서울대기초수학학습교재

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, |9|¾Ó, 5Åq§4 1px_Æ ªÉr ß¼lëß ·ú ³ð&³s 0px . ÕªQ s1lx, jËµ, 5Åq¸ 1pxÉr ß¼
÷rëß m ~½Ó¾Ó` ·ú ³ð&³s 0px . sXO> ß¼lü< ~½Ó¾Ós ÅÒ#Q ª` ú̀
l
a(ve tor) Ç. 2 "é¶, ¢̧H 3 "é¶ /BNçß\"f 7'H ªM±ÓØ̧(arrow), ¢̧H '×/×¤n>&P(dire ted
'
line segment)` s6 x # ·p. o¶ú_Æ ~½Ó¾ÓÉr 7'_Æ ~½Ó¾Ó` ?/, o¶ú_Æ U´s
H 7'_Æ ß¼l\ ·p. o¶

_Æ ¢÷h(tail)H 7'_Æ k\(initial point), o¶ú_Æ x
ú
(head)H 7'_Æ ¤4\(terminal point)s ÂÒǑÉr. ·ú¡Ü¼ 7'H a; i; v; x ü< °ú s
h
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^ ¼^_Æ èëH\ s6 x # ?/l Ç. 7'ü< ½¨ìr # z´ºH â«Q±Ó(s alar)H
ð
³ ³` 6 x a; t; x ü< °ú s sñÁo^ èëH\ 6 x # ·p. 6£§ ÕªaË>%!3 7'
&
v_Æ r&hs A, 7áx&hs B â
Äº
v = AB
!

·p.
B

ú
° r ß¼lü< ~½Ó¾Ó` 7'[þtÉr "f â (equivalent), ¢̧H G±Û(equal) Ç.
É

"f 6£§ ÕªaË>_Æ 7'[þt%!3 ß¼lü< ~½Ó¾ÓÉr °ú tëß 0Au ǑÉr 7'[þtÉr ¸¿º °ú Ér 7

' çßÅÒÇ.
3
4 ℄j 1 © 7
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1lx1pxÇ ¿º 7' v; w H

v=w
·p.
ú̀ 'a+ ¥o>ñ5Ñ
Q#" {9 A \f" B Æt ¹¡§f%i sM: 7!'H AB! èq º e. r s {9
B \f" C Æt ¹ §f%i s!M:_Æ 7'H BC
¡ ! s!. ÕªQ s {9H ²DG A \"f C
¹¡§f ¯ s )a. sM: 7' AC \ ¿º 7' AB ü< BC _Æ ½+ËÜ¼ &ñ
_ÆÇ.
AC
! = AB
! + BC
!
C
ß¼l 0 7'\

ÆZú̀ 'a(zero ve tor) ÂÒØÔ 0 ·p. e_Æ_
Æ 7' v \
/ #
v+0=0+v =v
&ñ
_ÆÇ. r&hõ 7áx&hs °ú Ér 7'H ¸¿º %ò
7' )a.
!=0
AA
¹M 1 î̈
_Æ e_Æ_Æ [j &h A; B; C \ / #
! + BC
AB
! + CA
!=0
e` #.
Solution
AB
! + BC
! + CA
! = AC
! + CA
! = AA
!=0
9{ìøÍ&hÜ¼ e_Æ_Æ ¿º 7' v; w \ / # ¿º 7'_Æ ½+Ë v + w H 6£§õ ° Ér ~½ÓZOÜ¼
ú
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℄ 1 ℄X f§ýa³ðü< 7'
j 5
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< {9u 7áx&hÉr w ü< {9u H 7'\ v + w &ñ
_ÆÇ.(¢,aAá¤ÕªaË>) ëß v ü< w _Æ
&
r s {9u > Z~H v + w H v ü< w ëß[þt#QtH î̈
'+þA_Æ /yÜ¼ &ñ
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h
a
)
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w
v+w v+w
v w v
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_Æ\ _Æ ¿º 7' v + w ü< w + v H °ú 6£§` ·ú º e.
v+w =w+v
v w
w+v
v+w
w v
ò
%7' 7' v \ / # v
H v ü< ß¼lH °ú ~½Ó¾ÓÉr ìøÍ/ 7' &ñ
_ÆÇ
. s
M:
v + ( v) = 0

s a.
)
-v
¿º 7'_Æ (dieren e) H

v w = v + ( w)
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_ÆÇ.(¢,aAá¤ ÕªaË>) ëß v ü< w _Æ r&h` °ú Ér 0Au\ Z~H v
ñ w
H w _Æ 7áx&h
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f v _Æ 7áx&hÜ¼ H 7' a.(¸ǑÉrAá¤ ÕªaË>)
)
v-w
v
w
w v
v-w
-w
6 j℄ 1 © 7
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%ò
7' 7' v _Æ (×ÊÁ¹̄(s alar multiple) kv H ß¼l 7' v _Æ jkj Cs
k>0s v ü< °ú Ér ~½Ó¾Ó, k < 0 s v ü< ìøÍ/~½Ó¾Ó 7's. :£¤y,
( 1)v = v 0v = 0
Ü¼ &ñ
_ÆÇ. w v _Æ ©ºYLs ¿º 7'H Ë^Æßj (parallel)
v == w
·p.
v -v 2v -2v
1 1
v - v
2 2
)ç (|¡è (2007 &ñ

r 5)
A
E
B
D C
0A_Æ ¸+þA\"f DA! + EB! + CE! = CA! + s.
)ç (|¡è (2005 &ñ

r 5) ÕªaË>õ °ú Ér &ñ
¹¢¤^\"f, 7'
!=
AG
!+
AB
!+
FH
!
HD
s.
ÒÏ¬¨Ø̧N+ ú̀ '
a
7'\ í<Ê H ú́§Ér ëH℄j[þtÉr f§ýa³ð>\ s6 x /º&hÜ¼ çßéß > ³ð&³½+É º
e. î̈

Ér ¿º >h_Æ ýa³ð»¡¤` °úH ýa³ðî̈
Ü¼, /BNçßÉr [j >h_Æ ýa³ð»¡¤` °ú
H ýa³ð/BNçß

Ü¼ Òqty+É½ º e. sM: ýa³ðî̈
_Æ &hÉr ¿º z´º_Æ íH"f© (a; b) , ýa³ð/BNçß_Æ &hÉr [j
j 1 ℄X f§ýa³ðü< 7'
℄ 7
´

z º_Æ íH"f© (a; b; ) ·p
. r&hs "é¶&hs 7áx&hs (a; b), ¢̧H (a; b; ) 7'\ a

½+É M:

a= a b ; ¢̧H a = a b

·p. 1
y z
c
Ha b L Ha b cL
b
a
a b
y
x a
a
x
sM: a \ &h (a; b) ¢̧H (a; b; ) _Æ Dnú̀ 'a(position ve tor) ÂÒØÔ z´º a; b, ¢̧
, a; b; \ a _Æ Å℄Æ&P( omponents)s Ç. ¸H î̈
, ¢̧H /BNçß_Æ &hÉr 0Au7'
H

< {9/{9 / 6£x` ½+É º eÜ¼Ù¼ :£¤Z>y D¥1lx_Æ 0A+«>s \OH Ç íH"f© (a; b; ) \ 7'
ü

a b / 6 x l Ç . "f íH"f© (a; b; ) H â
Äº\ "f /BNçß_Æ &h`
?
/l¸ /BNçß\"f "é¶&h` r&hÜ¼ H 0Au7'\ ?/l¸ Ç.
/BNçß_Æ ¿º &h A(a ; a ; a ) ü< B(b ; b ; b ) \ yy r&hõ 7áx&hÜ¼ H 7'H AB!
1 2 3 1 2 3

·p. s 7'\ î̈
's1lx # "é¶&h O 7'_Æ r&hs ÷&¸2¤ Õª 7áx&h_Æ ýa³ð C
H

C b1( a1 ; b2 a2 ; b3 a3 )
÷
s & ! = OC
!=
AB b1 a1 b2 a2 b3 a3
a. f" ¸H 7'H 1lxpx1Ç 0Au7'\ t9 0Au7'_Æ 7áx&hõ °ú Ér $í
ìr` °ú
)
H

.
1
Ä
â
º\

"f
H
6
§õ
£° s
ú \
7
P'\ s6 x # ?/l¸ Ç.
! 0 1
¢̧H a = B C
a
a=
a
b
; b A

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ú̀ 'a+ æ«e
7' u _Æ U´s\ 7'_Æ æ«e(norm) kuk ·p. "f 2 "é¶ /BNçßÆ_
7' v = (v ; v ) _Æ ß
¼lH
1 2 q
kvk = v12 + v22
3
"é¶ 7' v = (v1 ; v2; v3 ) _Æ ß¼lH
q
+ v22 + v32
kvk = v12
s. ß¼l 1 7'H í5Dú̀ 'a(unit ve tor) ÂÒǑÉr. %ò

7' 7 ' v \ /
# °ú Ér ~½Ó¾Ó_Æ éß0A7'H 7'_Æ ß¼l v \ ¾º#Q ÅÒ %3#Q. r ú́
K"f
u = v ; v 6= 0
kvk
H v ü< °ú Ér ~½Ó¾Ó_Æ éß0A7's.
/BNçß_Æ ¿º &h A(a ; a ; a ); B(b ; b ; b ) ` r&hõ 7áx&hÜ¼ H 7' AB! _Æ ß¼lH ¿º
1 2 3 1 2 3
&h s_Æ oü< {9u Ç.
!k = p(b
kAB ) + (b2 a2)2 + (b3 a3)2
a1 2
1
¿º 7' v = (v1 ; v2 ; v3); w = (w1 ; w2; w3 ) H y $í

ìrs °ú Ü¼ °ú Ér 7's
. r ú́K
"f
v1 = w1 ; v2 = w2 ; v3 = w3
s
v=w
s. 7'_Æ ½+Ëõ ©ºYLÉr 7'_Æ $í
ìrZ> >íßs 0px<ÊÉr 6£§ ÕªaË>\"f sK½+É º e
.
a + b = (a1 + b1 ; a2 + b2 ); ka = (ka1 ; ka2)
y
H a1 + b1 a2 + b2 L
b2
a+b b
ka k a2
b1 a
a a2
a2
a1
x a1 k a1
O
¢̧Ç 7'_Æ s

H $í
ìr_Æ s\ >íß %3#Q. r ú́K"f a = (a ; a ); b =
1 2
(b ; b ) {
1 9 M:
2
a b = a + ( b) = (a1 ; a2) + ( b1 ; b2 )
= (a1 b1; a2 b2)
℄ 1 ℄X f§ýa³ðü< 7'
j 9

s . s d` s6 x 7'_Æ r&hs "é¶&hs â
Äº¸ 0Au7'\ s6 x # !?/H
s
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0px . /BNçß_Æ ¿º &h A(a ; a ) ü< B(b ; b ) \ r&hõ 7áx&hÜ¼ H 7' AB H
1 2 1 2
! = (b
AB a1 ; b2 a2
!
) = (b1; b2) (a1 ; a2) = OB !
OA
1

a. r ú́K"f, 7áx&h_Æ 0Au7'\"f r&h_Æ 0Au7'\ É ¯ s )a.
)
y
BH b1 b2 L
AB
b2 - a2
AH a1 a2 L
b1 - a1
OB
OA
x
O
Ø̧)
í5D ú̀ 'a
K
/BNçß_Æ e_Æ_Æ 7' (a ; a ; a ) H 6£§õ °ú s èq º e.
1 2 3
(a1; a2; a3 ) = (a1 ; 0; 0) + (0; a2; 0) + (0; 0; a3)

= a1 (1; 0; 0) + a2(0; 1; 0) + a3 (0; 0; 1) (1.1)
r
ú́Kf", R3 _Æ e_Æ_Æ 7' H [j 7' (1; 0; 0); (0; 1; 0); (0; 0; 1) _Æ
Úr
TÒ¼(linear
ombination)Ü¼ ³ð&³ H ¯ s 0px . #l"f s [j 7'\ R3 _Æ Ø̧)K í5D ú̀
a(standard unit ve tor)
' yy i; j; k ·p.2
i = (1; 0; 0); j = (0; 1; 0); k = (0; 0; 1)
³
s ð&³` s6 x d (1.1) Ér 6£§õ °ú s jþt º e.
(a1 ; a2; a3) = a1i + a2j + a3k
ðï
³réß0A7' i; j; k H ¸º¿ éß0A7
's yy x-»¡¤, y-»¡¤, z-»¡¤_Æ ª_Æ ~½Ó¾Ó` o.
z
k
j
y
i
x
2
Ä
â
º\

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H e1 e2 e3
;
;?
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n- ú̀ 'a
º n \ / # íH"f©
(a1 ; a2; : : : ; an)
_Æ |9½+Ë` Rn Ü¼
?/ n xjS ¯»ë5Ñ(n-dimensional spa e)s ÂÒǑÉr. 7£¤,
Rn = f(a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an ) : ai 2 R; i = 1; 2; : : : ; ng
s. #l"f ai \ i- P: $í
ìrs Ç. (a1; a2; : : : ; an) Ér n "é¶ /BNçß\"f Ç &h`

?/l¸ "é¶&h` r &hÜ¼ H n 7'\ ?/l¸ Ç. n = 1 s R1 r f_Æ &h
É
[þtõ z´º\ {9/{9 /6£xrvH ºf`, n = 2 s R H ýa³ðî̈
`, n = 3 s R3 H
2
ýa³ð/BNçß` ·p. sM: n 4 s

(a1 ; a2; : : : ; an)
` l <Æ&hÜ¼ èq ºH \Otëß n = 2 {9 M:ü< °ú Ér ~½ÓZOÜ¼ ½+Ëõ Û¼ºúYL` &ñ
_ÆÇ
. r ú́K"f
v = (v1 ; v2 ; : : : ; vn ); w = (w1 ; w2 ; : : : ; wn )
ü< Û¼ºú k 2 R \
/ #
v+w = (v1 + w1 ; v2 + w2 ; : : : ; vn + wn)
kv = (kv1; kv2 ; : : : ; kvn)
Ü¼ &ñ
_ÆÇ. î̈
7'\"fü< °ú Ér ~½ÓZOÜ¼ ¿º 7'_Æ H
v w = v + ( w) = (v1 w1 ; v2 w2 ; : : : ; vn wn )
Ü¼ &ñ
_ÆÇ. sXO>
7'_Æ íßÉr $í
ìrZ> sÀÒ#QtÙ¼ z´º_Æ íß_Æ $í
|9s /ÒÂìr
7'_Æ íß\ / # ¸ $í
wnÇ.
ú̀a+ ¥o>ñ5Ñ
'
7' u = (u ; u ; : : : ; un); v = (v ; v ; : : : ; vn); w = (w ; w ; : : : ; wn) ü< Û¼ºú k; m 2 R
1 2 1 2 1 2
\ / # 6£§ 1pxds $í
wnÇ.
(a) u + v = v + u (e) k (u + v ) = k u + k v
(b) (u + v) + w = u + (v + w) (f) (k + m)u = ku + mu
( ) u + 0 = 0 + u = u (g) k (mu) = (km)u
(d) u + ( u) = 0 (h) 1u = u
sQÇ 7'_Æ í` s6 x Rn _Æ 7'[þt` $í

ìrÜ¼ ?/t ·ú§¸ Ò º e
ß
. \V\ [þt#Q 7'~½Ó&

d
ñ
x+u=v
℄ 1 ℄X f§ýa³ðü< 7'
j 11
ë

\ 7á¤ H 7' x H 6£§õ °ú
ß r íßõ&ñ
` :x # ½¨½+É º e.
É
(x + u) + ( u) = v + ( u)
x + (u u) = v u
x+0 = v u
x = v u
2 "é¶ 7', ¢̧H 3 "é¶ 7'%!3 l <Æ&hÜ¼ ³ð&³` ½+É º \OH â
Äº\¸ #Q â
Äº
Æ&
_
_Æ °ú Ér ~½ÓdÜ¼ ÅÒQ#. v = (v ; v ; : : : ; vn ) _Æ ß¼lH
ñ 1 2
q
kvk = + v22 + + vn2
v12
¼
Ü &ñ
_ÆÇ. Rn _Æ n >h_Æ 7' (1; 0; 0; : : : ; 0); (0; 1; 0; : : : ; 0); : : : ; (0; 0; 0; : : : ; 1) ` yy
e1 ; e2; : : : ; en Ü
¼ ?/ ³ðïré 0A7' ÂÒǑÉr.
ß
e1 = (1; 0; 0; : : : ; 0); e2 = (0; 1; 0; : : : ; 0); : : : ; en = (0; 0; 0; : : : ; 1)
ì
9
{ Í&h n 7' (a1; a2; : : : ; an) Ér 6£§õ °ú s ³ðïréß0A7'_Æ {9 ½+ËÜ¼ èq º e
ø
.

(a1; a2; : : : ; an) = a1e1 + a2e2 + + an en
12 ℄j 1 © 7
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2â
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ú̀
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\
tFKÆt ÄºoH ¿º 7'_Æ ½+Ëõ 7'_Æ ©ºYL` ¶ú(R ¤. ¿º 7'_Æ ½+Ës 7'_Æ ©
ºYLÉr $í
ìrZ> >í
½+É º e%3 "f z´º\"f_Æ íß_Æ $í
|9s /ÂÒìr $
ß
wn %i.
í
ÕªXO 7'ü< 7' _Æ YL` &ñ
_Æ H ¯ Ér 0pxÇ? Õªo Õª &ñ
_Æ #Q" _Æp\ °úH
? 7'ü< 7'_Æ YLÉr ¿º t +þAI &ñ
_Æ)a. H 6\(inner produ t)s Ôo
H ¯ s ǑÉr H gC\(outer produ t)s ÔoH ¯ s. Äº ?/&h\
/ # ·ú
l Ç.
ú̀ 'a+ 6\
¿º 7' a = (a ; a ; a ); b = (b ; b ; b ) \ / # a ü SX©
½+É º e.
(a1 ; a2; : : : ; an) (b1 ; b2; : : : ; bn) = a1b1 + a2b2 + + anbn
¹M 1 6£§ ¿º 7' a; b \ / # ?/&h a b ` ½¨ #.
(a) a = (1; 1; 1); b = (1; 1; 2)
(b) a = (1; 2; 3); b = (1; 2; 3)
( ) a = 3i 2j + 5k; b = 2i + 4j + k
Solution (a) a b = (1; 1; 1) (1; 1; 2) = 1(1) + ( 1)(1) + 1(2) = 2
(b) a b = (1; 2; 3) (1; 2; 3) = 12 + ( 2)2 + 32 = 14
( ) a b = (3i 2j + 5k) (2i + 4j + k) = 3(2) + ( 2)(4) + 5(1) = 3
"f ǑÉr ³ðïr l$
7'zo_Æ ?/&hÉr ¸¿º 0 s Hd` ·ú º e.
i j = 0; i k = 0; j k = 0
/?&hÉr z´ºzo_Æ Y L\"f $í
wn H 6£§õ °ú Ér $í
|9[þts $í
wnÇ. s õ\
sH ¯

Ér _þvëH℄j z|.
6\+ Å℄Æ
a; b; Rn _ Æ 7'
[þts H z´º . ÕªQ
1. a a = kak2 3. a (b + ) = a b + a
2. a b = b a 4. ( a) b = (a b) = a ( b)
3 ¢̧
Hl
ñ `
s
6
x
Ù¼ dot produ t ÂÒØÔl¸ Ç.
℄ 2 ℄X 7'_Æ ?/&h
j 13
¹M
2 £§6 1pxds $í
wn<Ê`
#.
ka + bk2 + ka bk2 = 2(kak2 + kbk2)
Solution ?/&h_Æ $í
|9\"f
ka + bk2 = (a + b) (a + b) = a a + b a + a b + b b
= kak2 + 2a b + kbk2
ka bk2 = (a b) (a b) = a a b a a b + b b
= kak2 2a b + kbk2
Ù
s ¼
ka + bk2 + ka bk2 = 2(kak2 + kbk2)
$í
wnÇ.
s
Note 0 A_Æ l\ î̈
'+þA`
s6 x # ?/ 6£§õ °ú . "f s 1pxd` Ë^Æßj

£
>f
o CÌ+ ßÓÏ(parallelogram law)s Ç.
a
a+b
b b
a-b
ÆÁ ú̀
'a+ = Ḉ
º¿ 7'_Æ ?/&hÉr ¿º 7' s_Æ y \ s6 x # èq º¸ e. î̈
, ¢̧H /BN
_
ß
ç Æ ¿º 7' a; b r&hs {9u ¸2¤ Z~¤ . ¿º 7'_Æ = Ḉ(angle between
two ve tors)Ér a; b sÒÀH y ×æ\"f 0 yÜ¼ &ñ
_ÆÇ. ëß ¿º 7' î̈
s

' = 0 ¢̧H = s.
b
b
Θ
Θ
a
a a
b Θ
14 ℄j 1 © 7'<ü '>=§
¿º 7' a; b sÀÒH y¸ {9 M:, ¿º 7'_Æ 6\(inner produ t) a b Ér
a b = kakkbk os (1.2)
` ëß7á¤Ç. s $í
|9\
_Æ %ò
7' ¿º 7' ºf{9 9¹̄Øæìr¸|
r
É
ab=0
s.
?/&h_Æ s $í
|9Ér ï_Æ ℄j 2 ZOgË:` s6 x # 7£x"î
½+É º e. a = 0 ¢̧
H b = 0 s

d (1.2) $í
wn H ¯ Ér {© Ù¼ a 6= 0; b 6= 0 . y+þA OAB \ / # ï

_Æ ℄j 2 ZOgË:` &h6 x
jAB j2 = jOAj2 + jOB j2 2jOAjjOB j os (1.3)
s $í
wnÇ.
B
b b-a
Θ
O a A
! = a; OB
OA
!=b
! = OB
AB
! OA
!=b a
sÙ¼ !k = kb ak
jAB j = kAB
s d (1.3) Ér
kb ak2 = kak2 + kbk2 2kakkbk os (1.4)
)a. ?/&h_Æ $í
|9\
_Æ
kb ak2 = (b a) (b a)
= bb ba ab+aa
= kbk2 2a b + kak2
sÙ¼ d (1.4) H
kbk2 2a b + kak2 = kak2 + kbk2 2kakkbk os
s )a. s\ &ñ
o

a b = kakkbk os
℄ 2 ℄X 7'_Æ ?/&h
j 15
%

` H. s d\"f a 6= 0; b 6= 0 s
3
os = kaakk bbk
`

e ·ú º e.

