdΦ]g + pf [r sin θdrdΦ] − {pf + dh∗f dh∗ } rsinθdrdΦ = 0 (13)

Integrating the first term of the equation for the entire volume and integrating the second and third terms of
the equation for the entire area, we get,
dp
ρf [∭V r 2 sinθdrdθdΦ] g − pf [∬A rsinθdrdΦ] − [pf + dh∗f dh∗ ] [∬A rsinθdrdΦ] = 0 (14)
1 1

Consider faces ABFE and CDHG (from fig. 4(c))

On the face ABFE, the flame pressure force pf is acting with its orientation taken as positive and the external
surrounding pressure psur acting on face CDHG with its orientation taken as negative according to the assigned sign
convention.

pf (r 2 sinθdθdΦ) − psur (rsinθdΦ + Φdr)(rdθ + θdr) = 0 (15)

Integrating the first and second term of above equation over some finite surface region,

∬A pf (r 2 sinθdθdΦ) − ∬A psur (rsinθdΦ + Φ∗ dr)(rdθ + θ∗ dr) = 0

2 3

5
 pf ∬A (r 2 sinθdΦdθ) − psurr ∬A (rsinθdΦ + Φ∗ dr)(rdθ + θ∗ dr) = 0
2 3

−psur ∬A (rsinθdΦ + Φ∗ dr)(rdθ + θ∗ dr) = −pf ∬A (r 2 sinθdθdΦ)

3 2
pf
∬A (rsinθdΦ + Φ∗ dr)(rdθ + θ∗ dr) = (p ) ∬A (r 2 sinθdθdΦ) (16)
3 sur 2
2.1.5. Consider the case
Figure 5.Different positions along with the element number (a) two elements chosen for shape analysis. This image shows a much exaggerated
size of the differential size of the differential element compared to the overall structure of the flame, (b) Surrounding pressure considerations at
different spatial locations

Here, the interest lies in two elements namely (1) and (2) because the comparison of area A3 of both the
element will give an idea of the shape of the element at position 2. In the above diagram superscript (1) and (2)
represents the element number. A plane is placed which is going to be our reference plane.
In the figure 5(a, b),
h1 represents the distance from the reference plane to the area A3 of the differential element 1.
h2 represents the distance from the reference plane to the area A3 of the differential element 2.
ro represents the radius of the sphere, from which 2ro represents the diameter of the sphere.
Here, the pressure at a point near the datum plane is taken to be psur, where the superscript denotes the
pressure at that location.
For differential element (1): (from eq. (16))

pf pf
∬A(1) (rsinθdΦ + Φ∗ dr)(rdθ + θ∗ dr) = (p (1) ) ∬A (1) (r 2 sinθdθdΦ) = [
h1 ρ∞ g
] ∬A (r 2 sinθdθdΦ) (17)
3 sur 2 2

For differential element (2): (from eq. (16))

pf pf
∬A(2)(rsinθdΦ + Φ∗ dr)(rdθ + θ∗ dr) = (p (2) ) ∬A (2) (r 2 sinθdθdΦ) = [
h2 ρ∞ g
] ∬A (2)(r 2 sinθdθdΦ) (18)
3 sur 2 2

Dividing both the equation, we get,

∬ (2)(rsinθdΦ+Φ∗ dr)(rdθ+θ∗ dr) [
pf 2
] ∬A(2) r sinθdΦdθ
A3 h2 ρ∞ g 2
= pf (19)
∬ (1)(rsinθdΦ+Φ∗ dr)(rdθ+θ∗ dr) [ ] 2
h1 ρ∞ g ∬A(1) r sinθdΦdθ
A3 2
Considering the following part of the above equation:
pf
[ ]
h2 ρ∞ g
pf
[ ]
h1 ρ∞ g
In the above expression, h2>h1
h1
Therefore, is less than 1.
h2
Consider the following part of equation,
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 ∬ (2) (r2 sinθdθdΦ)
A 2
∬ (1) (r2 sinθdθdΦ)
A 2

For further calculation both the areas will be treated similar and to some constant value.
∬A (2) (r 2 sinθdθdΦ) ≈ ∬A (1) (r 2 sinθdθdΦ) = c(say, a constant) (20)
2 2

Therefore, the equation becomes:

∬ (2)((rsinθdΦ+Φ∗ dr)(rdθ+θ∗ dr))
A h
3
= (h1 )
∬ (1)((rsinθdΦ+Φ∗ dr)(rdθ+θ∗ dr)) 2
A3

h
∬A(2) ((rsinθdΦ + Φ∗ dr)(rdθ + θ∗ dr)) = (h1 ) ∬A(1)((rsinθdΦ + Φ∗ dr)(rdθ + θ∗ dr)) (21)
3 2 3

h
Let R be a function, defined as, R(h2 ) = ( 1 ) (22)
h2

3. Results and Discussion

The graph shown in fig (6) is plotted for the function R, by taking constant suitable value of h1 (constant).
As the graph shows that with increasing value of height h2 the function R tends to decrease, in other words, as
we go on increasing the height h2, the area of one planar region of the second element goes on decreasing and
mathematically the area converges to a point zero at infinity.
h h1
lim [h1 ] = =0
h2 →∞ 2 ∞

Figure 6.Variation of function R with increasing value of height

measured from the datum plane to the second element

4. Conclusion

Two elements were investigated for accounting the shape of the flame and after the comparison of the
corresponding planar areas, a variation was marked, which continued its effect as we the height of the planar region
of the second differential element from the reference plane is kept on increasing. From the graph, shown in fig.(6), it
is evident that as the distance of the outer surface area of the second element increases, the area goes on converging
and collapses to a point at infinity (theoretically). This trend shows that the structure of the flame is bulkier at the
bottom and as the height goes on increasing the flame gains elongation, which in-turn causes the convergence of the
flame, which is noticed in the real-life scenario.
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 This variation will cause an alternation in the rate of emission of heat, which being proportional to the surface
area, would lead to the development of instability in the system enclosing the flame. Furthermore, change in heat
transfer rate causes a variation in the thermal heat signatures on the surrounding system and this leads to generation
of stresses, finally eradicating the system.

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