6\ø = Ḉ
º 7' a ü< b _Æ e± y`
¿
a b = kakkbk os

s . s dÉr 6£§õ °ú s 5g jþt º e.
os = kaakk bbk
¹M
3 ¿º 7' a = (2; 1; 1) õ b = (1; 1; 2) _Æ e± y` ½¨ #.
p p p p
Solution kak = 2 + 1 + 1 = 6, kbk = 1 + 1 + 2 = 6 s
2 2 2 2 2 2Ù¼
os = 2 p61p+6 2 = 12

s . "f = 3 = 60Æ s.
)

ç (|¡!è!(2006 ºr 1) A
!ÕªaË>!õ °ú s y _Æ U´s 1 &ñ
¹¢¤^\f", 7'_Æ
/&
? CA CF =
h s F D F H = s.

ç
) (|¡è (2007 ºr 5)
16 ℄j 1 © 7
'<ü '>=§
6
4
3
2
3 2
A0_Æ ÕªaË>õ °ú s ß ¼l 4 3 2ü< ß¼l 6 2 3_Æ f¹¢¤^ Ç Aá¤ ¸"fo\ 1lx{9Ç
f 0A\ Z~ {9ñ
& o\ s\ ¿º Z~# e. ÕªaË>\ ³ðr)a ¿º>h_Æ 7'\ î̈
's1lx
# r&h` {9ur(Ǒ` M: ¿º 7' sÀÒH y` os = .
s
ÊÁÒÏê> ú̀ 'a
ò
%7' ¿º 7' a; b _Æ e± ys 2 s ¿º 7'H ÊÁÒÏ(perpendi ular)s

a?b
·p. "f 0 A_Æ õH %ò
7' ¿º 7' ºf ¯ õ ?/&hs 0 ¯ s 1lx
ue` [O"î
K ïr. 0 < < s os > 0 sÙ¼ a b > 0 s. ìøÍ < < s
os < 0 s ¼Ù a b < 0 s.
2 2
ÁÊÒÏê> ú̀ 'a
%ò
7' ¿º 7' a; b \ / #
ab=0 s
¿º 7'H ºfs.

ab>0 s ¿º 7'_Æ e± yÉr \Vys.
ab<0 s ¿º 7'_Æ e± yÉr éHys.
Note a ü
< b °ú
r ~½Ó¾Ó{9 M:, = 0 sÙ¼
É
a b = kak kbk
s. a ü< b ìøÍ/ ~
Ó¾Ó{9 M:, = sÙ¼
½
a b = kakkbk os = kak kbk
s.
Note ¿º n - 7' a; b \ / # a b = 0 s ºfs &ñ
_ÆÇ.
¹M 4 &ñ
¹¢¤^\"
f ¸"foü< /y s_Æ y` ½¨ #.
j 2 ℄X 7'_Æ ?/&h
℄ 17
H0 0 cL
v3
Hc c cL
d y
v2
H0 c 0 L
v1
Hc 0 0 L
x
Solution ñ
&¹¢¤^_Æ Ç _Æ U´s\ . &ñ
¹¢¤^_Æ Ç =Gt&h` "é¶&hÜ¼ ú̧

¶&
é
" \ sÖ©Ç [j =Gt&h` yy v = ( ; 0; 0); v = (0; ; 0); v = (0; 0; ) . ÕªQ
h 1 2 3
/y
d H

d = ( ; ; ) = v1 + v2 + v3

a.
) p
kv1 k = ; kdk = 3
Ù
s ¼ x »¡¤õ /y s_Æ y`

p
os = kvv11kk ddk = (p 3 ) = 33
2

s . "f ½¨ H yÉr p
ar os 33 0:96 54:7Æ

s . /ys y »¡¤, z »¡¤õ sÀÒ
H y¸ ðøÍt 54:7Æ s.

)

ç (|¡è (2008Æ̧ &ñ
r ëH℄j 1)
!y
!_Æ U´s 1 &ñ
^ ABCD \"f, N s ìr AD_Æ ×æ&h{9 M:, 7'_Æ ?/&h

CN CB H s.
¹M
5 ýa³ðî̈

\"f %ò
7' 7' n = (a; b) H f
ax + by + = 0
ºfe` #.
õ
Solution A = (x1 ; y1); B = (x2 ; y2) \
f 0A_Æ "f ǑÉr ¿º &hs . ÕªQ
ax1 + by1 + = 0; ax2 + by2 + = 0
18 ℄j 1 © 7
'<ü '>=§
s. ¿ºP: d\"f '
P: d` NS
Í
(
a x2 x1 ) + b(y2 y1 )=0
s AB! = (x 2 x1 ; y2 y1 )s
Ù¼
!
n AB = 0
s )a. r ú́Kf" 7' n õ AB! H ºfs. 7' AB! H f ax + by + = 0 õ î̈
'
Ù¼ "é¶ H õ\ %3H.

Note f , ¢̧H î̈
\ ºf 7'\ ß¤n>ú̀ 'a(normal ve tor) ÂÒǑÉr
.
ók ÊÂßî« ÉÙ
{ Ï
R3 _Æ ¿º 7' a ü
< b s_Æ y` ½+É M: j os j 1 sÙ¼
ja bj = kakkbkj os j kakkbk
s $í
wnÇ. 1pxdÉr ¿º 7' î̈
'{9 M:, r ú́K"f = 0 ¢̧H = {9 M: $í
wnÇ.
s ÂÒ1pxd` ók{ÊÂßî« ÉÙÏ(Cau hy{S hwarz inequality)s Ç. s ÂÒ1pxd
Ér {9ìøÍ&hÜ¼ n 7'\ / #¸ $í
wnÇ. n 7'\ /Ç ïr{»ØÔç¼ &ñ
o\ $í
ìr`
4
s6 x # ?/ 6£§õ °ú .

(a1 b1 + a2b2 + + anbn)2 (a21 + a22 + + a2n)(b21 + b22 + + b2n)
s.
ók{ÊÂßî« ÉÙÏ
Rn _Æ ¿º 7' a ü< b\ / # 6£§ ÂÒ1pxds $í
wnÇ.
ja bj kakkbk
#lf" 1pxdÉr ¿º 7' î̈
'{9 M: $í
wnÇ.
¹M 6 n >h_Æ º a ; a ; : : : ; an \ / # î̈

çH_Æ ℄jYLÉr ℄jYL_Æ î̈
çH °ú 6£§`
1 2
#. r ú́K"f
6£§ ÂÒ1pxds $í
wn<Ê` #.
a
1 + a2 + + an 2 a21 + a22 + + a2n
n n
Solution 0A_Æ ÂÒ1
xd_Æ ª\ ` YL 6£§ ÂÒ1pxd` %3H.
p n2
(a1 + a2 + + an)2 n(a21 + a22 + + a2n)

4n '
7\
/Ç
»ØÔç
¼_Æ ÂÒ1pxd_Æ 7£x"î
Ér _þvHë℄j z| .
℄ 2 ℄X 7'_Æ ?/&h
j 19

"f s ÂÒ1pxds $í
wn<Ê` s )a. a = (a ; a ; : : : ; an); b = (1; 1; : : : ; 1) s
1 2
(a b)2 = (a1 + a2 + + an)2

kak2 = a21 + a22 + + a2n
kbk2 = 12 + 12 + + 12 = n

s. f" ïr{»ØÔ¼ç ÂÒ1pxd
\ _Æ

(a1 + a2 + + an)2 = (a b)2
kak2 kbk2 = (a21 + a22 + + a2n )n
Ù
s¼ "é¶ H õ\ %3H.
ºÇÔḈ
ÉÙÏ
ïr{»ØÔ¼ç_Æ ÂÒ1pxd\ _Æ

ka + bk2 = (a + b) (a + b)
= a a + 2a b + b b
kak2 + 2kakkbk + kbk2
= (kak + kbk)2
$
s
wnÇ. sM: 1pxdÉr
í
a b = kakkbk
{M

9 :, 7£¤, ¿º 7' °ú Ér ~½Ó¾Ó{9 M
: $í
wnÇ. s õ\ ºÇÔḈÉÙÏ(triangle inequality)s

Ç.
a+b
b
ÇÔºḈÉÙÏ
º 7' a; b \ / # 6£§ ÂÒ1pxds $í
wnÇ.
¿
ka + bk kak + kbk
xd
p
1 Ér a ü=§
ÇaÆÆZ
7'\ ÒÀH ú́§Ér ëH℄j\"f 7' b \ ¿º >h_Æ 7'_Æ ½+ËÜ¼ ·p : Ç 7'H :£¤

&ñ
Ç Ç 7' a ü< î̈
'
ǑÉr Ç 7'H a ü< ºf 7'_Æ ½+ËÜ¼ ·p. ¿º 7' a

ü< b r&hs {9u ¸2¤ Z~%i(r&h` P ) b _Æ 7áx&h\"f 7' a \ ©Ç
f 0A ?/Ǒ2; º_ Æ µ1Ï` 7áx&hÜ¼ H 7'\ v s .
1
b b b
a
a
v1 v1
v1 a
sM: a ü< î̈
'Ç 7'
v ` a \ /Ç b _Æ ÇaÆÆZ (orthogonal proje tion)s
1
projab
·p. v = b v Ü¼ Z~Ü¼ &ñ
_ÆÂÒ' v H a ü< ºfe` ·ú º e
2 1 2 . "f

bH a ü< î̈
' 7'
projab ü< a ü< ºf 7' b projab _Æ ½+ËÜ¼ è
q º e.

b = proja b + (b projab)
s℄j projab H a ü
< î̈
' Ù¼ ©º k \ / #
projab = ka
jþt º e. "
f a ü< ºf 7' v \ / #
2
b = ka + v2
Ü¼ ìrK )a. ª

` a ü< ?/&h` 2[K ÅÒ a ü< v H ºfsÙ¼
2
a b = ka a + a v2 = kkak2
s )a. "f
k = kaakb2
s
projab = kaakb2 a
s.
j 2 ℄X 7'_Æ ?/&h
℄ 21
aÆÇÆZ

7
ò
% ' 7' a ü< b \
/ # a \ /Ç b _Æ &ñ
%ò
projab Ér
projab = kaakb2 a

s .
Note 0A dÜ¼ÒÂ' &ñ

%ò
_Æ ß
¼lH

kproja bk = kaakb2 a = jkaakb2j kak = jaka kbj
`

e ·ú º e. :£¤y, ¿º 7' s_Æ ys s

kproja bk = kbkj os j
.
s
b b
ÈÈbÈÈ
ÈÈbÈÈ
Θ
a
Θ v1 ÈÈbÈÈcos Θ
ÈÈbÈÈcos Θ v1
¹M
7 7' a = (2; 2; 1) \ /Ç b = (1; 1; 3) _Æ &ñ
%ò
` ½¨ #.
Solution kak = 3; a b = 3 s
Ù¼
projab = kaakb2 a = 13 a = 32 ; 23 ; 13

.
s
℄j Ç &h\"f î̈
_Æ fÆt_Æ o\ ½¨ H /BNd` ½¨K s ℄X` ul Ç
s
.

¹M
8 Ç &h P (x ; y ) \f" f
0 0 0 ax + by + = 0 Æt_Æ o D \ ½¨ #.

Solution f ax+by + = 0 0AÆ_ Ç &h` P (x ; y ) . f_Æ ZO7' n = (a; b)
1 1 1
r

\ &hs P !\ ¸¸2¤ Z~. ÕªQ Ç &h P!(x ; y ) \"f f ax + by + = 0 Æt_Æ
1 0 0 0

o H 7' P P _Æ n \ /Ç &ñ
%ò
projnP P _Æ ß¼l )a.
1 0 1 0
! j !
P1 P0 nj
D = kprojn P1 P0 k =
knk
22 ℄j 1 © 7
'<ü '>=§
y
n
a x + b y+ c 0
P0
P1
D
x
! = (x
P1 P0 0 ) n = (a; b); knk = pa2 + b2 s
x1 ; y0 y1 ; Ù¼
D=
ja(x0 px1 ) + b(y0 y1 )j = jax0 + byp0 (ax1 + by1 )j
a2 + b2 a2 + b2
s. P1(x1 ; y1) Ér f

ax + by + = 0 0A_Æ &hsÙ¼

(ax1 + by1) =
s
D = jaxp0 +a2 by+0b+2 j
s.
\ø ÒÏ¤n>+ h
Ç &h P (x ; y ) \"f f ax + by + = 0 Æt_Æ o D H
0 0 0
D = jaxp0 +a2 by+0b+2 j

s.
j 3 ℄X fõ î̈

℄ _Æ ~½Ó&ñ
d 23
V 3 â

Ò
¤n
Ï >ø
ËÆ¢
^ >+ '
×Ç
Æ
a
Ï

î̈\"f Ç &h P (x ; y ) ` t f_Æ lÖl m f_Æ ~½Ó&ñ
dÉr
0 0 0
y
x
y0
x0
=m ) y = m(x x0 ) + y0
¼
Ü ½¨½+É º e.
ÒÏ¤n>+ '×ÇaÆÏ
BN/çß\"f_Æ f_Æ ~½Ó&ñ
d¸ f
0A_Æ Ç &hõ f_Æ ~½Ó¾Ó` ·ú ½¨½+É º e. 3 "é¶

Nç
B
/ \"f_Æ ~½Ó¾ÓÉr 7' ³ð&³½+É º eÜ¼Ù¼ fõ î̈
'Ç 7'\ v = (a; b; ) .
ß

f 0A_Æ Ç &h P (x ; y ; z ) ` t
7' v ü< î̈
'Ç f 0A_Æ e_Æ_Æ &h` P (x; y; z)
7' P !P H v ü< î̈
'
0 0 0 0

0 Ù¼
P0 P
! = tv (1.5)
z

´º t >rFÇ.

z
PH x y z L
PH0x0 y0 z0 L
tv
v
y
! = r;
OP OP0
!=r
0

s d (1.5) H 6£§õ °
s jþt º e.
ú
r r0 = tv ) r = r0 + tv
sd
` f_Æ ú̀ 'a'×ÇaÆÏ(ve tor equation)s Ç. ¢̧Ç d (1.5) \ $í
ìrZ>

/
?

(x x0 ; y y0 ; z z0 ) = (ta; tb; t )
Ù
s ¼ f_Æ ~½Ó&ñ
dÉr 6£§õ °ú s jþt º e.
x = x0 + at; y = y0 + bt;
= z0 + t ( 1 < t < 1)
z (1.6)
d` f_Æ 95£o>ÊÁ'×ÇaÆÏ(parametri equation)s Ç. ¢̧Ç, B>hº~½Ó&ñ
d
s
"
\ f B>hº t \ è #
x
a
x0
=y b
y0
=z
z0
; (ab 6= 0)
24 ℄j 1 © 7'<ü '>=§
èq º¸ e. s ~½Ó&ñ
dÉr f_Æ 7bÆ'×ÇaÆÏ(symmetri equation)s Ç.
ëß a; b; ×æ\"f 0 s
e#Q¸ B>h~½Ó&ñ
d (1.8) \"f B>hº\ è H ¯ s 0px .
\V\ [þt#Q, a = 0 s
x = x0 ; y
b
y0
=z
z0
Ü¼ èq º e. sM: fÉr x »¡¤õ ºf î̈

x = x \ í<Ê)a. 0
¹M 1
(a) / BNçß_Æ ¿º &h A(2; 4; 1) õ B(3; 1; 2) \ tH f_Æ Bh>º~½Ó&ñ
dõ /gA~½Ó&ñ
d
` ½¨ #.
(b) s fõ xy-î̈
s ëßH &h` ½¨ #.
Solution (a) f Ér 7'
! = OB
AB
! ! = (3 2; 1 4; 2 ( 1)) = (1; 3; 3)
OA
ü< î̈
' . "f B>hº~½Ó&ñ
dÉr
x = 2 + t; y = 4 3t; z = 1 + 3t
)a. /gA~½Ó&ñ
d
r
É
x 2 = y 34 = z +3 1
s )a.
(b) xy - î̈

Ér z = 0 sÙ¼ /gA~½Ó&ñ
d\"f
x 2 = y 34 = 13
s $í
wnÇ. "f
x = 37 ; y =3
s. 7£¤ fõ xy - î̈

Ér ( ; 3; 0) \"f ëßèß.
7
3
Note 0A_Æ l\"
f%!3 /BNçß_Æ ¿º &h P (x ; y ; z ) õ P (x ; y ; z ) ` tH fÉr 7
1 1 1 2 2 2 2
'
P1 P2
! = (x x1 ; y2 y1 ; z2 z1 )
2
õ î̈
's. "f ¿
º &h P (x ; y ; z ) õ P (x ; y ; z ) ` tH f_Æ ~½Ó&ñ
d
1 1 1 2 2 2 Ér 6£§ d
2
Ü¼ ÅÒ#Q.
x x1
x2 x1
= yy2 y1
y1
= zz2 z1
z1
j 3 ℄X fõ î̈

℄ _Æ ~½Ó&ñ
d 25
ÏÒ¤n>+ '×ÇaÆÏ
Ç &h P (x ; y ; z ) ` t 7

' v ü< î̈
'Ç f_Æ ~½Ó&ñ
d
0A_Æ e_Æ_Æ &h` P (x; y; z); OP! = r; OP! = r .
0 0 0 0

f 0 0
1. 7'~½Ó&ñ
d : r r = tv ) r = r + tv
0 0
2. B>hº~½Ó&ñ
d : x = x + at; y = y + bt; z = z + t (
0 0 0 1 < t < 1)
3. /gA~½Ó&ñ
d : x a x = y b y = z z ; (ab 6= 0)
0 0 0
)

ç (|¡è (2007Æ̧ &ñ
r 8) /BG x + y 2 2 z2 =10
A_Æ &h (1, 0, 0)` t9 s /BG\
a
-
¢ y
í<Ê÷&H f 2>h\ ¹1Ô.
¢÷ê> ÒÏ¤n>
î̈\"f ¿º fÉr î̈
' t ·ú§Ér fÉr Ç &h\"f ëßèß. ÕªQ /BNçß\"f_Æ ¿º f

r î̈
' t ·ú§¸ ëßt ·ú§
É H â
Äº Òqt|. s â
Äº ¿º fÉr ¡ó 0Au\ e

Ç

.
¹M
2 6£§ ¿º fÉr ¡ó 0Au
\ e6£§` #.
L1 : x 2 2 = y 3 3 = z 4 4; L2 : x +1 1 = y +2 2 = z 3 3
Solution º¿ f_Æ ~½Ó¾Ó7' (2; 3; 4) ü< (1; 2; 3) Ér î̈
' t ·ú§Ü¼Ù¼ ¿º fÉr î̈
'
·
t §. ¿º f` B>hº~½Ó&ñ
d
ú Ü¼ ?/ 6£§õ °ú .

L1 : x = 2 + 2t; y = 3 + 3t; z = 4 + 4t
L2 : x = 1 + s; y = 2 + 2s; z = 3 + 3s
ºf
¿ s ëßßè

2 + 2t = 1 + s; 3 + 3t = 2 + 2s; 4 + 4t = 3 + 3s
ë

` 7á¤ H °ú̄ t; s >rFÇ. %
ß 6£§ ¿º d` wn # Û
t = 1; s = 1
%3H. ÕªQ s °ú̄[þtÉr t} d` ëß7á¤ t ·ú§H. "f ¿º fÉr ëßt ·ú§H

`
. 7
¤, ¿º fÉr ¡ó 0Au\ e
£ .
Ë^Æ¢>+ ú̀ 'a'×ÇaÆÏ
26 j℄ 1 © 7
'<ü '>=§
î̈
\f" f_Æ ~½Ó&ñ
dÉr lÖlü< Ç &h` ·ú ½¨½+É º e%3. ðøÍt /BNçß\
"f î̈
_Æ ~½Ó&ñ
dÉr î̈

_Æ ~½Ó¾Óõ Ç &h` ·ú ½¨½+É º e. ÕªQ î̈
_Æ ~Ó¾ÓÉr f
½
õH ²úo î̈
õ î̈
'
Ç _Æ 7'H ½¨½+É º \OÜ¼9 ¿º >h_Æ 7'("f î̈

' t ·ú§
Ér), ¢̧H {9f ©\ et ·ú§Ér [j>h_Æ &hs 9¹̄ .
î̈ t ·ú§Ér ¿º 7' v õ v ü< î̈
's &h P ` tH î̈
` W

' 1 2 0 . W
_Æ e_Æ_Æ &h` P v õ v _Æ r&hs P s ÷&¸2¤ Z~Ü¼ &h{©Ç z´
º t; s \ /
# P P! s tv õ sv \ sÖ© H ¿º Ü¼ H î̈
'+þA_Æ /ys ÷&¸2¤ ½+É º
1 2 0
0 1 2
e.
W
P
t v1
P0 s v2
"f
P0 P
! = tv + sv (1.7)
1 2
Ü¼ èq º e. #l"f

OP
! = r; OP0
!=r
0
s d (1.7) Ér 6£§õ °ú s jþt º e.

r r0 = tv1 + sv2 ) r = r0 + tv1 + sv2
s d` î̈
_Æ ú̀ 'a'×ÇaÆÏ(ve tor equation)s Ç. ¢̧Ç, v = (a ; b ; ); v =
1 1 1 1 2
(a ; b ; ) {
2 2 9 M:, d (1.7) ` $í
ìrZ> ?/
2
(x x0 ; y y0 ; z z0 ) = (ta1 + sa2; tb1 + sb2; t 1 + s 2)

sÙ¼ î̈

_Æ ~½Ó&ñ
d
Ér 6£§õ °ú s jþt º e.

x = x0 + ta1 + sa2; y = y0 + tb1 + sb2; z = z0 + t 1 + s 2 ( 1 < t; s < 1) (1.8)
s d` î̈

_Æ 95£
>ÊÁ'×ÇaÆÏ(parametri equation)s Ç.
o
j 3 ℄X fõ î̈

℄ _Æ ~½Ó&ñ
d 27
^ÆË¢>+ ú̀ 'a'×ÇaÆÏø 95£o>ÊÁ'×ÇaÆÏ

'
î̈ t ·ú§Ér ¿º 7' v = (a ; b ; ) õ v = (a ; b ; ) ü< î̈
's &h P (x ; y ; z )
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 0 0 0 0
tH î̈
_Æ ~½Ó&ñ
dÉr 6£§õ °ú .

`
7'~½Ó&ñ
d : r8= r + tv + sv 0 1 2
< x = x + ta + sa
> 0 1 2
B>hº~½Ó&
d : >: y = y + tb + sb
ñ 0 1 2
z = z0 + t 1 + s 2
l
# f" P = (x; y; z) H î̈
0A_Æ &hs r = OP!; r = OP! \ ·p.
0 0
M
¹ 3 [j &h A(1; 1; 1); B(1; 2; 4); C (2; 3; 5) ` tH î̈
_Æ 7'~½Ó&ñ
dõ B>hº~½Ó&ñ
`

d ½¨ #.

Solution Çh& A(1; 1; 1) ` t ¿º 7'
!
v1 = AB = (0; 1; 3); v2 = AC = (1; 2; 4)
!
<
' î̈
_Æ ~½Ó&ñ
d` ½¨ )a. r = OA! = (1; 1; 1) s ÅÒ#Q î̈
_Æ 7
ü î̈ 0
~
' Ó&
½
dÉr
ñ
r = (1; 1; 1) + t(0; 1; 3) + s(1; 2; 4)

s . r = (x; y; z) B>hº~½Ó&ñ
dÉr
x = 1+s
y = 1 + t + 2s
z = 1 + 3t + 4s

s .
ß¤n>ú̀ 'a· l£ø5 Ë^Æ¢>+ '
×ÇaÆÏ

î̈õ î̈
' ¿º 7' / î̈
õ ºf 7'\ îß %ir î̈
_Æ ~½Ó&ñ
d` ½¨½+É

5
ºe
. sM:, î̈
õ ºf 7'\ î̈
_Æ ß¤n>ú̀ 'a(normal ve tor) Ç.

s℄j /BNçß_Æ Ç &h P (x ; y ; z ) ` t ZO7' n = (a; b; ) î̈
_Æ ~½Ó&ñ
d`
0 0 0 0
¨K
½ . î̈
_Æ e_Æ_Æ &h` P (x; y; z)
! = (x
P0 P x0 ; y y0 ; z z0 )
r î̈
É

\ í<Ê÷&H 7's "f n õ ºfs.
5 Q
# 7
" '
î̈

õ

ºf
s

H

¯r î̈
É
\ í<Ê÷&H ¸H 7'ü< ºfsH ¯ ` _ÆpÇ.
28 ℄j 1 © 7
'<ü '>=§
z
n
P0
P
y
ÕªQÙ¼ î̈
0AÆ_ e_Æ_Æ &h P (x; y; z) \ / #
n P0!
P = a(x x0 ) + b(y y0 ) + (z z0 )=0
s $í
wnÇ. s d` î̈
_Æ
ð5'×ÇaÆÏ(general equation)s Ç.
^ÆË¢>+
ð5×'ÇaÆ

Ï
Ç &h P (x ; y ; z ) ` t ZO7' n = (a; b; ) î̈
_Æ ~½Ó&ñ
dÉr 6£§õ °ú .
0 0 0 0
a x ( x0 ) + b(y y0 ) + (z z0 )=0
Note ¢̧Ç (a; b; ) 6= 0 s ~½Ó&ñ

d
ax + by + z + d = 0
Ér ZO7' n = (a; b; ) î̈
` ·p.
¹M 4 &h P (2; 3; 1) ` t 7' n = (3; 5; 7) õ ºf î̈
_Æ ~½Ó&ñ
d`
0 ½¨ #.

Solution î̈
0AÆ_ &h` P (x; y; z)
! = 0 ) 3(x 2) 5(y + 3) + 7(z 1) = 0
n P0 P
s $í
wnÇ. s\ &ñ
o ÅÒ#Q î̈
_Æ ~½Ó&ñ
dÉr
3x 5y + 7z = 28
s.
)ç (|¡è (2007Æ̧ &ñ

r 6) ýa³ð/BNçß_Æ Ç &h (4; 1; 6)\"f î̈
2x + 2y z =0\
?/
2;Ǒ º_Æ µ1Ï_Æ ýa³ðH s.
℄ 3 ℄X fõ î̈

j _Æ ~½Ó&ñ
d 29

ç
) (|¡è (2006Æ̧ &ñ
r 1) 3 "é¶ /BNçß\"f Fg"é¶s "é¶&h\ 0Au Û¼ß¼Ǒ2;s î̈

3x + 2y + z = 12 Ü ¼ ÅÒQ#&` M:, &h P (1; 2; 3) s Û¼ß¼Ǒ2; 0A\ H ©_Æ 0AuH
( ; ; ) s.
h
&

ç
) (|¡è (2006Æ̧ ºr 11) ýa³ð/BNçß_Æ [j &h A(2; 0; 0); B(1; 1; 0); C (0; 0; 1) ` =Gt
&Ü

h ¼ H ABC \ î̈

2x y + z = 6 0A &ñ
%ò
r A0 B0C 0 _Æ V,s\ ½¨ .
ÆÁ Ë^Æ¢>+ Dn
yy_Æ ZO7' î̈
'Ç ¿º î̈
Ér Ë^Æßj (parallel) Ç. î̈
'Ç ¿º î̈
Ér {9u

ëßt ·ú§H. î̈
' t ·ú§Ér ¿º î̈
Ér f\"f ëßèß. î̈
' t ·ú§Ér ¿º î̈
_Æ

yr y î̈
_Æ ZO7'[þt_Æ e± yÜ¼ &ñ
_ÆÇ.
É
n1
n2
¹M
5 6£§ ¿º î̈
\ / #
2x y + z = 2; x 2y z = 10
(a) ¿
º î̈

_Æ e± y` ½¨ #.
(b) ¿
º î̈
_Æ §` ½¨ #.
Solution (a) y î̈
_Æ ZO7'\ n1 ; n2
n1 = (2; 1; 1); n2 = (1; 2; 1)

s p p p p
kn1 k = 22 + ( 1)2 + 12 = 6; kn2 k = 12 + ( 2)2 + ( 1)2 = 6
. ¿º 7'_Æ e± y`
s
os = knn11kk nn22k = 2(1) + ( p1)(6p2)
6
+ 1( 1) = 1
2
. f" ¿º î̈
s_Æ yÉr 3 s.
s
30 ℄j 1 © 7
'<ü '>=§
(b) y; z \
x \ s6 x
# ?/. ÕªQ
y = x 4; z = x 2
)a. x = t 6£§õ °ú Ér B>hº~½Ó&ñ

d` %3H.
x = t
y = t 4
z = t 2
s d` /gA~½Ó&ñ
dÜ¼ Ë̈#Q æ¼
y+4 z+2
x
=
1 1 = 1
s.
ç) (|¡è (2009Æ̧ ºr 1) ýa³ð/BNçß\"f [j &h A(1; 1; 1), B(0; 2; 3), C (1; 3; 4) ` t
H î̈
õ ~½Ó&ñ
d x + y 2z = 1 ÅÒ#Q î̈
s sÀÒH y îrX< \Vy_Æ ï °ú̄Ér
s.
\ø Ë^Æ¢> l+ h
s℄j î̈
\"f Ç &hõ f s_Æ o\ ½¨Ç ¯ õ °ú Ér ~½ÓZOÜ¼ î̈
õ
Ç &h s
_Æ o\ ½¨½+É º e. /BNçß_Æ Ç &h P (x ; y ; z ) ü< î̈

0 0 0 0
ax + by + z + d = 0
s_Æ o D \ ½¨K l .
î̈
_Æ e_ÆÆ_ &h P (x ; y ; z ) \ / #
1 1 1 1
!
b = P1 P0 = (x0 x1 ; y0 y1 ; z0 z1 )
D = kbk os j )a. "f
D = kbkj os j = kbk kjnnkk bbjk = jnkn kbj
s.
n
P0
P1
j 3 ℄X fõ î̈

℄ _Æ ~½Ó&ñ
d 31
! = a(x
n P1 P0 ) + b(y0 y1) + (z0 z1)
x1
0
= ax0 + by0 + z0 (ax1 + by1 + z1)

"
\f P (x ; y ; z ) Ér î̈

1 1 1 1 _Æ &hsÙ¼
+ by1 + z1 + d = 0 ) (ax0 + by0 + z0) = d
ax1
p

s knk = a2 + b2 + 2 sÙ¼
D=
jn bj = jax0p+ by0 + z0 + dj
knk a2 + b2 + 2

s .
ø5 \ø Ë^Æ¢> l+ h
P (x ; y ; z ) ü
0 0 0 0 < î̈
ax + by + z + d = 0 s_Æ o D H 6£§õ °ú .
D = jax0p+a2by+0 b+2 z 0 + dj
+ 2
¹M
6 6£§ ¿º î̈
s î̈
'<Ê` [O"î

5x 3y z = 10; 10x + 6y + 2z = 1
º î̈
s_Æ o\ ½¨ #.
¿
Solution ¿º î̈
_Æ ZO7'\ yy n ; n
1 2
n1 = (5; 3; 1); n2 = ( 10; 6; 2) = 2n1

Ù
s ¼ ¿º î̈
Ér î̈
's.
P0

"f 'Í î̈
_Æ e_ÆÆ_ Ç &h\f" ¿º P: î̈
Æt_Æ o\ ½¨ )a. s℄j 'Í î̈

Æ
_ Ç &h (2; 0; 0) \f" î̈
10x + 6y + 2z = 1 Æt_Æ o\ ½¨K l . 0A\"f ½¨

Ç/

Nd` &h6 x
B p
D = j 10(2)
p
+ 6(0) + 2(0) 1j p21 3 35
( 10)2 + 62 + 22 = 140 = 10
32 ℄j 1 © 7
'<ü '>=§
` %3H.
ç) (|¡è (2007Æ̧ ºr 6)

ýa³ð/BNçß_Æ W1 &h O(0; 0; 0); A(1; 2; 1); B( 1; 2; 1); C ( 1; 1; 3)s ÅÒ#QR4 e. s W1&h
` =Gt&hÜ¼ H ^_Æ ÂÒxH s.
ç) (|¡è (2008Æ̧ ºr 2)

ýa³ð/BNçß\"f ¿º d x + z = 0, x + y + z = 2 _Æ /BN:xÂÒìrÜ¼ ÅÒ#Q "é¶õ d
2 2 2
x + 2y z = 6 Ü ¼ ÅÒ#Q î̈
s_Æ þjéß oH s.
ç) (|¡è (2008Æ̧ ºr 8)

ýa³ð/BNçß\"f ¿º &
P (3; 1; 2); Q( 3; 4; 3) õ î̈
x + 2y + z = 1 0A_Æ &h R\ / #,
h
P R + QR_ Æ þjè°ú̄` ½¨ .

ç) (|¡è (2008Æ̧ &ñ

r 2)
ýa³ð/BNçß\"f &h (1,1,1)s ×æds ìøÍt2£§_Æ U´s 1 ½¨ü< î̈
2x + y + 2z = 14 _Æ
þjéßoH s.
j 4 ℄X '§>=
℄ 33
V 4 â

jÝ~
ß
º\
fy+þA¸ªÜ¼ C\P # F ñ ÓüÉr ¯ ` ßjÝ~
(matrix)s Ç. 6£§Ér '§>=

_
Æ ls.
0 1
! 1 p p !
1 1 ;

1 2 0 1

;
B
2CA;
2 0 2
2 3 1 1 0 2
'>

=§_Æ æ«e(size)H ßj(row)_Æ ºü< á~
( olumn)_Æ º\ YL!lrl ñ\ s6 x # ·p. \V
[

\ t#Q 0AÆ_ '>=§[þt_Æ ß¼lH yy
þ
2 2; 1 4; 3 1; 2 3
. ¿º P: '>=§%!3 1 m '§
s =` ßjú̀ 'a(row ve tor), [j P: '§>=%!3 n 1 '§>=`
>
'
~
á ú̀a( olumn ve tor) Ç . _Æp "î
SXÇ â
Äº\H '7', \P7' / éßíHy 7
ÂÒÔØl¸ Ç. '§>= A _Æ i P: ', j P: \P\ eH "é¶è\ aij ?/ '§>=
'
A_Æ (i; j ) ½Ós Ç. m n '§>=` çßéßy (aij ), ß¼l\ y©¸ z·` M:H (aij )mn

/?l¸ Ç. {9ìøÍ&h m n '§>=Ér 6£§õ °ú s jþt º e.
0 1
a11 a12 a1n
B a C
B 21 a22 a2n C
A=B
B .. ... ... ... C
C
. A
am1 am2 amn
A Æ i P: 'Ér ri (A) ?/

_ A _Æ j P: \PÉr j (A) ?/l Ç.
0 1
a1j

ri (A) = ai1 ai2 ain ; j (A) = B
B ... C
C
A
amj
f" '>=§ A H 6£§õ °ú s èq º¸ e.

0 1
r1 (A)
B r (A ) C
B 2 C
A =B
B ... C=
C 1 (A); 2 (A); : : : ; n (A)
A
rm (A)
¥l
D
x1_Æ Äº9 \OH â
Äº\H '7'H éßíHy ri , \P7'H j ?/l Ç.
ÇaÆ'×ßjÝ~
ø 7ḈßjÝ~
'§>= A \"f m = n s A \ ÇaÆ'×ßjÝ~

(square matrix)s Ç. ½Ó
a11 ; a22 ; : : : ; ann
`&

~½Ó'>=§_Æ 7Ḉ/×(diagonal entry)s Ç. /y½Ó sü_Æ ¸H ½Ós 0 &ñ
ñ
Ó'
½
~ §>=` 7ḈßjÝ~
(diagonal matrix)s Ç. /y½Ós d ; d ; : : : ; dn /y'§>=Ér
1 2
34 ℄j 1 © 7
'<ü '>=§
(
D d1 ; d2 ; : : : ; dn )Ü
¼ ·p.
0 1
d1 0 0
B 0 d2 0 C
B C
D(d1 ; d2 ; : : : ; dn ) = B
B ... ... . . . 0 C
C
A
0 0 dn
¼ßl °ú Ér ¿º '§>= A; B _Æ y ½Ós ¸¿º °ú Ü¼ ¿º '§>=Ér °ú Ç. r ú́K"f m n
'§>= A = (aij ) ü=§Ér °ú

Ç.
ßjÝ~
+ TÒ¼ø (×ÊÁ
¹̄
¼ßl °ú Ér ¿º '§>= A; B \ / # '§>=_Æ ½+Ë A + B H ¿º '§>=_Æ y ½Ó` 8Ç ¯ ` ½Ó
Ü¼ °úH '§>=s. 7
¤, m n '§>= A = (aij ) ü=s.
( ) = ( aij )
aij
( 1)A
H éßíHy A æ¼l Ç. ÕªQ ¿º '§>=_Æ H 6£§õ °ú s &ñ
_ÆÇ.
A B = A + ( B)
'§>=_Æ ¸H ½Ós 0 '§>=` ÆZßjÝ~

(zero matrix)s O ·p. ÕªQ A
ü< °ú Ér ß¼l_Æ %ò
'§ = O \ / #
>
A + O = A = O + A; A A =O= A +A
s $í
wnÇ. 6£§
6 a>ds $í
wn H ¯ Ér ~1> SX½+É º e.
'
6 Q
s Ç$

|
í`
9 °

ú H "é¶è \ » !lr\ /Ç ½Ó1px"é¶,
O A \ _Æ » !lr\ /Ç %i"é¶s Ç
A .
j 4 ℄X '§>=
℄ 35
ßjÝ~
+ TÒ¼ø (×ÊÁ¹̄+ Å℄Æ

ú
° r ß¼l_Æ '§>= A; B; C; O ü< ©º a; b \ / # 6£§ 'a>ds $í
wnÇ.
É
A +B =B+A
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C )
A + O = A; A + ( A) = O
(ab)A = a(bA)
a(A + B ) = aA + aB
(a + b)A = aA + bA
ßjÝ

+ ¹̄
~
m n '
§>= A ü< n k '§>= B _Æ YLÉr m k '§>=s AB ·p.
C = A B
(m k )
(m n) (n k)
C = AB = ( ij )
0 ij1H A _Æ i P: '7' ri (A) = (ai1 ai2 ain), B _Æ j
b1j
B b C
B 2j C
:\
P 7'
P j (B ) = B
B .. C
. A
C {9 M:, 6£§õ °ú s &ñ
_ÆÇ.
bnj
n
X
ij = aik bkj
k=1
= +
ai1 b1j ai2 b2j + + ain bnj
'§>=YL_Æ &ñ
_ÆÒÂ' 6£§ ds
$í
wn H ¯ ` ~1> SX½+É º e.
( ) = (AB);
A B A B ( + C ) = AB + AC; (B + C )A = BA + CA
¹M
1 ¿º '§>= A; B 6£§õ °ú ` M:
0 1
1 3 1
! 4 0
A = 2 1 1 ; B =B
5 2CA
1 2
C = AB
H 2 2 '§>=s.
0 1
1 3 1
! 4 0 12 8
!
B
2 1 1 5 2CA=
2 4
1 2
36 ℄j 1 © 7
'<ü '>=§
ìøÍ\ BA H 3 3 '
§>=s.

0 1 0 1
4 0 1 3
!
1 =B 4 12 4
B
5 2CA
2 1 1 9 17 7CA
1 2 5 5 3
Note m n '
§>= A ü< n k '§>= B \ / # m 6= k s BA &ñ
_Æ÷&t ·ú§H. ¢̧Ç
m=k â
Äº¸ {ìøÍ&hÜ¼ '§>=_Æ » !lrõH ØÔ> '§>=_Æ YL!lr\ / #
9 H §8̈ZOgË:

s $í
wn t ·ú§H. r ú́K"f {9ìøÍ&hÜ¼H
AB 6= BA
s.
¹M 2 íHsü< dsH õ{9` Q l 9¹̄Ç >hºü< H%\ eH ¿º B©
`', `' _Æ Ǒ` ¸ %i8m 6£§õ °ú ¤.
õ C y B© B©
íHs 5 3 10 õ 1000 900
ds 7 5 5 C 2000 2500
y 900 800
íHs<ü ds y B©\"f õ{9` ¤` â
Äº \O\ tÔ # Ht\ ½¨ #.
Solution íHs B© `'\"f ¶ú â
Äº
5(1000) + 3(2000) + 10(900) = 20000
B© `'\"f ¶ú â
Äº
5(900) + 3(2500) + 10(800) = 20000
` tÔK Ç. d
s_Æ â
ÄºH B© `'\"f ¶ú â
Äº

7(1000) + 5(2000) + 5(900) = 21500
B© `'\"f ¶ú â
Äº
7(900) + 5(2500) + 5(800) = 22800
` tÔK Ç. s õ\ ³ð ?/ 6£§õ °ú .
B© `' B© `'
íHs 20000 20000
ds 21500 22800

j 4 ℄X '§>=
℄ 37
Note l 2 \f" tÔK ½+É ÓoºH ¿º 7'_Æ ?/&h +þAI ½¨ #. 6£§õ °ú s 9
¹̄
Ç >hº_Æ ³ðü< y B©\f"_Æ Ǒ³ð\ '§>=` s6 x # 6£§õ °ú s ?/.

0 1
! 1000 900
L = 57 35 105 ;
B C
P = 2000 2500 A
900 800
ª
ÕQ '>=§YL LP H íHs<ü
ds tÔK½+É Óoº\ ½¨ # ïr.

0 1
5 3 10 1000 900 !
20000 20000
!
LP =
B C
7 5 5 2000 2500 A = 21500 22800
900 800
M
¹ 3 [j 7áxÀÓ_Æ 0lxÓüt` FC H 0lx©\"f #î
ØæK \V~½Ó` 0AK [j 7áxÀÓ_Æ 0lx`
x

6 Ç
. y 0lxÓüts éß0A Áº>{© f ¨ºÇ 0lx_Æ ª` 6£§õ °ú s ³ð &ñ
o %i.

0lxÓüt 1 0lxÓüt 2 0lxÓüt 3
0lx A 3 4 2
0lx B 2 3 4
0lx C 4 3 4
s 0lx©\f" Òqtíß)a 0lxÓütÉr %ir s 0lx©\"f vÄºH »¡¤_Æ «Ñ 6 x÷&HX< 1ÅÒ{9
y
\ »¡¤[þts èq H 0lxÓüt_Æ ªÉr 6£§õ °ú .

xÓüt 1 0lxÓüt 2 0lxÓüt 3
l
0
è 30 40 25
z 2 5 4
5pu 4 10 8
1Å
Ò{91lxîß »¡¤þt[_Æ ^/?\ f¨º÷&H 0lx_Æ ª` '§>=_Æ YL` s6 x # ?/#Q.
Solution \ V\ [þt#Q è f¨º H 0lx A _Æ ªÉr
3 30 + 4 40 + 2 25 = 300
s
. '§>=_Æ YL` s6 x # ?/l 0AK"fH ¿º P: ³ð\ 6£§õ °ú s Ë̈#Q H ¯ s
o
#
¼ .
è z 5pu
xÓüt 1 30 2 4
l
0
xÓüt 2 40 5 10
l
0
xÓüt 3 25 4 8
l
0
Õ
ª Q 'Í P: ³ð\ /?H '§>=õ ¿º P: ³ð\ ?/H '§>=_Æ YL` >íß y »¡¤
[
s 2[ H 0lxÆ_ ª` ½¨½+É º e.
O
0 10 1 0 1
3 4 2 30 2 4 300 34 68
B CB C=B C
2 3 4 A 40 5 10 A 280 35 70 A
4 3 4 25 4 8 340 39 78
38 ℄j 1 © 7
'<ü '>=§
s õ\ ³ð ?
/ 6£§õ °ú .
è z 5pu
lx0 A 300 34 68
0lx B 280 35 70
0lx C 340 39 78
\V\ [þt#Q z [O2[ H 0lx B _Æ ªÉr 35 e` ·ú º e.
Note 0 A_Æ l\" f ^ º e1pws '§>=_Æ YLs _Æp\ °úl 0AK"fH 'Í P
: ³ð_Æ \P_Æ
s2£§õ ¿º P: ³ð_Æ '
_Æ s2£§s °ú Ç. s â
Äº ¿º '§>=_Æ YL\ e#Q"
f '_Æ s2£§
Ér 'Í P: ³ð_Æ '_Æ s2£§õ {9u \P_Æ s2£§Ér ¿º P: ³ð_Æ \P_Æ s2£§õ {9uÇ.
>nßjÝ~
l 3 \"f ¿º
P: ³ð_Æ 'õ \P_Æ s2£§` Ë̈#Q"f ?/%3. sXO>
m n '
§>= A = (aij ) \f" (i; j ) ½Ó` (j; i) ½Ós ÷&¸2¤ ëßH '§>=` A ?/ A _Æ >nßj
t
Ý~
(transpose matrix)s Ç. At H n m '§>=s )a. r ú́K"f At = (atij )

atij = aji
s. \V\ [þt#Q
0 1
0 1 a1
1 2 3
!t 1 4 t B a C
B C
4 5 6 =B C
2 5 A; a1 a2 an =B
B ..
2
C
C
3 6 . A
an
s. u'§>= At _Æ i P: 'Ér A _Æ i P: \Põ °ú . íßs 0pxÇ '§>= A; B \ /
# 6£§_Æ $í
|9[þts $
wnÇ.
í
( A)t = At , (At )t = A
(A + B )t = At + B t , (AB )t = B t At
&ñ
~½Ó'>=§ A \ / # At = A s A \ 7bÆ(symmetri )s Ç.
r ú́Kf",
A = (aij ) _Æ ¸H i; j \ / #
aij = aji
s A H /gAs
Ç. &ñ
_Æ\ _Æ ¸H /gA'§>=Ér &ñ
~½Ó'§>=s. 6
§ '>=§ A H
£
/gAstëß B ü< C H /gAs m.
! ! !
A=
1 2 ; B=
1 2 1 ; C = 1 2 ;
2 1 2 1 1 2 1
℄ 4 ℄X '§>=
j 39
¹M
4 ¸H '§>= A \ / #
(At A)t = At (At )t = AtA
sÙ
¼ AtA H /gA'§>=s. At _Æ i P: 'Ér A _Æ i P: \Põ °ú Ü¼Ù¼ (AtA)ij H A _Æ
i\
õ
P j \P_Æ ?/&hÜ¼ ÅÒ#Q.
(At A)ij = ri (At ) j (A) = i (A) j (A)

7'
P
\ 0 1 0 1
u1 v1
B u C B v C
B 2 C B 2 C
u=B
B .. C ;
C v=B
B .. C
C
. A . A
un vn
/ #
\
0 1
v1
B C
B v2 C
ut v = un B . C
B
C = (u1 v1 + u2 v2 + + un vn ) = (u v)
.. A
u1 u2
vn

s . "f n - 7' u; v \ / # 6£§ ds $í
wnÇ.
ut v = u v (1.9)
ßjÝ~
ø ú̀ 'a+ ¹̄
0 1
b1
m n ' b = BB ...
§>= A = (aij ) ü< n 7' C
C
A \ / # '§>=YL Ab H m 1 '§>=, 7£¤,
bn
m 's.
7 0 10 1 0 1
a11 a1n b1 r1 (A)b
Ab =
B
B ... ... CB
CB ... C
C =
B
B ... C
C
A A A
am1 amn bn rm (A)b
0 1
+ a12 b2 + + a1n bn
a11 b1
B
=
B ... C
C
A
am1 b1 + am2 b2 + + amn bn
0 1 0 1 0 1
a11 a12 a1n
= b1 B
B ... C B
C + b2 B ... C B
C + + bn B ... C
C
A A A
am1 am2 amn
= ( ) + b2 2(A) + + bn n(A)
b1 1 A
40 ℄j 1 ©
7'<ü '>=§
"f '>=§õ 7'_Æ YLÉr '§>=_Æ \P7'_Æ
Úr
TÒ¼(linear ombination)Ü¼ jþt º e
. sM: {9 ½+Ë_Æ >
ºH \P7'_Æ ½Ó[þts )a.
0 1
! 2
¹M 5 '§>= A = 10 12 17 < 7
19 11 7 ü ' b = B 0CA\
/ # Ab H A _Æ \P7'
1
_Æ {9 ½+ËÜ¼ 6£§õ °ú s jþt º e.
0 1
10 12 17 B 2 !
Ab =
C
19 11 7 01 A
! ! ! !
10
= 2 19 + 0 1112 17 3
1 7 = 31
9{ ½+Ë` s6 xÇ ³ð&³Ér {9ìøÍ&h '§>=YL\¸ &h6 xs 0px . m n '§>= A ü< n k
'§>= B _Æ YL AB _Æ j P: \P7'H A ü< j (B) _Æ YLs.
j (AB ) = A j (B )
f"

AB = A 1 (B ) 2 (B ) k (B )

= A 1 B ( ) ( )
A 2 B ( )
A k B
ü< °ú s èq º e

.
ßjÝ~
ø ú̀ 'a+ ¹̄
mn ' >=§ A ü< n 1 7' b _Æ YLÉr A _Æ \P7'ü= A ü< n k '§>= B _Æ YL AB \"f j P: \PÉr
j (AB ) = A j (B )
s. 7£¤,
AB = A 1 B ( ) ( )
A 2 B A k B( )
s.
í5DßjÝ~
j 4 ℄X '§>=
℄ 41
nn ' §>= 0 1
1 0 0
B 0 1 0 C
B C
In = B
B .. .. . . . .. C
C
. . .A
0 0 1
n "é¶ í5Dßj~
Ý(identity matrix)s ÂÒǑÉr. éß0A'§>=_Æ i P: \P7'\ eÔeµí5D

`
'
ú̀a(elementary unit ve tor) ÂÒØÔ ei ·p.
0 1
0
B .. C
B . C
B C
ei = B i
P: '
C
B 1 C
B . C
B . C
. A
0
ª
Õ Q ¸H \P7'H l:réßA07'_Æ {9 ½+ËÜ¼ èq º e. r ú́K"f
0 1
a1
B
B ... C
C = a1 e1 + + an en
A
an

èq º e. "f m n '§>= A \ / #
i (Im A) = Im i (A) = a1i e1 + + ami em = i (A)

s. 7£¤,
Im A =A
$

wnÇ. ¢̧Ç
í
Aei = 0 1(A) + + 1 i (A) + + 0 n(A) = i (A)

s. f"
AIn =A
$

wnÇ. :£¤y, m = n s
í
= AIn = A
In A

s. ÕªQÙ¼ In Ér '>=§YL\ /
Ç ½Ó1px"é¶s.

0 1
x1
¹M
6 m >=§ A, n k '§>= B ü< k 7' x = BB ...
n '
C
C
A \ / # 6£§ ds $í
wn<Ê
xk
#.

`
( ) = (AB)x
A Bx
Solution \P7'_Æ {9 ½+ËÜ¼ ?/

Bx = x1 1 (B) + + xk k (B)
42 ℄j 1 © 7
'<ü '>=§
sÙ¼
( ) = A(x1 1 (B)) + + A(xk k (B))
A Bx
= x1 A 1 (B) + + xk A k (B)
= A 1 (B) A k (B) x
= (AB)x
s $í
wnÇ.
kl ' §>= C _Æ y
\P7'\ l 5 _Æ õ\ &h6 x

(AB)C = (AB) 1 (C ) (AB) l (C )

= A(B 1 (C )) A(B l (C ))

= A B 1 (C ) B l (C )
= A(BC )
s $í
wn<Ê` ·ú º e. r ú́K"f '§>=YL\ / # ½+ËZOgË:s $í
wnÇ.
tFKÆt ¶ú(R:r '§>=YL\ /Ç $í
|9[þt` &ñ
o 6£§õ °ú .
ßjÝ~
¹̄+ Å℄Æ
íßs 0pxÇ '§= A; B; C \ / # 6£§ 'a>ds $í

wnÇ.
>
(AB )C = A(BC )
A( B ) = (AB )
A(B + C ) = AB + AC; (B + C )A = BA + CA
Im A = A; AIn = A é ß A H m n '§>=s.
Note 0 A_Æ õ\ _

Æ &ñ
~½Ó'§>=_Æ [þv℄jYLÉr ú̧ &ñ
_Æ)a. "f &ñ
~½Ó'
§>= A \ n

YLÇ ¯ `
An = A AA
·p.
!
¹M 7 A = \ / # 6£§\ ²ú #.
a

b
d
(a) A (a + d)A + (ad b )I = O e

2 ` #.
(b) a + d = 1; ad b = 1 {
9 M:, A = I e` #.
3
j 4 ℄X '§>=
℄ 43
Solution VOD y
©ýa ¸
44 ℄j 1 © 7
'<ü '>=§
5â
V

℄ jÝ~
ø
ß ¤>Ìf
n C'
×Ç
Æ
a N
Ï
0s
z´º a \ / # 6£§ $í
|9` ëß7á¤ H YL!lr\ /Ç %i"é¶ b >rFÇ.
ab = ba = 1
'§>=_Æ YL!lr\ /Ç

Ó1px"é¶Ér In s. r ú́K"f, n n '§>= A \ / #
½
AIn = In A = A
s $í
wnÇ. ÕªXO '§>= A \ / # YL!lr\ /Ç %i"é¶s >rF H? 7£¤,
AB = BA = In (1.10)
s $í
wn H B >rF H? ëß s $í
|9` °úH '§>= B >rF A H (invertible)s
℄
B \ A _Æ ℄ßjÝ~
(inverse matrix)s Ç. d (1.10) s $í
wn 9 A; B _Æ
ß¼lH ¸¿º n n s# Q Ç. tFKÂÒ' s ℄X\"f ÀÒH ¸H '§>=Ér &ñ
~½Ó'§ =e` &ñ
>
Ç.
¹M 1 6£§ ¿º '>

=§ A; B H "f %i'§>=e` #.
0 1 0 1
1 0 2 2 1 1
B C B
A= 1 1 0 A; B = 2 0 1CA
2 1 4 1
2
1
2
1
2
Solution AB = BA = I3 e ` s )a.

0 10 1
1 0 2 2 1 1
B
AB = 1 1 0C B
A 2 0 1CA
2 1 4 1
2
1
2
1
2
0 1
1(2) + 0( 2) + ( 2)( 12 ) 1(1) + 0(0) + ( 2)( 12 ) 1( 1) + 0(1) + ( 2)( 21 )
= B 1(2) + 1( 2) + 0( 21 ) 1(1) + 1(0) + 0( 12 ) 1( 1) + 1(1) + 0( 21 ) C
A
2(2) + 1( 2) + ( 4)( 12 ) 2(1) + 1(0) + ( 4)( 12 ) 2( 1) + 1(1) + ( 4)( 21 )
0 1
1 0 0
= B 0 1 0 A
C
0 0 1
0 10 1
2 1 1 1 0 2
B
BA = 2 0 1 A 1 1 0 C
C B
A
1
2
1
2
1
2 2 1 4
0 1
2(1) + 1(1) + ( 1)(2) 2(0) + 1(1) + ( 1)(1) 2( 2) + 1(0) + ( 1)( 4)
= B
2(1) + 0(1) + 1(2) 2(0) + 0(1) + 1(1) 2( 2) + 0(0) + 1( 4) C A
1
2 (1) + 1
2 (1) + ( 1
2 )(2) 1
2 (0) + 1
2 (1) + ( 1
2 )(1) 1
2 ( 2) + 1
2 (0) + ( 1
2 )( 4)
0 1
1 0 0
= B
0 1 0 A
C
0 0 1
j 5 ℄X %i'§>=õ +þA~½Ó&ñ
d>
℄ 45
℄ßjÝ~
nn ' >=§ A \ / # 6£§ $

|9` ëß7á¤ H n n '§>= B >rF '§>= A \ %i
í

s Ç.
AB = BA = In
M
s :, B \ A _Æ %i'§>=s A ·p. 1
Note 1. B; C A _Æ %i'>=§s . 7£¤,

AB = BA = In ; AC = CA = In

s
= CIn = C (AB) = (CA)B = In B = B
C

s. r ú́K"f A %i'>=§s A _Æ %i'§>=Ér Ä»{9 .
Note ´zº_Æ â
Äºü< ðøÍt
2. %ò
'§>=\ /Ç %i'§>=Ér >rF t ·ú§H. ÕªQ z´
º_
Æ â
Äºü<H ÔØ> %ò
!'§>=s
¸H '§>=\ /! # %i'§>=s >rF H ¯ Ér m.
V\
\ 1 1
[þt#Q A = 0 0 s e_Æ_Æ B = xz wy \ / #

!
AB =
+w x +z y
0 0

s. ÕªQ¼Ù A H %ò
'§>=s mtëß %is m.
22 ßjÝ~
+ ℄ßjÝ~
!
22 '
§>= A = Æ_ %
a

'§>=Ér wn~½Ó&ñ
d` Û#Q"f ½¨½+É º e. Õª õ&ñ
Ér
i b
d
x
p
1Æ§ §F\ l êøÍ.
<
22
ßjÝ~
+ ℄ßjÝ~
!
§

' =A=
> a

b
d
\ / #
ad b 6= 0 s
%i'§>=s >rF 6£§õ °ú .
!
A 1
= ad 1 d b
b a
ad b =0s
A H %is m.
46 ℄j 1 © 7
'<ü '>=§
!
¹M 2 '§>= A = os sin
sin os \

/ #
(a) A _
Æ %i'§>=` ½¨ #.
!
n os
(b) A = sin n os n e
n sin n
` #.
Solution VOD y ©ýa ¢̧H y©_Æ
#lf" ad b H A _Æ %i$í
` &ñ
f± H(determine) ºs. s º\ A _Æ ßjÝ~
Ï(determinant)s
det(A) ·p.
det(A) = ad b
{9ìøÍ&h n n '>
=§s %i{9 ¸| ¸ %ir '§>=d` s6 x # ¹1Ô` º e. n n '>=§
Æ_ '§>=d_Æ &ñ
_Æü< %i{9 M: %i'§>=` ½¨ H ¯ Ér #l"fH ÀÒt ·ú§Ü¼9 'ads eH
<ÆÒqt[þtÉr +þA/º<Æ §F\ l êøÍ.
℄ßjÝ~
+ Å℄Æ
i%'§>=` &ñ
_Æ
H d (1.10) \"f A üá¤°ú . "f A H B _Æ %i'§>=s

. ÕªQÙ¼
= B 1 = (A 1 ) 1
A
s. A %i{9 M: B = A 1 s . ÕªQ

AB = BA = In
s Int = In sÙ¼

B t At = (AB )t = Int = In
At B t = (BA)t = Int = In
s. "f At H %is %i'§>=Ér Ä»{9 Ù¼
(At ) 1 = Bt = (A 1 )t
s.
A; B ¸º¿ %i'§>=s . ÕªQ '§>=YL\ /Ç ½+ËZOgË:` 6 x
(AB)(B 1
) =
A 1 ( )
A BB 1 A 1
= AIn A = AA 1 = In
1
(B 1
A 1
)(AB) = B 1 (AA 1 )B
= B 1 In B = B 1 B = In
sÙ¼ AB H %is. %i'§>=Ér Ä»{9 Ù¼

(AB) 1 = B 1
A 1
℄ 5 ℄X %i'§>=õ +þA~½Ó&ñ
d>
j 47

s .
℄ßjÝ~
+ Å℄Æ
A %i'§>=s A ü< At ¸ %is Õª %i'§>=Ér 6£§õ °ú .

1
(A 1 ) 1 = A; (At ) 1 = (A 1)t
A; B ¸¿º %i'§>=s AB ¸ %is 6£§ ds $í
wnÇ.
(AB) 1 = B 1
A 1
Note A1 ; : : : Ak %i{9 M:, ¿

º P: $í
|9` ìøÍ4¤ # 6 x
(A1 Ak ) 1 = Ak 1 A1 1
$
s
wn<Ê` ·ú º e. :£¤y A = A = = Ak = A s
í 1 2
(An ) 1 = (A 1 )n
$
s
wnÇ.
í
!
¹M
3 A = 2 5 \ / # 6£§ '§>=` ½¨ #.
1 2
(a) A101 (b) (A 1 )101
Solution VOD y
©ýa ¢̧H º\O
¸

! !
¹M
4 A=
1 2 ;P = 2 1 \ / #
1 4 1 1
(a) A; P H %ie` #.
(b) B = P 1AP \ ½¨ #.
( ) A19 ; B19 \
½¨ #.(Hint. B19 \ $ ½¨½+É ¯ )
Solution VOD y ©ýa ¢̧H º\O
¸

¤n>ÌfC'×ÇaÆÏN
48 ℄j 1 © 7
'<ü '>=§
6£§õ °ú Ér ~½Ó&ñ
d
` n >h_Æ º x ; x ; : : : ; xn _Æ ¤n>ÌfC'×ÇaÆÏ(linear equation)s
1 2
Ç. 7
1 x1 + 2x2 + + nxn = d (1.11)

d (1.11) \
x1 = s1; : : : ; xn = sn
0 1
s1
$í
wn 7' BB ...
` /{9Ùþ¡` M: 1pxds C
C
A ` d (1.11) _Æ B(solution) Ç. n = 2
sn
s K|9½+ËÉr î̈
\ "f f, n = 3 s /BNçß\"f î̈
_Æ |9½+Ës )a. 8
°ú Ér º[þt_Æ +þA~½Ó&ñ

ds Ä»Ç>h ¸# eH ¯ ` ¤n>ÌfC'×ÇaÆÏN(system of linear
equations), ¢̧ 9H çßéßy ¤n>ÌfCN(linear system) Ç. {9ìøÍ&hÜ¼ n >h_Æ º\ °ú
H +þA~½Ó&ñ
d>H 6£§õ °ú s jþt º e.
a11 x1 + + ann xn = b1
... ... (1.12)
am1 x1 + + amn xn = bm
#l"f >º[þt sÀ

Ò#Q '§>=
0 1
a11 a1n
B . ... C
..
=B
A C
A
am1 amn
0 1
b1
ÊÁßjÝ~
( oeÆ ient matrix)s Ç. ©º7'\ b = BB ...
` ÅÒ#Q +þA>_Æ N C
C
A
bm
+þA> (1.12) H 6£§õ °ú s èq º e.
Ax =b
sXO> þA+~½Ó&ñ
d>\ '§>=` s6 x # ·p ¯ ` ßjÝ~
'×ÇaÆÏ(matrix equation)s
Ç.
¹M 5 6£§ +þA~½Ó&ñ

d>\ '§>=~½Ó&ñ
dÜ¼ ?/#Q.
( 8
(a) x+y = 1 >
< x +y z = 3
x+y = 3 (b) >
x + y + 2z = 1
: y+z = 2
1

7 x
p Æ
< §
§F\"fH {9 ~½Ó&ñ
dsH 6 x#Q 6 x÷&%3.

4s
8n d
(1.11) _
Æ K|9½+Ë` ïË^Æ>¢(hyperplane)s ÂÒǑÉr.
1

9 x
pÆ
< §§F\"fH {9 wn~½Ó&ñ
dsH 6 x#Q 6 x÷&%3.

j 5 ℄X %i'§>=õ +þA~½Ó&ñ
d>
℄ 49
Solution VOD y ©ýa ¢̧H º\O ¸
+þA~½Ó&ñ
d>_Æ ¸H þA+~½Ó&ñ
d` 1lxr\ ëß7á¤ H 7'\ +þA~½Ó&ñ
d>_Æ K Ç
.
+þA~½Ó&ñ
d>_Æ K\ ½¨ H
` ¤n>ÌfC'×ÇaÆÏN· -P Ç.
¯
¤n>Ì
CNÿ? ℄ßjÝ~
f
n n '
§>= A \ / # '>=§~½Ó&ñ
d
Ax =b
H n >h_Æ º\ n >h_Æ +þ

A~½Ó&ñ
d` °úH +þA>\ _ÆpÇ. A %is +þA>
Ax =b
Æ
_ \ A ` YL #
ª 1
( ) = A 1b ) (A
A 1 Ax 1
A)x = Inx = x = A 1b
<°
ü s Ä»{9Ç K\ ½¨½+É º e.
ú
¤n>ÌfCN?ÿ ℄ßjÝ~
nn ' >=§ A \ / # A %is +þA> Ax = b H Ä»{9Ç K x = A 1 b`

°úH
.

¹M
6 6£§ +þA>\ %i'§>=` s6 x # Û#Q.
(
(a) os y sin = 2
x
sin + y os = 2
x
8
< x 2z
> = 2
(b) > x + y = 2 (Hint. l 1 )
: 2x + y 4z = 3
Solution VOD y ©ýa ¢̧H º\O ¸

2*
V ×

ÁþÊÁ?ÿ ;³ø5
1â
V
Ê
Áá
~
º\ íH"f/ C\PÇ ¯ ` ÊÁá~
sequen e s ÂÒǑÉr 7£¤ º\PsêøÍ º_
( ) Æ |9½+Ë
. , 1
N = f1; 2; 3; : : :g
\"f &ñ
_Æ)a <Êºs \V\ [þt#Q º\P
. ,

1 1 1
1 ; ; ; ;:::
2 3 4
\"f í½ÓÉr ÑütP: ½ÓÉr

1, =
1 2 s n P: ½ÓÉr
,
n1
1
an = ;
n
s. sM: an `
ð5/×s Ç. º\P (a1 ; a2; : : : ; an; : : :) Ér 6£§õ °ú s çßéß
y ?/
l¸ Ç .
a 1 ;
( n )n=1 a
( n)
¹M 1 6£§Ér º\P` ?/H #Q ~½ÓZO` ·p .

p p p p p p
(a) (1 ; ; : : : ; n; : : :); an = n (n 1); ( n)1
2; 3 n=1 ; ( n)

n 1 n 1
n 1 1
n
(n 1);
1 2 3 1
(b) 0; ; ; ; : : : ; ; : : : ; an = ;
2 3 4 n n n n=1 n
1=
G

º_
Æ|½
9Ë{
+ 9¹̄H \O. +'\ ¸H "4/åLº _{9Q/åLº_Æ â
ÄºH 6£§s &ñ
º_
9 Æ|½
9 Ë
+
N0 = f0; 1; 2; 3; : : :g
Å

` Ò
6
x
Ç
.
50
j 1 ℄X º\P
℄ 51
1
( )
1 1 1
; ; ;:::;
2 4 8 2n
1
;::: ; an =
1
2n
(n 1); 1
2n n=1
;
1
2n
(d) (1 ; ; ;
1 1 1 ;:::;( 1)n 1 ; : : :); an = ( 1)n 1 ( n 1); (( 1)n 1 )n=1 1 ; (( 1)n 1 )
º\PÉr 6£§õ °ú s ÕªAáÔ\ s6 x # èq º¸ e

.
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
s ÕªAáÔ\f" an =n Ér n s &|9º2¤ \ Æ0>f` ·ú º e sM: s ÊÁá~

+
= 1 0 .
ø
³
;G±ê limit of sequen e Ér s
5 ( ) 0
1
n!1
an = nlim
lim
!1 =0
n
s
³ð&³Ç {9ìøÍ&hÜ¼ n s
. &f\ an _Æ °ú̄s L \ Æ0>|9 M: º\P an Ér FG 2
Ç°

ú̄ L ` °úH
lim
n!1
an = L

s H .
ÁÊá~
+ ;³ø5±êG
ns &f\ an _Æ °ú̄s L \ Æ0>t º\P a
( n) Ér FGÇ°ú̄ L ` °úH
lim
n!1
an = L
s
H ëß FGÇ°ú̄ n!1 an s >rF º\P
. lim a
( n) Ér ÊÁ℄ø5 onverge Ç
( ) .
º§
t ·ú§H º\PÉr L±Óñ5Ñø5 diverge Ç
4 ( ) .
º§4 t ·ú§H º\P an \ / # n s &f\ an s &|9 M: º\P

( ) 3
, a
( n) Ér )×+
Áø
È7× L±Ó5Ññø5 diverges to 1 ú́
5 ( )
lim
n!1
an = 1
2n s
Å
Òß¼
an õ
L_
Æ s jan Lj
ÅÒ H ¯ ` _ÆpÇ. %3x9 > æ¼, e_ÆÆ_ ªº " > 0
\ /3 # Ä
»Ç>
h_Æ an `
℄
jü

H
¸¿
º jan Lj < " ` ëß7á¤ÇH >pws.
x
3
%
9> ú́
e
_
Æ_
Æ
ª ºM \
/ # n N s an M s ÷&H º N s >rF º\P (an )
Ér ÁºÇ
/µÏíß
1
Ç
Ç
.
52 j℄ 2 ©
Êº<ü FGÇ
<
·p ðøÍt º§4 t ·ú§H º\P an \ / # n s &f\ an s |9
. ( )
M: º\P an Ér £¸+ ÈÁø57× L±Óñ5Ñø5 diverges to 1 ú́
, ( ) ( )
n!1
lim an = 1
·p .
¹M 2 1pxqº\P r

( n) s º§4 H r _Æ #30A\ ½¨ # .
Solution jrj < 1 s n!1 jrjn s ìøÍ jrj > s
lim = 0 . , 1 limn !1 jrjn = 1s
.
r=1 â
Äº,
n
lim 1 = lim 1 = 1
n!1 n!1
sÙ¼ º§4Ç ÕªQ r . = 1 {9 M: º\PÉr
,
1 1 ; ; 1 1 ; ; 1;:::
s ÷& s º\PÉr µ1ÏíßÇ "f 1pxqº\P . ( n)r s º§4 H r _Æ #30AH 1 <r1s

.
jÊÁá~
+ ;³ø5
1pxqº\P rn Ér
( ) 1 <r1s
º§4 ǑÉr â
ÄºH µ1ÏßíÇ.
(
0; 1 <r<1
lim
n!1
rn =
1; r=1
ÊÁ℄ M ÊÁá~

+ eÔeµ Å℄Æ
º\P_Æ FGÇ°ú̄` ½¨ l 0AK"fH 6£§õ °ú Ér z´[þt` 6 x½+É º e .
an bn n s n!1 an n!1 n L s n!1 bn L s

lim = lim = lim = .
n!1 jan j s
lim n!1 an s
=0 lim =0 .
¹M 3 0A_Æ $í
|9[þtÂÒ' 6£§` ·ú º e .
(a) 0 <
n
n
ns 2
n!1 ; n!1 =n
+1
1
, lim 0 = 0 lim 1 =0 sÙ¼ 6£§ 'a>ds $í
w
Ç
n .
n
lim =0
n!1 n2 + 1
1)n
sÙ¼

( 1
(b) lim = lim =0
n!1 n n!1 n
( 1)n
lim =0
n!1 n
s .
j 1 ℄X º\P
℄ 53
¢̧Ç º\P_Æ FGÇ\ / # 6

§ $í
|9[þt¸ $í
wnÇ
£ .
ÁÊ℄ M ÊÁá~

+ eÔeµ Å℄Æ
º§
H ¿º º\P an bn \ / #
4 ( ), ( )
lim
n!1
an = ; nlim
!1 bn =

©º \ / # 6
. § 'a>ds $í
wnÇ
£ .
1. lim ( n
n!1
a bn ) =
2. a b
lim ( n n ) =
n!1
; n!1
lim ( an ) =
6= 0 s
nlim an
3. =
!1 bn
¥
>(×ÊÁ
o
©º e H
1 n
e = nlim
!1 1+
n
&

_ÆÇ
ñ .4
¹M
4 6£§ º\P_Æ FGÇ°ú̄` ½
¨ # .
n
1 n 1
(a) lim 1 (b) lim 1
n!1 n n!1 n2
Solution VOD y
©ýa ¢̧H º\O
¸

í5¿ ÊÁá~
¸H n \ / #1
an+1 an

s º\P
a
( n) Ér ¤Ê
Áá~
in reasing sequen e s Ç ¸H n \ / #
( ) . 1
an+1 an
4s

© º\ e
Hl

ñ\·

¡ ³
2 |
r L. Eulers. ÕªQ s º\ ¸{9Q_Æ ©º ÂÒÔØtH ·ú§H. s
É
ºH ºÆ&h
< Ü¼
Å
Ò×æ¹̄
Ç
ºe\
¸Ô½¨ :£¤Z>Ç s2£§` °ú et ·ú§. #lf" æ¼H ©ºH 6 x#Q

H Äºo
\"fëæ
ß ¼s
H³
ð³s
& .
54 j℄ 2 ©
Êº<ü FGÇ
<
s º\P an Ér ḈÔ¿ÊÁá~
de reasing sequen e s Ç 7£xº\P ¢̧H yèº\P
( ) ( ) .5
` í5¿ÊÁá~
monotone sequen e s ÂÒǑÉr
( ) .
¹M 5 {9ìøÍ½Ós 6£§õ °ú s ÅÒ#Q º\PÉr éß¸7£x<Ê` # .
n
an = ; n1
n+1
Solution
¸H n \ / # an+1 an e` s )a .6
n+1 n
an+1 an =
n+2 n+1
(n + 1)2 n(n + 2)
=
(n + 1)(n + 2)
=
(
1
n + 1)(n + 2)
0
ËÂNê> ÊÁá~
º\P a
( n) s ÅÒ#Q&` M: ¸H n \ / #
,
an M
z´º M s >rF
º\P
a
( n) Ér D× ËÂN bounded above Ç ðøÍt
( ¸ ) . ,
H n \ / #
an m
z´º m s >rF º\P an Ér 8× ËÂN bounded below Ç 0A Ä»>s
( ) ( ) .
"f A¸ Ä»> º\P` ËÂNê> ÊÁá~
bounded sequen e s Ç
( ) .
¹M 6 6£§\"f %6£§ ¿º º\PÉr Ä»> º\Ps t} º\PÉr AH Ä»>stëß
.
0AH Ä»> º\Ps .
(a) 1 ; ; ;
1 1 ; ;
1 1 1 ;
;
1 1 1 1 1 1
;
(b) 1 1 + ;1+ + ;1+ + +
2 2 4 2 4 8
; ;
( ) 1 1 + 2 1 + 2 + 3 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 ; ;
º§4 H ¸H º\PÉr Ä»>s {9ìøÍ&hÜ¼ Õª %iÉr s m ÕªQ éß
. ¸º\P â
.
Äº Ä»>s Õª º\P r ½Ó© º§4ÇH ¯ s ·ú94R e
É .7
5s
&
_
ñ Æ\
_Æ

©ºº\P an = Ér 7£xº\Ps"f yèº\Psl¸ . ¸H n \ / # an < an+1 s

w
í
$6
n H
º\
P r'
É ¤
K ÊÁá
(stri tly in reasing sequen e)s ÂÒǑÉr.
~
7s
¸
Ê
<
º

\
CÄº

¸
Ê
<
º
_Æ $í
|9` s6 x # {9 º¸ e.
$
|
í `
9

Ê
Á+µjÅ℄Æ( ompleteness of real numbers)s Ç. s $í
|9Ér z´º °ú
ì H:
¤f
£
×
ç æ_
Æ

X
<Ä»oº_Æ|½
9Ë
+ r sQÇ $í
|9` °út ·ú§H.
É
j 1 ℄X º\P
℄ 55
ÂËNê> í5¿ÁÊá~
»>
Ä éß¸º\PÉr ½Ó© º§4Ç.

N
¤n>ÌfC\ªÏ
í½Ós a s /BN d 1px º\P x
( n) Ér ¸H n \ / # 6£§õ °ú Ér 'a>d` ëß
¤
á
7Ç
.
xn+1 = xn + d
¢̧
Ç í½Ós a s /BNq r 1
xqº\P
p ( n)x Ér ¸H n \ / # 6£§õ °ú Ér 'a>d`
ë7

ß ¤Ç
á .
xn+1 = rxn
sü
< °ú s #Q" ½©gË:\ _Æ # &ñ
_Æ÷&H º\PÉr ·ú¡ +' ½Ó s_Æ 'a>dÜ¼ ³ð&³½+É º e
,
·ú¡_Æ ½Ó` s6 x # +'_Æ ½Ós &ñ
_Æ÷&H d` \ªÏ re ursive equation s Ç
. ( ) .
6£§õ °ú s <Êº f {9 d â

Äº &hod`
N¤n>ÌfC\ªÏ rst order linear re-
(
ursive equation s ) Ç .
xn+1 = f (xn ) = axn + b; n = 0; 1; 2; : : :
n = 0; 1; 2 \
/ # >íßK
x1 = ax0 + b
x2 = ax1 + b = a(ax0 + b) + b
= a2 x0 + (a + 1)b
x3 = ax2 + b = a(a2 x0 + (a + 1)b) + b
= a3 x0 + (a2 + a + 1)b

s {9ìøÍ&hÜ¼ 6£§ ds $í
wnÇ .
xn = an x0 + (an 1
+ an 2
+ + a + 1)b
a 6= 1 s
¿º P: ½ÓÉr /BNq a 1pxqº\P_Æ ½+ËsÙ¼

an 1

xn = an x0 + b
a 1

s . a=1s

xn = x0 + nb

s .
56 ℄j 2 ©
Êº<ü FGÇ
<

N¤n>fCÌ\ªÏ
{9>+þA&hod
xn+1 = f (xn ) = axn + b; n = 0; 1; 2; : : :
_Æ {9ìøÍKH 6£§õ °ú .
8
a
n
a 6= 1
1
<
an x0 + b ;
xn = a 1
:
x0 + nb; a=1
¹M 7 a=·ú ¸℄X` 0A # a=·ú` B{9 éß0Am [O2[Ç ^?/_Æ a=·úÉr
1 .
ÀÒ t ìøÍÜ¼ ×#QH ` "3l rÇt n {9 Êê 7£¤ n P: ` "3
. èß Êê_Æ ^ , ,
?/_Æ a=·úÆ_ ª` xn s xn s ëß7á¤ H &hod` ½¨ {9ìøÍK\ ½¨ #
. .
Solution x Ér a=·ú` %6£§ "3l r l _Æ ^?/\ eH a=·ú_Æ s
.
ÕªQ
0
x0 = 0
s x Ér %6£§ ` "3Ér Êê_Æ a=·ú_Æ ªsÙ¼
. 1
x1 = 1
s {9ìøÍ&hÜ¼ n
. P: ±ú ` "3Ér Êê ^?/\ eH a=·ú_Æ ª xn Ér 6£§±
, ` "3l
ú
\ ìøÍÜ¼ ×#QH 7£¤ 6£§±ú ` "3l f\H xn ëßpu_Æ a=·ús ^?/\ >rFÇ
. ,
1
"f n P : ±ú éß0A_Æ ` "3Ér Êê ^?/_Æ a=·ú_Æ ªÉr 6£§ a>d` ëß
'
2
. ( + 1) , 1
7á¤Ç.
1
xn+1 = xn + 1
2
"f n {9P: ` "
Ér Êê_Æ a=·ú_Æ ªÉr 6£§õ °ú
3 .
n
1
1
1 n
xn =
1
2
1
=2 1
2

2
¹M 8 ¿l+ R Õ tower of Hanoi Ér óøÍ\ [j0> [j >h_Æ }/<ü î

± ( ) 8
rX< ½¨"í
s

ÝüǑ2; ¸¿º ǑÉr ß¼l_Æ "é¶ìøÍÜ¼ sÀÒ#Q4R e }/\ n >h_Æ "é¶ìøÍs z0>4R e` M:
. 1 ,
3 }/ "é¶ìøÍ` ¸¿º `l9 Ç sM: 6£§õ °ú Ér ½©gË:\ "é¶ìøÍ` ¹¡§f
. .
8s
ëH℄
j_
Æl"
¶
ér
É
¸_Æ [O\"f Ä»A 9 ZÔàz_Æ º¸ ¸s<üH 'as \O. 2³¿º§_
Æ[
\
O _
Æ
I

í\
r
É pt
± Û¼ y
Ä
© »%i` [j©Æ_ ×ædÜ¼ &ñ
H "é¶` [j°?. Õªo s7H×¼ }/ 3 > hü< í
HF
K
¼
Ü a 64 >
) h_
Æ" ¶ì
é Í`
ø º %i. "é¶ìøÍÉr ¸º¿ ß¼l ÔØ îrX<\ ½¨"í
s Ýü9 e%3HX< }
/\
ß ¼líH

f
" / Á
¢#
ú e
.

r5
É x9[þt\> s "é¶ìøÍ[þt` Ç©m `"f qQ# eH ǑÉr _Æ }/ ¸¿º `
p l
"

Ù
î
§ ¡
þ . é
,
ß H"
¶ì
é Í
ø r
É Ó
½ Ér "é¶ìøÍ 0A\ `9 Z~` º \O. sXO> 64 >h_Æ "é¶ìøÍs ¸¿º ǑÉr }
©
/
`
t

j
[ _Æ 7
© xú́
á s¸,
_
Æ "î
§î
` \Pdy º'Ç 5px9H ©` ~Î >¼Ü2£§` xîr 5px9[þtÉr ZO` ~Î
H
.
j 1 ℄X º\P
℄ 57
Ç\ _Æ "é¶ìøÍëß ¹¡§f

.
H "é¶ìøÍÉr ½Ó© Ér "é¶ìøÍ A\ e#Q Ç .
¶ì
é
" Ís n >h{9 M: \O` u9
ø 9¹̄Ç s1lxSǑº\ ½¨ #
.
Solution " é¶ìøÍs n >h{9 M: "é¶ì Í` s1lxrvH º\ xn s
ø .
x1 = 1
e

r "î
"é¶ìøÍs n >h e Äº n >h_Æ "é¶ìøÍ` }/ ` Ç Õª
É . ( + 1) 2 .
6
§ © H "é¶ìøÍ` }/ `| Õªo }/\ eH n >h_Æ "é¶ìøÍ[þt` r
£ 3 . 2 3
}

/ `l )a
.
1
2
n
n+1
n+1
1
2
n n+1
ÕªQ %6£§ }/\"f

1 }/ n >h_Æ "é¶ìøÍ` `lHX< 9¹̄Ç s1lxSǑºH xn
2 ,
H "é¶ìøÍ` Ü¼ `lHX
© 3 < r }/\ eH n >h_Æ "é¶ìøÍ` }/
1 , 2 3
l

` 9 xn ` ¹¡§f# Ç "f xn õ xn s\H 6£§õ °ú Ér 'a>ds $í
wn
.
Ç

+1
.
xn+1 = xn + 1 + xn = 2xn + 1

"f
xn = 2n 1

s .9
9
[
%
O! 64 >
3 h_Æ"
¶ì
éÍs
ø e

2
64 1 = 18446744073709551615
` `

Ç
.
Ç
`
l

HX
<1
í
Ǒ2; ¸º¿ `lHX< oH rçßÉr

184467440737095516150
ís '

? º 8̈
í
ß

184467440737095516150

3600 24 365
5849%
3Æ̧
s Ǒ2;
.
58 ℄j 2 ©
Êº<ü FGÇ
<
2â
V
;
¹Ê
³ Á
º\P a
( n) _Æ y ½Ó`
¸¿º 8Ç ¯ `
a1 + a2 + a3 +
?/ ÈÁø5;³¹ÊÁ innite series ¢̧H éßíHy ;³¹ÊÁ series ÂÒǑÉr /
( ), Lº\ çßéß
å ( ) .
y 6£§õ °ú s ?/l¸ Ç .
1
X
an ; ¢̧H X
an
n=1
ÕªXO ÁºÇy ú́§

r ½Ó` 8ÇH ¯ Ér Áº%Á ` _Æp H
É ?
ÉÙ&PTÒ¼
6£§õ °ú s &ñ
_Æ
a º\P
) s
( n) ` ÁºÇ/åLº P
an _Æ ÉÙ&PTÒ¼ partial sum _Æ º\Ps
( )
Ç .
s1 = a1
s2 = a1 + a2
.
.
.
n
X
sn = a1 + a2 + + an = ak
k=1
.
.
.
ÒÂìr½+Ë_Æ º\P sn s
FGÇ°ú̄ s º§4 ÁºÇ/åLºH º§4Ç s \ ÈÁø5;³¹ÊÁ+
( )
TÒ¼ sum of series s
( ÂÒǑÉr 7£¤
) . ,
n
X X 1
s = lim
n!1
sn = nlim
!1 ak = an
k=1 n=1
= a1 + a2 + + an +
s
( n) s µ1Ïíß ÁºÇ/åLº¸ µ1ÏíßÇ Ç .
¹M 1 6£§ ÁºÇ/åLºH º§4<Ê` s Õª ½+Ë` ½¨ # .
X 1 1
n=1
n(n + 1)
Solution ÂÒìrìrº\ s6 x

1 1 1
=
k(k + 1) k k+1
℄ 2 ℄X /åLº
j 59
Ù
s ¼ ÂÒìr½+ËÉr 6£§õ °ú .
n
X n
X
1 1 1
sn = =
k=1
k(k + 1) k=1
k k+1

= 1
1
2
+
1
2
1
3
+
1
3
1
4
+ + n1 n +1 1
1
= 1
n+1
ª
Õ QÙ¼
1

n!1
sn = nlim
lim
!1 1 =1 0=1
n+1

s "f ÅÒ#Q /åLºH º§4 Õª ½+ËÉr
.
X 1 1
=1
n=1
n(n + 1)

s .
¹M
2 6£§õ °ú s &ñ
_Æ)a ¿
ª;³¹ÊÁ harmoni series H µ1Ïíß<Ê` #
( ) .
X 11
n
=1+
1
2
+
1
3
+
1
4
+
n=1
Solution 2 _Æ [þv℄jYL½Ó\ /Ç ÂÒìr½+Ë 7£¤ , , s2 ; s4 ; s8 ; ` ¶ú(Rl .
1
s2 = 1+
2

1 1 1 1 1 1
s4 = 1+ + + >1+ + +
2 3 4 2 4 4
2
= 1+
2

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
s8 = 1+ + + + + + +
2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
> 1+ + + + + + +
2 4 4 8 8 8 8
3
= 1+
2

ú
° r ~½ÓZOÜ¼
É 4 5
s16 > 1 + ; s32 > 1 +
2 2
`

e {9 º e {9ìøÍ&hÜ¼ 6£§ ÂÒ1pxds $í
wn<Ê` ·ú º e
, .
n
s2n > 1 +
2
ª
Õ QÙ¼ n ! 1 {9 M: s n ! 1 s "f ¸o/åLºH µ1ÏíßÇ
2 , .
Note ¸o/åLº µ1Ïíß H ¯ Ér z´stëß &tH 5Åq¸H ÅÒ Ö¼o ÂÒìr½+Ës . 5
t
& l 0AK"fH >h s©_Æ ½Ó` 8 # &tl 0AK"fH
80 ½Ó s© , 10 12300

` 8 # Ç z´℄j.
log n < sn < 1 + log n
60 j℄ 2 ©
Êº<ü FGÇ
<
sÙ¼ %3 >h_Æ ½Ó` 8K¸ ÂÒìr½+ËÉr ` Åt 3lwÇ "f ¸o/åLº º<Æ&h
1 (108 ) 20 .
Ü¼H µ1Ïíß tëß Ä»ÇÇ rçßõ /BNçß\ 0AuÇ z´℄j ©S!\"f Ò M:\H ÅÒ_Æ 9¹̄

.
j;³¹ÊÁ
ÁºÇ/åLº ×æ © ×æ¹̄Ç lH j;³¹ÊÁ ¢̧H e ;³¹ÊÁ geometri series s í½Ó ( ) .
s a 6 s /BNq r 1pxq/åLºH 6£§õ °ú s &ñ
_Æ)a
(= 0) .
1
X
a + ar + ar2 + + arn 1
+ = arn 1
n=1
r=1s
ÂÒìr½+ËÉr n ! 1 {9 M:, (
sn = a + a + + a = na !
1; a>0
1; a<0
sÙ¼ 1pxq/åLºH µ
ÏíßÇ Ç¼# r 6 s
1 . =1
sn = a+ ar + ar2 + + arn 1
rsn = ar + ar2 + + arn 1

+ arn
\"f
) sn = a(11 rr )
n
sn rsn = a arn
s . <r<1s 1 rn ! 0 sÙ¼(n ! 1)

a(1 rn )
lim sn = lim
n!1 n!1 1 r
a a a
lim r =
n
=
1 r 1 r n!1 1 r
s. r > 1 s r 1 s r Ér µ1Ïíß Ù¼ 1pxq/åLº¸ µ1ÏíßÇ.
n
j;³¹ÊÁ+ TÒ¼
í½Ós a a 6 s /BNq r 1pxq/åLº
( = 0)
X1
arn 1
= a + ar + ar2 + + arn 1
+
n=1
H jrj < s º§

1 sM: ½+ËÉr
4
X1 a
arn 1
=
n=1
1 r
s . jrj 1 s
1
xq/åLºH µ1ÏíßÇ.
p
¹M 3 6£§ /åLº_Æ º§4 µ1Ïíß` óøÍ&ñ

# º§4 H â
Äº Õª ½+Ë` ½¨ #
, . .
j 2 ℄X /åLº
℄ 61
1
(a)
X
2
2n 1
5
n (b) 6 2+
2
3
2
9
+
2
27

n=1
Solution
(a) {9ìøÍ½Ós 2 n
2 4 n
an = 22n 51 n
=5 =5
5 5
sÙ¼ í½ÓÉr /BNqH 1pxq/åLºs "f ÅÒ#Q /åLºH º§4 9 Õª
4,
4
.
½+ËÉr 5
4
4
= 20
1
s
5
(b) í½ÓÉr s /BNqH

6
1
3
1pxq/åLºsÙ¼ º§4Ç Õª ½+ËÉr .
6 6 9
1
= 4 =
1 ( ) 2
3 3
s .
'K».É¿ÊÁ
íH8̈ H ÁºÇèºH ÁºÇ/åLº_Æ ½+ËÜ¼ jþt º e \V\ [þt#Q .
:
_
03 = :
0 333 = 0:3 + 0:03 + 0:003 +
X 1
= :
0 3(0 1) : n 1
n=1
:
_ 1_
1 12 = :
1 1 + 0 021 + 0 00021 + : :
X 1
= 11+ : :
0 021(0 01) : n 1
n=1

"f íH8̈ H ÁºÇèºH ½Ó© ìrº ³ð&³½+É º e .
03 : 1
_
03: = =
1 01 : 3
:
0 021 363 7 37
:
_1
1 12 _ = 11+ : = + =
1 0 01: 330 330 33
p ë>ß
yo º p _Æ [þv℄jYL`
?/H ³ðrZO` p ë>ßs Ç zZOõ ½¨ìr l 0A .
#
º x9Æ\ > p \ &h#Qïr
( ) .
10 p = p; 100 p = p ; 1000 p = p ; : : :
( ) ( )
2
( )
3
0:1 p = 1=p; 0:01 p = 1=p ; 0:001 p = 1=p ; : : :

( ) ( )
2
( )
3
¹M
4 p
ZOÜ¼ æ¼ 6£§
º[þt` zZOÜ¼ Ë̈#Q +.
62 ℄j 2 ©
Êº<ü FGÇ
<
_
(a) 101 1 :
(2) (b) 0 1 :
_ 2_
(3)
Solution (a) :
_
101 1 (2) = 100(2) + 1(2) + 0 1(2) + 0 01(2) + : :
= 4+1+
1
2
+
1
4
+
=
1 2
= 5+ = 6
1 1 2 =
"f _
101 1 :
(2) = 6 = 110(2) s .
(b) :
_2
01 _
(3) = :
0 121212 : : :(3) = 0:12(3) + 0:0012(3) + 0:000012(3) +

=
1
3
+
9
2
+
1
9
1
3
+
2
9
+
1
81
1
3
+
2
9
+
=
=
1
5 9
=
1 9
=
5
8

ÊÁ℄ M ;³¹ÊÁ+ e

Ôeµ Å℄Æ
1
ÁºÇ/åLº X
an s º§4Ç ÕªQ
s .
n=1
an = sn sn 1
sÙ¼
lim
n!1
an =
n!1
lim sn n!1
lim sn 1
= s s = 0
1
s "f n!1 an s >rF t ·ú§ n!1 an 6 s
. lim lim =0
X
an Ér µ1ÏíßÇ.
n=1

ð5/× ÷5ÇaÆß
1
Á ºÇ/åLº an s º§4 n!1 an s
X
lim =0 .
n=1
1
!1 an s
>rF t ·ú§ nlim
!1 an 6= 0 s
an Ér µ1ÏíßÇ.(/Äº) X
nlim
n =1
1
an = 0 s
an s
º§4 Ht µ1Ïíß Ht {9ìøÍ½ÓóøÍ&ñ
ZOÜ¼H ·ú º \O.
X
Note lim
n!1
n=1
1
6£§ l%!3 nlim
!1 an=0

â
º
Ä X
an H º§4½+É º¸, µ1Ïíß½+É º¸ e.
n=1
X 1 1 1
X 1
2 n; n
n=1 n=1
℄ 2 ℄X åL/º
j 63
¹M
5 £§6 /åLº[þts º§4 Ht µ1Ïíß Ht óøÍéß # .
X1 1
X 1
(a) (1 e n
) (b) n sin
n=1 n=1
n
Solution (a) an = 1 e n ! 1 6= 0 s
Ù¼ /åLºH µ1ÏíßÇ.
(b) n sin
1
n
=
sin 1 =n
=n
1
! 1 6= 0 s
Ù¼ /åLºH µ1ÏíßÇ.
ºÇ/åLº_Æ ½+ËÉr º\P_Æ ÂÒìr½+Ë_Æ FGÇÜ¼ &ñ

_Æ÷&Ù¼ º\P\ / # $í
wnÇ ú́§Ér $í
Á
[
9
| ts ÁºÇ/åLº\ / #¸ $í
wnÇ
þ .
ÁÊ℄ M ;³¹ÊÁ+ eÔeµ Å℄Æ
L
å
/ º an õ bn s º§4 ©º \ / # 6£§ 1pxds $í
wnÇ
P P
.
1
X X 1
an = an
n=1 n=1
1
X 1
X 1
X
a
( n bn ) = an bn
n=1 n=1 n=1
¹M
6 jrj < 1 {
9 M: 6£§ /åLº_
Æ ½+Ë` ½¨ #.
S = 1 + 2r + r2 + 2r3 + r4 + 2r5 +
Solution an = rn s .
; ns º
(
0
bn =
rn ; n s
f.Ëº
¼
Ü &ñ
_Æ ÅÒQ# /åLºH 1
X
S= a
( n + n) b
n=0

s .
P
an õ P
bn
Ér yy /BNq r; r2 1pxq/åLºsÙ¼
X1 1 X1 r
an = ; bn =
n=0
1 r n=0
1 r2

s "f
.
1
X X1 X1
S = a
( n + n) = b an + bn
n=0 n=0 n=0
1 r 1+2 r
= + =
1 r 1 r2 1 r2
64 ℄j 2 ©
Êº<ü FGÇ
<
s .
j 3 ℄X <Êº_Æ FGÇ
℄ 65
V 3 â

Á
Ê
þ Á
+;ø
³
5

Ê
< º y f x x _Æ °ú̄Ér x #
= ( )= Q" ~½ÓZOÜ¼ \ Æ0>t8¸ ½Ó© \ Æ0>
2
2 4 .
M
s : f x Æ0>tH °ú̄ \ x °ú M: f _Æ ;³ø5G±ê limit s 6£§õ °ú
( ) 4 2 ( )

s ·p .
lim
x!2
x2 = 4

Ê
< º_Æ FGÇÉr 6£§õ °ú s º\P_
Æ FGÇ` s6 x # &ñ
_Æ½+É º e a º§4 H e_Æ_Æ .
º\
xn xn 6 a \ / # x #Q" ~½ÓZOÜ¼ a \ Æ0>t8¸
P ( )( = ) ( )
yn = f (xn ) ! L

s f x ½Ó© L \ Æ0>t
( ( ) x a °ú M: f x H L ÊÁ℄ø5 onverge Ç
) ( ) ( ) .
þÁÊÁ+ ;³ø5±êG
a º§4 H e_Æ_Æ º\P x
( n) \ / # xn 6 ( = a)
yn = f (xn ) ! L

s x a °ú M: f x H L º§4Ç Ç s\ çßéßy
( ) .
x!a
f x L ¢̧ H x ! a {9 M: f x ! L
lim ( )= ( )
·p sM: L ` x a \"f f x _Æ FGÇ°ú̄s Ç

. , = ( ) .
Note <Êº x a \"f &ñ

_Æ÷&t ·ú§¸ x
= = a\
"f <Êº_Æ FGÇ°ú̄Ér &ñ
_Æ|¨ º¸ e.
¹M
1 6£§ FGÇ°ú̄` ½¨ # .
x2 4
lim
x!2 x 2
Solution f (x) =
x2
x
4
2
H x 6 \"f &ñ
_Æ÷&9 x 6 s
=2 =2
f (x) = x + 2

s "f
.
x2 4
lim
x!2 x
= lim (
x!2
x + 2) = 4
2

s .
Note FGÇ°ú̄_Æ &ñ
_ÆÂÒ' FG
Ç°ú̄Ér x a \"f_Æ f x _Æ °ú̄ f a <üH ©'a \O \V\
= ( ) ( ) .
[#
t
þ Q <Êº f x 6£§õ °ú s &ñ
_Æ)a â
Äº\¸ x \"f fi x i ; Æ_ FGÇ°ú̄Ér ¸
( ) =2 ( ) ( = 1 2)
º s
¿ 4 .
66 ℄j 2 ©
Êº<ü FGÇ
<
8 8
x2 x2
; x 6= 2 ; x 6= 2
< 4 < 4
(a) f1 (x) = x 2 (b) f2 (x) = x 2
4; x=2 2; x=2
: :
y = f (x) y = f1 (x) y = f2 (x)
4 4 4
2 2 2
2 4 2 4 2 4
¹M 2 6£§ FGÇ°ú̄` ¸ # .

lim sin
x!0 x
Solution <Êº f x ( ) = sin

x
H x = 0 \"f &ñ
_Æ÷&t ·ú§H. 0 H~½Ó\"f f (x) #QbG>
Ht ¶ú(R xn . =
1
n
; n = 1; 2; : : : {
9 M: f (x) _Æ °ú̄` ½¨ 6£§õ °ú
.
f (x1 ) = sin = 0; f (x2 ) = sin 2=0
f (x3 ) = sin 3 = 0; f (x4 ) = sin 4 = 0
¢̧Ç xn =
1
n
; n = 1; 2; : : : {
9 M: f (x) _Æ °ú̄` ½¨ 6£§õ °ú .

f (x1 ) = sin( ) = 0; f (x2 ) = sin 2 =0

f (x3 ) = sin 3 = 0; f (x4 ) = sin 4 = 0
ÕªQ s\ H

lim sin =0
x!0 x
s ú́½+É ºH \O
x \"f FGÇ°ú̄s >rF 9 Ü¼ º§4 H ¸H
. =0 º\P xn \ 0 ( )
/ # f xn s °ú Ér °ú̄Ü¼ º§4K Ç tëß ëß xn n s r ú́Kf"
( ( )) . =
4
2
+1

=2 n +
xn 2
s f xn _Æ °ú̄s
( ) ¸¿º s )a ¢̧Ç xn n s f xn _Æ °ú̄Ér ¸¿º s )a
1 . =
2
( ) 1 .
z´℄j ÕªAáÔ\ Õª

9 y f x H H~½Ó\"f õ s\ Áººy 1
= ( ) x H ¯ `
l0
4 1
1 1
^ º e .
℄ 67
1 1
-3 -1 -0.5 0.5 1 3 -0.5

1
- 3 -0.25 0.25
1
0.5
3
-1 -1
x0\
Æ0>|9 M: f (x) _Æ °ú̄s _Æ °ú̄Ü¼ Æ0>tt ·ú§Ü¼Ù¼ f (x) = sin _Æ

x
G
FÇ°ú̄

lim sin
x!0 x
r
É
rF t ·ú§H
> .
;³ø5ßÓÏ
l \"f ¤1pws >íßl\
3 s6 xÇ >íßs ÕªAáÔH ¼#o ØÔ> Õª õ\

Å
# Òtëß \Vlu ·ú§Ér ¸ÓÀ\ {9Ü¼vH â
Äº[þts e "f FGÇ°ú̄` ½¨ ǑÉr >
.
`
ß
í H â
Äº\¸ >íßl_Æ õ
\ sǑ:r&hÜ¼ SX H ¯ s 9¹̄ s℄j Äºo ·ú .
eH <Êº[þt_Æ FGÇ°ú̄` s6 x
# Dhîr <Êº_Æ FGÇ°ú̄` ½¨ H ~½ÓZO` ¶ú(Rl Ç

. Êº_Æ FGÇZOgË:Ér º\P_Æ FG
< ÇZOgË:\"f ~1> Ä»¸)a
.
³;ø5ßÓÏ
©ºs FGÇ°ú̄
lim
x!a
f (x); lim
x!a
g(x)
>rF 6£§s $í
wnÇ .
fx
1. lim [ ( )
x!a
g(x)℄ = xlim
!a f (x) xlim
!a g(x)
2. lim [
x!a
f (x)℄ = xlim
!a f (x)
f x g(x)℄ = xlim
3. lim [ ( )
x!a !a f (x) xlim
!a g(x)
f (x)
(x) 6= 0 s

f (x) lim
x!a
4. lim
x!a
g lim
x!a g (x)
=
lim g (x)
x!a
f (x) s
&ñ
_Æ÷&
p
n
5. lim
x!a p q
n
lim
x!a
f (x) = n lim f (x)
x!a
s .
68 ℄j 2 ©
Êº<ü FGÇ
<
©º a ü< \ /
#
lim
x!a
= ; lim
x!a
x=a
s s FGÇ°ú̄õ f x
. ( )= g(x) = x
Z~ [j P: $í
|9` ìøÍ4¤ # s6 x
lim
x!a
xn = an
e` ·ú º e r

s $í
|9õ 'Í P: $í
|9 ¿º P: $í
|9` s6 x ½Ód f x \ /
. , ( )
#
lim
x!a
f (x) = f (a)
s $í
wnÇ t}Ü¼ Ä»o<Êº Q x
. ( )=
f (x)
g(x)
\ / # x!a g x lim ( )=0 6 s
lim f (x)
x!a f (a)
lim
x!a
Q (x) = = = Q(a)
lim g (x) g(a)
x!a
s .
/×Ïø ËÂhÁþÊ Á+ ;³ø5G±ê

½Ód ¢̧H Ä»o<Êº Q x \ / # a &ñ
_Æ%i\ eÜ¼
( )
lim
x!a
Q(x) = Q(a)
s .
Note sXO> a \"f <Êº_Æ FGÇ°ú̄õ <Êº°ú̄s {9u H â
Äº <ÊºH a \"f 5Åqs
Ç sQÇ $í
|9` °
. H <Êº\ / #H ℄X\"f ÀÒl Ç
ú 5 .
¹M 3 6£§ FGÇ°ú̄` ½¨ # .
(a) lim ( x3 + 2x2 4) x3 + 2x2 4

x!2 ( ) lim
p
x!2 x3 2
(b) lim
x!2
x3 + 2x2 4
Solution
(a) f (x) = x3 + 2x2 4 \ / # f (2) = 12 sÙ¼ ÅÒ#Q FGÇ°ú̄Ér s 12 .
p p
(b) lim
x!2
p
f (x) =
q
lim
x!2
f (x) = 12 = 2 3 s .
( ) ÅÒ#Q Ä»od_Æ ìr¸\ g x ( )= x3 2

lim
x!2
g(x) = g(2) = 6 6= 0
℄ 69
s¼Ù ÅÒ#Q FGÇ°ú̄Ér f (2) 12

= =2
g(2) 6
s .
ÈÁø57U "+ ;³ø5G±ê

y=
a
x
_Æ ÕªAÔáH a > {9 M:ü< a < {9 M: yy 6£§õ °ú
0 0 .
y y
x x
x!1{
9 M: H \ Æ0>
sM:
a
0 .
x
a
=0 lim
x x!1

s ?/ x ªÆ_ ÁºÇ/ °ú M: xa H 0 Ü¼ ÊÁ℄ø5( onverge) Ç. #l
f 0 ` xa _Æ ªÆ_ ÁºÇ/\"f_Æ ;
" ø5G±ê(limit)s Ç. ðøÍt x ! 1 {9 M: xa
³
H 0 \ Æ

0>tHX< s â
Äº a
lim =0
x! 1 x

s ?/ 6£§_Æ ÁºÇ/\"f FGÇ°ú̄s 0 s Ç. {9ìøÍ&hÜ¼ x ! 1 {9 M:_Æ <Ê
º y = f (x) _Æ FGÇ°ú̄Ér 6£§õ °
s &ñ
_ÆÇ.
ú
ÈÁø57 U"+ ;³ø5G±ê

x!1 1 { 9 M: <Êº f x L \ Æ0>t
( ) ( )
x!1
lim f (x) = L (x!lim1 f (x) = L)

s æ¼ f _Æ ª_Æ 6£§_Æ ÁºÇ/\"f_Æ FGÇ°ú̄Ér L s Ç
( ) .
Note rì ©ºs ª_Æ ÁºÇ/\"f ìr¸ ª ¢̧H 6£§_Æ ÁºÇ/ °ú̄`
,
Õ
.ªQ Õª <Êº_Æ ª_Æ ÁºÇ/\"f FGÇ°ú̄Ér s r ú́K"f g x f x s
0 . ( ) =
f x 1s
( )
lim ( )=
x!1

lim
x!1
g(x) = xlim
!1 =0
f (x)
70 ℄j 2 ©
Êº<ü FGÇ
<
s sQÇ $í
|9Ér
. 6£§õ °ú s çßéßy ?/l¸ Ç .

1 =0
¹M 4 6£§õ °ú s &ñ

_Æ)a Ä»o<Êº\ / # x!1 f x ü< x! lim ( ) lim
1 f (x) \
½
¨ #.
2x+1
f (x) =
x 1
Solution 2x+1 `
x 1 ¾º
2x + 1 = 2(x 1) + 3
sÙ¼
x+1
2 3
=2+
x 1 x 1
s "f y f x _Æ ÕªAáÔH y x _Æ ÕªAáÔ\ x »¡¤ ª_Æ ~½Ó¾ÓÜ¼ ëßpu y ¡¤» ª
. = ( ) =
3
1 ,
_Æ ~½Ó¾ÓÜ¼ ëßpu î̈
's1lx %3#Q
2 .
10
y2
-5 5 10
x1
-5
-10
"f
lim
x!1
f (x) = 2; x! 1 f (x) = 2
lim
s .
ÊÁË^Æ\FD9¤n>
l \"f f x xx _Æ ÕªAáÔH x &t f y _Æ ÕªAáÔü< ÅÒ Æ
5 ( )=
2 +1
0> =2
s â
Äº f y \ y f x _Æ ÊÁË^Æ\FD9¤n> horizontal asymptote s Ç
. = 2
1
= ( ) ( )
{9ìøÍ&hÜ¼ ºî̈
&
. hHÉr x _Æ ÁºÇ/\"f_Æ FGÇ°ú̄` ½¨ ¹1Ô` º e .
℄ 71
ÁÊË^Æ\FD9¤n>
Ê
<
º y f x \ / #
= ( )
x!1
lim f (x) = L; ¢̧H x! lim
1 f (x) = L

s f y
= L
Ér y = f (x) _Æ ºî̈
&hHs .
¹M
6 6= 0 {
9 M:
ax + b
f (x) =
x + d
Æ
_ ºî̈
&hH` ½¨ # .
Solution
a ad
ax + b = ( x + d) +b

Ù
s ¼
a (b ad)= a (b ad)= 2
f (x) = + = +
x + d x + d=

s . x ! 1 {9 M:, x + d= ! 1 sÙ¼
a a
lim f (x) = ;
x!1
lim
x! 1 f (x) =
. "f ºî̈
&hHÉr y = a s.
s
ÈÁø57U "+ ;³ø5G±ê Ä© e

<Êº fg xx _Æ ÁºÇ/\f"_Æ F
( )
GÇ°ú̄Ér ìr¸_Æ FGÇ°ú̄s s Ä»ÇÇ °ú̄` °ú¸2¤
0
A
þ
+ # ½¨Ç :£¤y Ä»o<Êº_Æ Á
ºÇ/\"f_Æ FGÇ°ú̄Ér ìrü< ìr¸\ ìr¸_Æ þj/ º
( )
. ,
¾
º ½¨ #
.
¹M
7 6£§ FGÇ°ú̄` ½¨ # .
x2 + 1 x
2 3+3 2+1 x
(a) lim (b) lim
x!1 x2 1 x!1 3x4 5 2 x 2
Solution (a) ìr ìr¸\ x Ü¼ ¾º

, 2
x2 + 1 1+1 =x2 1+0

lim = lim = =1
x!1 x2 1 x!1 1 1=x2 1 0
%

` H
3 .
72 ℄j 2 ©
Êº<ü FGÇ
<
(b) ìr ìr¸\ x Ü¼ ¾º
, 4
x 2 3+3 2+1 x =x + 3=x2 + 1=x4

2
lim = lim
x!1 3x4 5x2 + 2 x!1 3 5=x2 + 2=x4
0+0+0
= =0
3 0+0
s .
¿º ½Ó<Êº
f (x) = an xn + + a1 x + a0 ; g(x) = bm xm + + b1 x + b0
\ / #
f (x)
Q(x) =
g(x)
ìr ìr¸\ xm Ü¼ èH Êê >íß 6£§ õ\ %3H
. , .
8
>
> 0 ; n<m
<
an
lim Q(x) = ;n=m
x!1 > bn
>
:
1; n > m
»Äo<Êº {9ìøÍ&h ìrº<Êº_Æ â
Äº¸ ìr¸_Æ FGÇ°ú̄s s Ä»
ÇÇ FGÇ°ú̄
0
` °ú¸2¤ +þA # >
íßÇ .
¹M 8 6£§ <Êº_Æ ºî̈

&hH` ½¨ # .
p
x2 + 1 1
f (x) =
x
p2 ì
Solution rºdÉr mtëß ìr, ìr¸\ ìr¸_Æ þj/ º x ¾º#Q . x > 0 s
x= x s Ù¼
p p
x2 + 1 1 x
( 2 + 1) =x2 1=x
lim = lim
x!1 x x!1 1
r
1 1
= lim 1+ lim
x!1 x x!1 x
p
2
= 1+0 0 = 1
p
s Ç¼# x < s
. x
0 = x2 sÙ¼
p p
x2 + 1 1 x
( 2 + 1) =x2 1 =x
lim = lim
x! 1 x x! 1 1
r
h i
1 1
= lim 1+ lim
x! 1 x x! 1x
p
2
= 1+0 0 = 1
s "f ¿º >h_Æ ºî̈

&hH y
. =1 ;y = 1 s >rFÇ .
℄ 73
x
-2 2
-1
74 ℄j 2 ©
Êº<ü FGÇ
<
4â
V
;
ø
³ + N
5 ñÑ
5
xa ß¼"f(¢̧H a _Æ ¸ǑÉrAá¤\"f) a °ú M: x ! a+ ·p. a Ü¼
"f(¢̧H a _Æ ¢,aAá¤\"
f) a °ú M:H x ! a ?/l Ç.
;³ø5ø ËÁ;³ø5
6£§õ °ú s &ñ
_Æ)a [jlÞ« <Êº Heaviside fun tion _Æ t
10
( )11 = 0 \"f FGÇ°ú̄`
ÒqtyK . (
0 ; t<0
H (t) =
1 ; t0
-1 1
s â
Äº t ! {9 M: H t H ½Ó© \ Æ0>ttëß t ! s ½Ó© s ÕªQ¼Ù
0+ ( ) 1 12
0 0 .
t \ 0 Æ0>t"
f H t Æ0>tH éß _Æ ºH >rF t ·ú§H r ú́K"f
( ) .
lim
t!0
H (t)
H >rF t ·ú§H ÕªQ t ! s H t
. 0+ ( ) !1s
t ! 0 s H t ( ) !0s
.
lim H (t) = 1; lim H (t) = 0
t!0+ t!0
#l"f Ér \"f_

1 Æ ËÁ;³ø5G±ê right-hand limit Ér \"f_Æ ;³ø5G
0 ( ê left-hand
± ), 0 0 (
limit s
Ç {9ìøÍ&h â
Äº_Æ &ñ
_ÆH 6£§õ °ú
) . .
;³ø5ø ËÁ;³ø5
xa_ Æ ¸ǑÉrá¤A\"f ¢̧H ¢,aAá¤\"f a \ Æ0>|9 M: f x _Æ °ú̄s L \ Ç\O
( ) s Æ
0> ( )
t L ` a \f" f x _Æ ÄºFGÇ ¢̧H ýaFGÇ s
( ) ( )
f x L ¢̧
lim H x!a f x L
( )= ( lim ( )= )
x!a+
s H .
ºÄFGÇ ¢̧H ýaFG

, ÇÉr >rF½+É M:¸ e >rF t ·ú§` M:¸ e ¢̧Ç ¿º F
GÇs ¸º¿ .
>rF H â
Äº ¿º FG
Çs \ º¸ e °ú ` º¸ e ¿º FGÇs >rF "
, f {9u .
10 Olive Heaviside(1850{1925), %
ò
²DG_Æ l/BN<Æ
11 r

ß
ç 0 \
"f

¶
é
"

`

`
4
§

` :
M ÀÓ_Æ âì2£§` /?H <Êºs.
12 z
´℄
jH&

S
ñ y
X 1s
℄ 4 ℄X FGÇ_Æ >íß
j 75
G
FÇ°ú̄s >rF 9 s â
Äº {9u H °ú̄s FGÇ°ú̄s )a
.
³;ø5+ ×iµ= ¿

>
a\ "f f x _Æ FGÇ°ú̄s L s |
( ) 9¹̄Øæìr¸| Ér ¿º FGÇ°ú̄ x!a+ f x ü< x!a
¨ lim ( ) lim f (x)
rF
>

lim f (x) = lim f (x) = L
x!a+ x!a
¯ s

.
x
[ ℄ \ x \ Åt ·ú§H þj/&ñ
º \V\ [þt#Q .
[1℄ = 1 ; :
[1 9℄ = 1 ; [ :
1 1℄ = 2;
s
f x x \ i7ÇaÆÊÁÁþÊÁ greatest integer fun tion Ç
. ( )=[ ℄ ( ) .
¹M
1 þj/&ñ
º<Êº f x x \ / # 6£§ FGÇ°ú̄s >rF FGÇ°ú̄` ½¨ #
( )=[ ℄ .
(a)
x!
lim
1 + f (x); lim
x! 1
f (x); x!
lim
1
f (x)
(b) lim f (x); lim f (x); lim f (x)
x! 2 + x! 2 x! 2
Solution º n \ / # ½ ¨çß n; n \ eH °ú̄ x \ / # [ + 1) x

[ ℄= ns
. "f
ªA
Õ áÔ\ Õª9 6£§õ °ú Ér >éß ¸ªs )a .
Π x
-1 1 2
2
-1
-2
(a) 1 _Æ ¸ǑÉrá¤A\f" \ Æ
0>t f x H sÙ¼
1 ( ) 1
x!
lim
1 + f (x) = 1
s ìøÍ _Æ ¢,aAá¤\f" \ Æ0>t f x H sÙ¼

. 1 1 ( ) 2
lim f (x) = 2
x! 1
s "f x!
. lim
1
f (x)
H
rF t ·ú§H.
>
76 ℄j 2 ©
Êº<ü FGÇ
<
<2s
Ù¼

(b) 1 <
2
lim f (x) = lim f (x) = lim f (x) = 1
x! 2 + x! 2 x! 2
s .
¹M 2 <Êº y = f (x) _

Æ ÕªAáÔ 6£§õ °ú ` M: x = a \"f ÄºFGÇ°ú̄õ ýaFGÇ°ú̄
lim f (x); lim f (x)
x!a+ x!a
` ½¨ # . x=a\

"f FGÇ°ú̄s >rF t ·ú§Ü¼ Õª sÄ»\ [O"î
#.
3
-1 1 2
(a) a=2 ( ) a=0

(b) a=1 (d) a= 1
Solution
(a) lim f (x) f (x) = 3 Ü
= 2 ; ¼ ÄºFGÇ_Æ °ú̄õ
lim ýaFGÇ_Æ °ú̄s ØÔ f" .
x!2+ x!2
x=2\
"f_Æ F
GÇ°ú̄ xlim
!2 f (x)
H >rF t ·ú§H.
(b) lim f (x) = lim f (x) = 0 = f (0) s
Ù¼ x = 1 \"f_Æ FGÇ°ú̄Ér xlim
!2
f (x) = 0 s
.
x!1+ x!1
( ) lim f (x) = lim f (x) = 1 s

Ù¼ xlim
!0 f (x) = 1 s
.
x!0+ x!0
(d) lim
+ f (x) = 0 ; lim f (x) = 1 s
Ù¼ x = 1 \"f_Æ FGÇ°ú̄ x! lim f (x)
H >rF
x! x!
t ·ú§H
1 1 1
.
Note {2³ ½¨çß a; b \"f &ñ

_Æ)a <Êº y f x \ / # ª =åQ&h a; b \f"_Æ FGÇ°ú̄Ér
[ ℄ = ( )
ÄºFGÇ°ú̄õ ýaFGÇ°ú̄Ü¼ yy &ñ
_ÆÇ r ú́K"f .
lim f (x) = L1 ; lim f (x) = L2

x!a+ x!b
s f H a \"f FGÇ°ú̄ L b \"f FGÇ°ú̄ L \ °úH Ç

1, 2 .
ÊÁÒÏ\FD9¤n>
j 4 ℄X GFÇ_Æ >íß
℄ 77
l \f" x ! s

5 1+ 13
f (x) _
Æ °ú̄Ér ÁºÇy &. s â
Äº
lim f (x) = 1
x!1+
?/ x ¸ǑÉrAá¤\"f °ú M: ª_Æ ÁºÇ/ L±Óñ5Ñø5 diverge Ç ðøÍ

1 ( ) .

t °ú Ér <Êº\ / #
x!1
lim f (x) = 1
s
x ¢,aAá¤\f" °ú M: 6£§_
1 Æ ÁºÇ/ µ1ÏíßÇ Ç {9ìøÍ&h <Êº\ / #H .
6
§õ °ú s &ñ
_ÆÇ
£ .
ÈÁø57× L±Óñ5Ñ
x ! a ¢̧ +
H x ! a {9 M: f x _Æ °ú̄s ÁºÇy &t
( ) ( )
f x 1; ¢̧ lim H x!a f x 1

( )= ( lim ( )= )
x!a+
æ¼ x ¸ǑÉrAá¤\"f ¢̧H ¢,aAá¤\"f a °ú M: f x H ª_Æ ÁºÇ/ µ1ÏíßÇ

( ) ( )
Ç

x ! a ¢̧H x ! a {9 M: f x _Æ °ú̄s ÁºÇy t
. +
( ) ( )
x!a+
fx 1; ¢̧
lim H x!a f x 1
( )= ( lim ( )= )
æ¼ x ¸ǑÉrAá¤\"f ¢̧H ¢,aAá¤\"f a °ú M: f x H 6£§_Æ ÁºÇ/ µ1ÏßíÇ

( ) ( )
Ç

.
\V\ [þt#Q
x!
lim
1 1
1
x2
= 1; lim
x! 1 + 1
1
x2
= 1
lim
x!1 1
1
x2
= 1; lim
x!1+ 1
1
x2
= 1

s .
x
-3 -1 1 3
-1
-3
13 x a

ß¼
"
fa\
Æ0
>|M
9 : x ! a+ ·p.
78 ℄j 2 ©
Êº<ü FGÇ
<
6£§_Æ W1 â
Äº
lim f (x) = 1; lim f (x) = 1; lim f (x) = 1; lim f (x) = 1
x!a+ x!a x!a+ x!a
xa\ Æ0>t <Êº_Æ ÕªAáÔH ºf x = a ü< ëßtH ·ú§tëß ÅÒ Æ0>. s
×æ ¸ $í
wn x = a \ y = f (x) _Æ ÊÁÒÏ\FD9¤n>(verti al asymptote)s
ÂÒǑÉr.
ÁÊÒÏ\FD9¤n>
6£§ W1 >h_Æ d ×æ\"f ¸ $í
wn f x = a\
<Êº y = f (x) _Æ ºfh&H
s Ç .
lim f (x) = 1; lim f (x) = 1

x!a+ x!a+
lim f (x) = 1; lim f (x) = 1
x!a x!a
; 6= 0 \
"f xlim f (x) = 0, ¢̧
H xlim f (x) = 0 s
f x = a H <Ê

Note g(x) =
f (x) !a+ !a
º y = g(x) _Æ ºfh&Hs )a.
¹M 3 6£§ <Êº_Æ ºf&hH` ¸¿º ½¨ # .
1
f (x) =
x
3 x
2 2
Solution x3 2x2 = x2 (x 2) s Ù¼ x = 0, ¢̧H x = 2 \"f f _Æ ìr¸H FGÇ°ú̄ ` °ú

0
H. "f y = f (x) H ¿º >h_Æ ºf&hH
x = 0; x = 2
\ °úH .
y
x
-1 1 3
-1
-2
j 4 ℄X FGÇ_Æ >íß
℄ 79
0=0 ªS·+ ;³ø5G±ê

ìrºd fg xx Æ_ FGÇ°ú̄\ /
( )
# 7á§ 8 ¶ú(Rl Ç . lim
x!a
f (x); xlim
!a g(x) >rF
x!a g x 6 s

( )
lim ( )=0
f (x) lim
x!a
f (x)
lim =
x!a g (x) lim g (x)
x!a
s $í
wnÇ ÕªXO x!a g x
. lim ( )=0 â
ÄºH #QbG> |¨ Æ s â
ÄºH 6£§ ¿º t ¾º
?
QÒ
# tyK ^ º e
q .
1. lim
x!a
f (x) 6= 0 2. lim
x!a
f (x) = 0

Í
' P: â
ÄºH x a ºf&h
= Hs Hd` ¶ú(R¤
.
º P: â
ÄºH = g1Js ÷&HX< s â
ÄºH ìr¸ s FGÇ°ú̄` °ú¸2¤ /º&h
¿ 0 0 0
>

íß` K ïr Êê FGÇ°ú̄` ½¨Ç .
¹M
4 6£§ FGÇ°ú̄` ½¨ # .
x2 4
lim
x!2 x2 x 2
x
f H \"f &ñ
_Æ÷&t ·ú§H ÕªQ x 6 s
2
4
Solution f (x) = 2 . =2
x2 x 2
x2 4 (x 2)(x + 2) x+2
= =
x2 x 2 (x + 1)(x 2) x+1
Ù
s ¼
x2 4 x+2 2+2 4
lim = lim = =
x!2 x 2 x 2 x!2 x+1 2+1 3

s .
¹M
5 6£§ FGÇ°ú̄` ½¨ # .
p
x2 + 1 1
lim
x!0 x2
p
Solution f (x) = \"f f H &ñ
_Æ÷&t ·ú§H p"f ìr ìr¸
x2 + 1
x2
1
0 .
ÆF
_ GÇ°ú̄` 2[ # FGÇ°ú̄`
½¨½+É º \O ÕªQ ìr ìr¸\ yy x
`
. 2 +1+1
L

Y
p p p
x2 + 1 1 ( x2 + 1p 1)( x2 + 1 + 1)
=
x2 x2 ( x2 + 1 + 1)
x +1 1
2
= p
x ( x2 + 1 + 1)
2
= p 1
x 2 +1+1
80 ℄j 2 ©
Êº<ü FGÇ
<
` %3H "f
.
p
x2 + 1
lim
x!0 x2
1
= lim
x!
p 1
= p
1
x
0 2 +1+1 lim ( x2 + 1 + 1)
x!0
1 1
= q =
lim (
x!0
x 2
+ 1) + 1 2
s .
ÉÙÇaÆÌfC+ Nñ5Ñ
tFKÆt 1g
11
J_Æ FGÇ°ú̄` ½¨ H l\ ¶ú(R¤. {9ìøÍ&hÜ¼
0
;
0
0
;
1 ; 1 1; 0 1
0 1
1Jg_Æ FGÇ` ÉÙÇaÆÌfC indeterminate form s HX< â
Äº\ &h℄XÇ >
( ) íß` #
FGÇ°ú̄` ½¨½+É º e 6£§ lH 1 1 g1J_Æ FGÇ°ú̄` ½¨ H ~½ÓZO` # ïr
. .
¹M 6 6£§ FGÇ°ú̄` ½¨ # .
p
lim (
x!1
x2 + x x)
p
Solution x2 + x + x \
YL ¾º#Q ÅÒ
p p
p x2 + x x)( x2 + x + x)
x2 + x x =
(
p2
x +x+x
p2 x
=
x +x+x
1
= p
1+1 =x + 1
` %3H "f
.
p 1
lim (
x!1
x2 + x x) =
x!1
lim p
1+1 =x + 1
= p1 + 0 + 1
1
=
1
2
s .
N±Õ´ÇaÆh
FGÇ\ /Ç 6£§ ¿º &ñ
oH FGÇ°ú̄` ½¨ H ¢̧ ǑÉr ~½ÓZO\ /Ç ¯ s .
℄ 81
³;ø5G±ê+ Å℄Æ
aH~½Ó_Æ x \ / #
f (x) g(x)

s a °ú M: f ü< g _Æ FGÇ°
ú̄s >rFÇ ÕªQ 6£§ ÂÒ1pxds $í
wnÇ
. .
lim
x!a
f (x) xlim
!a g(x)
6£§ õH ÅÒ#Q <Êº ǑÉr ¿º <Êº s_Æ °ú̄` °úH â

Äº\ ÀÒl M:ëH\ zµdÞ«
Dn
ÇaÆh Sandwi h Theorem ¢̧H N±Õ´ ÇaÆh Squeeze Theorem ÂÒǑÉr
( ), ( ) .
µdzÞ«Dn ÇaÆh
aH~½Ó_Æ x \ / #
f (x) g(x) h(x)

s
lim
x!a
f (x) = xlim
!a h(x) = L

s ÕªQ FGÇ°ú̄ x!a g x >rF 6£§ ds $í
wnÇ
. lim ( ) .
lim
x!a
g(x) = L
Note ëß x!a jf x j

lim ( ) =0 s
jf (x)j f (x) jf (x)j
Ù
s¼ ±p×¼0Au &ñ
o\"f
lim
x!a
f (x) = 0
`

e ·ú º e
.
¹M
7 lim
x!0
x sin
1
x
=0 e` #
.
Solution j sin x1 j 1 s¼Ù jx x j jxj s

sin
1
. lim
x!0
jxj = 0 s
Ù¼
x!
j x
lim sin j = 0
0
1
x

s "f "é¶ H õ\ %3H
. .
82 ℄j 2 ©
Êº<ü FGÇ
<
y
2
Π
x
- 2Π - 1Π- 21Π 1 1
2Π Π
2
Π
y<Êºü< 'aº

a 6£§ ¿º FGÇ°ú̄Ér y<Êº_Æ ¸<Êº\ ½¨ H X<\ ×æ¹̄Ç %i½+É`
)
Ç.
¹M 8 6£§ ds $

wn<Ê` #
í .
sin t 1 os t 1
(a) lim =1 (b) lim =
t!0 t t!0 t 2 2
Solution
(a) 0 <t<

2
s
6£§ ÕªaË>\"f
BC ñ AB _Æ U´s AT
sÙ¼ t
t t tan t =
sin
sin
os t
s .
T
B
t
sinHtL tanHtL
t
O C A
1
f" 'Í P: ÂÒ1pxd\"f t

sin
t
1
s ¢̧Ç ¿º P: ÂÒ1pxd\"f
.
t
t
sin
os
t
s t! lim os
0
t=1s
Ù¼ ±p×¼0Au &ñ
o\ _Æ #
sin t
lim =1
t!0+ t
℄ 83
s s℄j t < s s

. 0 = t>0s
. ÕªQ t ! 0 {9 M: s ! s
0+
<ÊºH l<Êºs¼Ù
sin t sin( s) sin s
lim = lim = lim =1
t!0 t s!0+ s s!0+ s
` %3H "f
.
sin t
lim =1
t!0 t
s $í
wnÇ .
-3 Π -2 Π -Π Π 2Π 3Π
(b) ìr ìr¸\ ¸¿º

, (1 + os ) t \ YL
1 t
os 1 + os t sin
2
t 1
=
t2 1 + os t t2 1 + os t
` %3H t
sÙ¼
2
sin 1 1
. lim
t!0
=1 ; tlim
!0 1 + os t =
t 2 2
1 os t sin
2
t 1
lim = lim lim
t!0 t2 t!0 t2 t!0 1 + os t
= 1 12 =
1
2
s $í
wnÇ .
Note ©º \ / # x!a fg xx lim

( )
= s
xlim
!a g(x) = 0 s
xlim
!a f (x) = 0 s
#Q Ç .

"f l _Æ õ\"f
( )
7
lim sin
t!0
t = 0; lim os
t!0
t=1
`

e ·ú º e
.
n».ÉU +ø5 ;³ø5G±ê+ Nñ5Ñ

¨½ H FGÇ°ú̄_Æ <Êº 4¤ú̧Ç â
Äº u8̈\ _Æ # Äºo sp ·ú eH <Êº
ÆF
_ GÇ°ú̄Ü¼ +þA H ~½ÓZO` 6 xÇ \V\ [þt#Q x ! s u x ! s "f
. , 0 =2 0 .
x x
lim
x!0
sin 2
x
= lim
x!0
sin 2
2x
2
u
= lim
u!0
sin
u
2 =
1 2 = 2
84 ℄j 2 ©
Êº<ü FGÇ
<
)a ¢̧Ç x ! 1 s u
. =1 =x ! 0 s
. "f
lim
px sin 1 = lim p1
sin u
x!1 x u! 0u
sin u p
= lim
u!
u = 10 = 0
0u
` %3H .
¹M 9 6£§ FGÇ°ú̄` ½¨ # .
x
sin 3
p4 1 + t
; 6= 0
1
(a) lim
x!0 sin 2x
(b) lim
t!0 t
Solution
(a) ÅÒ#Q d` 6£§õ °ú s Ë̈#Q jþt º e .
x x x
sin 3
sin 2x
=
sin 3

3x sin 2x 2
2
3
"f x x x
lim
sin 3
x!0 sin 2x
= lim
x!0
sin 3
3x
lim
x!0 sin 2x
2
32 = 23
` %3H .
x = (1 + t)1=4
. ÕªQ t ! 0 {9 M: x ! 1 s x4 = 1 + t sÙ¼ t = x4 1
(b)

s f"
.
p4 1 + t 1 x 1
lim = lim
t!0 t x!1 (x 4 1)=

= lim =
x!1 x3 + x2 + x + 1 4
` %3H .
j 5 ℄X 5Åq<Êº
℄ 85
V 5 â

¥
>¢
o 4́Á
Ê
þ Á
3\"f ÄºoH ½Ód_Æ â
Äº e
X
℄ _Æ_Æ &h x a \"f <Êº_Æ FGÇ°ú̄õ <Êº°ú̄s {9u H
=
`

¯ ¤ <Êº sQÇ $í
|9`
. |9 M: f H x a \"f ¥o>¢4́ ontinuous s Ç
= ( ) .
o>¥¢4́ÁþÊÁ+ ÇaÆ+
Ê
<
º f 6£§ $í
|9` ëß7á¤ a \"f 5Åqs Ç .

lim
x!a
f (x) = f (a) = f lim
x!a
x (2.1)
Note d (2.1) Ér 6£§õ °ú s jþt º¸ e .
lim f (a + h) = f (a)
h!0
Note <Êº f x a \"f 5
= qsH ¯ Ér 6£§õ °ú Ér [j t z´` ?/í e
Å .
1. f a
( ) >rFÇ a &ñ
_
Æ%i\ 5ÅqÇ
. ( .)
2. lim
x!a
f x
( ) >rFÇ .
3. lim
x!a
f (x) = f (a)
¹M
1 6£§ <Êº x =1 \"f 5Åqs ÷&¸2¤ \ &ñ
# .
(
x 3x2 + 2; x 1
2 3
f (x) =
x + 4; x>1
Solution x = 1 \
"f ÄºFGÇs f (1) s ÷&¸2¤ \ &ñ
K Ç.
lim f (x) = lim ( x + 4) = +4
x!1+ x!1+
Ù
s ¼
+ 4 = f (1) = 2 3+2=1
"
\ f = 3 s f H \"f 5
1 qs
Å .
y
x
-1 1
-1
-2
86 ℄j 2 © Êº<ü FGÇ
<
<Êº f x a \"f 5Åqs u´ M: f H x a \"f ·¥o>¢4́ dis ontinuous s
= , = ( )
x a \ f _Æ ·¥
= >¢4́\ dis ontinuity s Ç f a \"f Ô5Åq
o ( )
ÄºH 6£§
â .
[jt â
Äºs .
f a
1. >rF t
( ) ·ú§H a &ñ
_Æ%i\ 5Åq t ·ú§H
. ( .)
2. lim
x!a
f x >rF t ·ú§H
( ) .
3. lim
x!a
f x >rF tëß x!a f x 6 f a s
( ) lim ( )= ( ) .
¹M 2 6£§ <ÊºH \"f 5Åqt Ô5Åqt óøÍéß #

0 .
(a) fx ( )=
1 fx x þ j/&ñ
º<Êº
(b) ( )=[ ℄ ( )
x 8
x sin ; x 6= 0
< 1
sin x (d) f (x) = x
( ) f (x) = :
1; x=0
x
Solution _Æ â
Äº \"f f &ñ
_Æ÷&t ·ú§Ü¼Ù¼ Ô5Åqs
(a), ( ) 0 .
(b) \"fH x! f x >rF t ·ú§Ü¼Ù¼ Ô5Åqs

lim
0
( ) .
t}Ü¼ \"fH (d)

lim
x!0
f (x) = 0 6= f (0) = 1
s¼Ù \"f Ô5Åqs
0 .
j 5 ℄X 5Åq<Êº
℄ 87
(a) (b)
y y
x Π x
-1 1 2
2
-1
-2
( ) (d)
y
1
-3 Π -2 Π -Π Π 2Π 3Π x
-1 1
Note Æ_ â
Äº yy f
1. ( ), (d) õ f Ü¼ r &ñ
_Æ f H \"f 5Åq
(0) = 1 (0) = 0 0

s sXO> Ô5Åq&h\f" 5Åqs ÷&¸2¤ <Êº\ r &ñ
_Æ½+É º eÜ¼ Væø5 ·¥o>
.
4́
¢ removable dis ontinuity s Ç
\ ( ) .
Note _Æ â
Äº%!3 ýaFGÇ ÄºFGÇs >rF "f ¿º °ú̄s ǑÉr â
ÄºH j»È ·¥o>¢4́
2. (b) ,
jump dis ontinuity s ÂÒǑÉr
\
( ) .
¥o>¢
4́ÁþÊÁ
jþ/&ñ
º<Êº y x _Æ â
Äº \"f ÄºFGÇ°ú̄õ <Êº°ú̄s {9uÇ s â
Äº f H
= [ ℄ 0 . 0
"
\f ¸ǑÉrAá¤Ü¼ÒÂ' 5Åqs Ç {9ìøÍ&hÜ¼ .
lim f (x) = f (a)

x!a+
s
a \f" <Êº f H ïÒR®X́ã×ÉÙ'a ¥o>¢4́ ontinuous from the right s Ç
( ) .
Ít
ø
ð
lim f (x) = f (a)
x!a
s
a \f" <Êº f H àÖS®X́ã×ÙÉ'a ¥o>¢4́ ontinuous from the left s Ç f Æ_ &ñ
( ) .
Æ%
_s ½¨çß a; b ÅÒ#Q|9 M:
i [ ℄
lim f (x) = f (a)
x!a+

s r ú́K"f ¸ǑÉrAá¤\"f 5
, qs 5Åqs Ç °ú Ér ~½ÓZOÜ¼
Å .
lim f (x) = f (b)

x!b
s
r ú́Kf" x b \f"H ¢
, aAá¤\"f 5Åqs 5Åqs Ç <Êº f ½¨çß_Æ ¸H
, = .
\
h
&"f 5Åqs ½¨çß\f" 5Åqs Ç <Êº &ñ
_Æ%i_Æ ¸H &h\"f 5Åqs ¥o>¢4́Áþ
.
88 ℄j 2 ©
Êº<ü FGÇ
<
ÊÁ ( ontinuous fun tion)
Ç.
p
¹M 3
f (x) = 1 x2 H ½¨çß [ 1 1℄; \"f 5Åqe` # .
Solution a 2 ( 1; 1) s

p
x!a
f (x)
lim =
x!a
lim 1 x2
q
= lim (1
x!a
x2 )
p
= 1 a2
= f (a)
s "f f H
. ( ;
1 1) \"f 5Åqs °ú Ér ~½ÓZOÜ¼
.
lim f (x) = 0 = f (1); lim

+ f (x) = 0 = f ( 1)
x!1 x! 1
e` {9 º e "f f H ½¨çß

. [ ;
1 1℄ \"f 5Åqs .
o>¥¢4́ÁþÊÁ
<Êº &ñ
_Æ%i_Æ ¸H &h\"f 5Åqs 5Åq<Êº Ç .
l \"f f _Æ &ñ

_Æ%iÉr ; sÙ¼ f H 5Åq<Êºs
3 [ 1 1℄ 14
.
Note f 5Åq<Ê
º K"f ½Ó© ½¨çß\"f 5Åq ¯ Ér m \V\ [þt#Q .
1
f (x) =
x
H &ñ
_Æ%is R f g s &ñ
_Æ%i_Æ ¸H &h\"f 5ÅqsÙ¼ 5Åq<Êºs Õ
0 ªQ ½¨çß .
[ ; \
1 1℄"fH 5Åqs m .
ÁþÊÁ+ ¥o>ñ5Ñø TÒ¼Å

Æ
℄
<Êº_Æ íßÜ¼ ½¨KtH 4¤ú̧Ç <Êº_Æ 5Åq$í
Ér <Êº_Æ íß\ /Ç FGÇZOgË:Ü¼ÂÒ
' SX½+É º e \V\ [þt#Q ¿º <Êº f ü< g a \"f 5Åqs
.
lim
x!a
f (x) = f (a); lim
x!a
g(x) = g(a)
s "f FGÇí
$|
. \ _Æ
9
fx
lim [ ( ) + ( )℄
x!a
gx = lim
x!a
f (x) + xlim
!a g(x)
= f (a) + g(a)
= (f + g )(a)
14
Ê
< º_
Æ&
_
ñ Æ%
s
i"
r
î ÷
&t ·ú§Ér â
Äº &ñ
_Æ%iÉr <Êº _Æp\ °úH þj/|9½+ËÜ¼ &ñ
_ÆÇ.
℄ 5 ℄X 5Åq<Êº
j 89

s f" <Êº f
. + g
H a \f" 5Åqs. °ú Ér ~½ÓZOÜ¼ 6£§ z´` {9 º e.
þÁÊÁ+ ¥o>ñ5Ñ+ ¥o>¢4́Å℄Æ

º <Êº f ü< g a \f" 5Åqs 6£§ <Êº[þt¸ x a \f" 5Åqs
¿ = .
f g; f
H ©º ; f g; f=g g a 6 â
Äº
( ) ( ( )=0 )
½+Ë$í
<ÊºH ÅÒ#Q <Êº[þt\f" Dhîr <Êº\ ëß[þt#Q?/H ¢̧ _Æ ~½ÓZOs a H~½Ó\ .
" &ñ
_Æ)a <Êº g ü< b g a H~
f = ( ) Ó\"f &ñ
_Æ)a <Êº f \ / # ½+Ë$í
<Êº f Æ g H 6£§õ
½
s
ú
° &ñ
_ÆÇ .
(f Æ g)(x) = f (g(x))
¹M
4
1
f (x) = ; g(x) = x; h(x) = 1 x2
p
x

s p
( f Æ g)(x) = p1x ; (g Æ h)(x) = 1 x2
f Æ h)(x) = h Æ f )(x) = 1
1 1
( ; (
1 x 2 x2

s .
ga\ "f 5Åqs f b = g(a) \"f 5Åqs . ÕªQ x a °ú M: g(x)
H b Æ0>t(g a \"f

5ÅqsÙ¼) g(x) b f (g(x)) H f (b) = f (g(a))

Æ0>.(f b \"f 5ÅqsÙ¼)
lim
x!a
f (g(x)) = f (g(a))
r ú́K"f f Æ g H a \"f 5Åqs
.
Ò¼TÅ℄ÆÁþÊÁ+ ¥o>¢4́Å℄Æ
ga\ "f 5Åqs f b = g(a) \
"f 5Åqs f Æ g H a \"f 5Åqs.
X℄_Æ õ\ _Æ ¸H

3 Ó<Êºü< Ä»o<ÊºH &ñ
_Æ%i\"f 7£¤ ìr¸ s &h\
½ ( , 0
f
" )5Åqs Õª sü\¸ ℄jYL
. H<Êº f x xr y<Êº tº<Êº Õª<Êº 1pxÉr 5Åq
( ) = , , ,
Ê
<
ºs sQÇ <Êº[þt_Æ íß ¢̧H ½+Ë$í
Ü¼ ëß[þt#QtH <Êº[þt¸ %ir 5Åq<Êºs
. , .
¹M
5 6£§ <Êº[þtÉr 5Åq<Êº[þts .
p 1
sin x2 1 ; tan
1
x
; log( x2 x ; e x2
2 )
90 ℄j 2 ©
Êº<ü FGÇ
<
¿Ḉ\ã× ¥o>¢4́ê
> ÁþÊÁ

Kqs×¼<Êº (
0 ; t<0
H (t) =
1 ; t0
℄X/°ú̄<Êº (
x; x < 0
f (x) =
x; x 0
%!3 <Êº ¿º >h s_Æ ½¨çß\"f ØÔ> &ñ
_Æ÷& ¿Ḉ\ã× pie ewise &
©
_Æ÷&%3
ñ ( )
Ç ¸y&hÜ¼ &ñ
_Æ)a <Êº y ½¨çß\"f 5Åqs ¿Ḉ\ã× ¥o>¢4́ pie ewise ontin-
. (
uous s ) Ç Kqs×¼<Êºü< ℄X/°ú̄<ÊºH ¸¿º ¸y&hÜ¼ 5Åq
. Êºs ¸
< .
y&hÜ¼ 5Åq <Ê
ºH y ½¨çß_Æ =åQ&h\"f 5Åqs 5Åq<Êº )a \V\ [þt#Q ℄X/°ú̄ .
<ÊºH
lim f (x) = lim f (x) = 0 = f (0)
x!0+ x!0
sÙ¼ 5Åq<Êºs ÕªQ Kqs×¼<ÊºH x

. =0 \"f 5Åqs mÙ¼ 5Åq<Êº
m .
¹M 6 6£§ <Êº 5Åq<Êº ÷&¸2¤ ©º _Æ °ú̄` ½¨ # .
(
; x<1
f (x) = 1+ 2 x
x2
+1 ; x1
Solution f H ¸y
&hÜ¼ 5Åqs
.

lim f (x) = lim =
x!1 x!1 x2 + 1 2
s f (1) = 2 sÙ¼

2 = lim f (x) =
x!1 2
s 7£¤ , =4s

y = f (x) H 5Åq<Êº )a.
-1 0 1 2
j 5 ℄X 5Åq<Êº
℄ 91
ä»ë
ÑG±ê ÇaÆh
5
5Åq<Êº y f x _Æ ÕªAáÔ\ Õª9 =åS#Qfs ½¨"í
s \Os ÷&#Q e sQ
= ( ) .
Ç

a¹1Ï\ _Æ # 6£§ z´` ·ú º e
' .
ä»
ë5ÑG±ê ÇaÆh
Ê
<
º f {2³ ½¨çß [a; b℄ \
"f 5Åqs
f (a) 6= f (b)

s f a ü< f b s_Æ e_Æ_
( ) ( ) Æ °ú̄ r \ / #
f ( ) = r
&h ½¨çß

( a; b) \
&h#Q¸ >rFÇ.
×æçß°ú̄ &ñ
o\ l <Æh&Ü¼ r s f (a) ü< f (b) s_Æ °ú̄s f y = r õ
y = f (x) _Æ ÕªAÔáH &h#Q¸ Ç &\"f ëßH ¯ ` _ÆpÇ.
h
y
y f HxL
f HbL
r
f HaL
a c b x
sQÇ z´` s6 x ×æçß°ú̄ &ñ

o\ s6 x # ~½Ó&ñ
d_Æ K >rF H ½¨çß` ½¨½+É
º e ëß 5Åq<Êº f \ / # f a f b < s f a ü< f b _Æ ÂÒ ñ ØÔÙ¼
. ( ) ( ) 0 ( ) ( )
f
( )=0 ½¨çß a; b \ &h#
( Q¸ >rFÇ r ú́
) . ,
f (a) f (b) < 0

s ~½Ó&ñ
d f x
( )=0 _Æ K a ürFÇ .
¹M
7 6£§ ~½Ó&ñ
d\ / # ½
¨çß ;
(0 1) \ &h#Q¸ _Æ K >rF<Ê` # .
x5 4x3 + 5x3 + 2x 3=0

92 ℄j 2 ©
Êº<ü FGÇ
<
Solution f (x) = x5 x
4 3+5 3+2 x x 3 .
f (0) = ; f (1) = 1
3
sÙ¼ õ s\
0 1
f ( ) = 0
s ÷&H >rFÇ 7£¤ ÅÒ#Q ~½Ó&ñ
d_Æ K õ s\ >rFÇ
. , 0 1 .
Note 0 A l_Æ â
Äº ×æçß°ú̄ &ñ
o\ s6 x # K >rF H ½¨çß` a%vn=
º e r .
ú́K"f
f (0:8) = :
0 4784 ; f (0:9) = 0:1851
sÙ¼ õ s
0.8 \ K &h#Q¸ >rFÇ sXO> ×æçß°ú̄ &ñ
o\ s6
0.9 x # K
.
>rF H ½¨çß` ½¨
H ¯ Ér &ñ
K ~½ÓZOs eH ¯ Ér m /ÂÒìr r'Ì¸\ _Æ #
¹1Ô .
)ç (|¡è ºr

Æ̧(2009 9 )
<Êº y f x ½¨çß ; \"f 5Åqs s ½¨çß\ 5ÅqÇ ¸H x \ /K"f

= ( ) [0 1℄ ,
f (x)3 fx
2 ( )
2
f (x) + 2 0
s $í
wnÇ sM: . , f (0) = 0 s
, ½¨çß [0; 1℄ \ 5ÅqÇ ¸H x \ /K"f
1 f (x) 1
s $í
wn<Ê` 7£x"î
r¸ .
i7G±ê i¿G±ê ÇaÆh

<Êº\ Ò M: © ×æ¹̄Ç ÅÒ℄j ×æ_Æ H þj/°ú̄õ þjè°ú̄` ½¨ H ¯ s
&ñ
_Æ%i .
D\
"f &ñ
_Æ)a <Êº y = f (x) H ¸H x 2 D \ / #
f (x) f ( )
2 D >rF x = \
"f i¿G±ê minimum value ` °úH Ç ðøÍt
( ) .
¸H x 2 D \ / #
f (x) f ( )
2 D >rF x = \"f i7G±ê(maximum value)` °úH Ç. þ
j/°ú̄, þjè
ú̄°` ½¨ H l:r&h ~½ÓZOÉr pìr>º\ 6 x 9 6£§ ©\"f ÀÒl 5Åq<Êº\
/Ç 6£§ õ s ℄X` Áºo l Ç .
i7G±êi¿G±ê ÇaÆh
<Êº y f x {2³½¨çß
= ( ) [a; b℄ \
"f 5Åqs s ½¨çß\f" ìøÍ×¼r þj/°ú̄õ
þjè°ú̄`
°úH .
j 5 ℄X 5Åq<Êº
℄ 93
Note þ j/°ú̄þjè°ú̄ &ñ

oH {
³½¨çßs m 5Åqs â
Äº $í
wn t ·ú§` º e
2

.
3*
V ×

ÁþÊÁ?ÿ i&P
1â
V
Ë
Æ!
^ £
C >
o ª
·ø
'ë
K Ñ£
5>
o ª
·

s [j©Æ_ /ÂÒìr_Æ ¯ Ér rçßs âìØÔ Ç. sQÇ oH oÖ` 6 x # º<Æh&
Ü¼ èq º eHX< oÖÉr o #QÖ¼ ~½Ó¾ÓÜ¼ \O ØÔ> {9#QHt\ ·p
. o rçß\ 'a> \Os {9&ñ
> {9#Q f_Æ +þAI èq º e, s :M f_Æ
lÖlH oÖ` ·p. s â
Äº, oÖÉr rçß\ ©'a\Os ½Ó© {9&ñ
. ÕªQ /
ÂÒìr_Æ â
Äº oÖÉr rçß\ ØÔ> HX< s ℄X\f"H sQÇ oÖ\ 'aÇ
^>&hs f℄X&h ~½ÓZO` ¶ú(Rl Ç.
×ë5Ñß
&³©, ¢̧H
r&³©\"f 'a¹1Ï÷&H o z´+«>z´\"f 8£¤&ñ
÷&H oH r
çß\ /
# 5Åq&hÜ¼ l2¤ H ¯ s Ô0px . "f {9&ñ
Ç rçßçßǑ` ¿º sQ Ç ºu\ 'a

8£¤ # l2¤Ç. ÕªXO 'a8£¤÷&t ·ú§Ér r&h\"f_Æ °ú̄Ér #QbG> ÆÒ&ñ
½+ÉÆ? #Qt ~½Ó
ZO ×æ\"f © {9ìøÍ& Ü¼ 6 x H ~½ÓZOÉr çßZOs.
h
6£§ ³ðH 2008Æ̧ 11Z4 19{9_Æ l:r` Ç rçß l2¤Ç ¯ s.
r 7r 8r 9r 10r 11r 12r 13r 14r 15r

l:r 3.5Æ 4.3Æ 5.5Æ 7.5Æ 8.0Æ 9.0Æ 9.5Æ 10.0Æ 10.3Æ
sXO> Y> >h_Æ r&h\"fëß 'a8£¤)a â
Äº 'a8£¤÷&t ·ú§Ér r&h\"f_Æ °ú̄Ér {9ìøÍ&hÜ
¼ sÖ©Ç
º¿ &h` fÜ¼ # ·p. sXO> <Êº\ ?/H ~½ÓZO` ×ë5Ñß (interpola-
tion)s Ç.
94
j 1 ℄X î̈
çHoÖõ íHçßoÖ
℄
95
C
11
3
time
7 9 11 13 15
sM
: ¿º &h` Ç f_Æ lÖl
\ ¿º &h s_Æ Ë^Æ!C£o>ª ·(average rate of hange)s

Ç. r ú́K"f, f (t) \ t r\"f_Æ l:rs Ç ¿º &h (t ; f (t )); (t ; f (t ))
s
_Æ î̈
çHoÖÉr
1 1 2 2
f (t2 ) f (t1 )
t2 t1
Ü
¼ &ñ
_ÆÇ.
¹M
1 2008Æ̧ 11Z4 19{9 l:r` #

(a) 7r ü< 9r s_Æ î̈
çHoÖ` ½¨ #.
(b) °ú Ér ±ú 7r 30ìr_Æ l:rÉr \Ot H&hÜ¼ ½¨ #.
Solution
(a) 7r ü< 9r s_Æ î̈
çHoÖ Ér

f (9) f (7) 5:5 3:5
9 7 = 2 = 1:0 ( C=r
Æ )
s.
(b) 7r ü< 8r s_Æ î̈
çHoÖ Ér

4:3 3:5 = 0:8 (Æ C=r
)
8 7
sÙ¼ 7r 30ìr\"f_Æ l rÉr
:
f (7:5) 3:5 + 0:5 0:8 = 3:9 (Æ C )
ÆÒ&ñ
½+É º e.
Ë^Æ!C£o>ª ·
<Êº y = f (x) a \ í<Ê H \PǑ2; ½¨çß\"f &ñ
_Æ÷&%3 . º x a \"f
a+h ½+É M:, x _Æ o¾Ó|`
x = h
96 ℄j 3 ©
Êº<ü pìr
<
?/ Õª\ /6
x H 7áx5Åqº y _Æ o|¾Ó`
£
y = f (a + h) f (a)
?/. #l\"f y _Æ o|¾Ó` x _Æ o|¾ÓÜ¼ èH ℄
y = f (a + h) f (a)
x h
` ½¨çß [a; a + h℄ \" f x \ /Ç f _Æ Ë^Æ!C£o>ª ·(average rate of hange)s
1
Ç. s
î̈
çHoÖÉr 6£§ ÕªaË>\"f f P Q _Æ lÖls.
Q( a+h , f(a+h) )
P( a , f(a) )
a a+h
ºf 0A\ ¹¡§fs

H Óüt^ e . rçß t \"f s Óüt^_Æ 0Au\ s(t)
ry t \"f ry t + h Æt_Æ Ë^Æ!C¢4́¿(average velo ity)H 0Au_Æ o\ rçÜ¼ èH
ß
¯ s.
î̈
çH5Åq¸ = st = s(t + hh) s(t)
¹M 2 ½Ó0A\f"
ºfÜ¼ ¤è `Ǒ2; 8úx·ú_Æ Z}sH t í Êê
f (t) = 50t
5t (m) 2
Ü¼ ÅÒ#Q Ç. 8úx` <H Êê 10í, 1 í, 0.1 í 1lxîß_Æ î̈

çH5Åq¸\ yy ½¨ #.
Solution 8úx` <H h í Êê_Æ 0AuH
f (h) f (0) = 50h 5h 2
sÙ¼ 8úx` <H Êê h

í 1lxîß î̈
çH5Åq¸H
f (h) f (0)
h
= 50 5h
s. "f 8úx` <H Êê 1 í, 0.1 í, 0.01 í 1lxîß î̈
çH5Åq¸H yy
45; 49:5; 49:95 (m/se )
1h > 0
9
{ ¹̄
9 H\

O . h < 0 â
Äº ½¨çß / ½¨çß
[a; a + h℄ ÒqtyÇ
[a + h; a℄ .
℄ 1 ℄X î̈
çHoÖõ íHçßoÖ
j
97

s .
'Kë
Ñ£o>ª ·
5
0A_Æ l 2 \"f 8úx` <H Êê î̈
çH5Åq¸\ &h&h ÂúªÉr rçß\"f ½¨ î̈
çH5Åq¸H 50
(m/se ) \ Æ0>. sM: s ° ú̄` 0 \"f_Æ íHçß5Åq¸ &ñ
_ÆÇ. r ú́K"f h ! 0
M: î̈
çH5Åq¸H FGÇ°ú̄ 50 Ü¼ º§4 s °ú̄` t = 0 \"f_Æ 'Kë5Ñ¢4́¿(instantaneous
9
{
velo ity), ¢̧ H éßíHy ¢4́¿(velo ity) &ñ
_ÆÇ. ǑÉr ry t \"f_Æ 5Åq¸¸ °ú Ér ~½ÓZOÜ¼
&

_ÆÇ. 7£¤, ry t \f"_Æ 5Åq¸ v(t) H
ñ
s(t + h) s(t)
v(t) = lim
h!0 h
Ü
¼ &ñ
_ÆÇ. #l"f s(t) H Ó t^_Æ 0Au\ ?/Ù¼ v(t) > 0 s ª_Æ ~½Ó¾ÓÜ¼,
ü
v(t) < 0 s 6£§_Æ ~½Ó¾ÓÜ¼ ¹¡§f
e` _ÆpÇ. 5Åq¸_Æ ℄X/°ú̄ jv(t)j \ ¢4́℄(speed)s

Ç.

ìøÍ&hÜ¼ <Êº y = f (x) \
9
{ / # x = h 0 \ Æ0>f\ î̈
çHoÖ
y = f (a + h) f (a)
x h
#Q" °ú̄\ º§4 s °ú̄` x = a\"f_Æ 'Kë5Ñ£o>ª ·, ¢̧H x = a \"f_Æ i&PN
Á(derivative)
Ê
¢̧H; y0 x a

f 0 (a);

=
·p. FGÇ°ú̄ f 0(a) >rF½

É M: <Êº f H x = a \"f i&Pæ (dierentiable)
+
Ç

. x = a + h h ! 0 { M: x ! a sÙ¼
9
f (a + h) f (a) f (x) f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim = xlim
!a x
h!0 h a
¼ ?/l¸ Ç.
Ü
x=a U
"+ i&PNÊÁ
f (a + h) f (a) f (x) f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim = xlim
!a x
h! 0 h a
Note l 2 _Æ â
ÄºH rçß t = a \"f 0Au<Êº_Æ pìr>º 5Åq¸ )a. 7£¤,
v(a) = s0 (a)
s
.
¹M
3 6£§ <Êº\ / # x = 2 \"f_Æ pìr>º\ ½¨ #.
98 ℄j 3 ©
Êº<ü pìr
<
(a) f (x) = x 2
( ) h(x) = x1
(b) g(x) = px
Solution (a) &
ñ
_Æ\
_Æ # ½¨ 6£§õ °ú .
f 0 (2) = lim
(2 + h) 2
22
h!0 h
= hlim 4h + h 2
! 0 h
= hlim
!
(40
+ h) = 4
(b) &
ñ
_Æ\ _Æ
p p
g0 (2) = lim 2 + h 2
h! h
0
p p p p
= lim ( 2 + h
p 2)( 2 +
p h + 2)
h! 0 h( 2 + h + 2)
h
= lim p
h! h( 2 + h + 2)
0
p
= lim p 1 p = p1
h! 0 2+h+ 2 2 2
` %3H.
( )
r &ñ
_Æ\ _Æ

h0 (2) = hlim
1
= hlim
2+h 2 (2 + h)
1
2
! 0 h ! 2h(2 + h) 0
= hlim 1 = 1
! 2(2 + h)
0 4
` %3H.
i&Pæø5 ÁþÊÁ
¥o>¢4́l
M
f x = a \"f p
ìr0px . ÕªQ
f (x) f (a)
f (x) f (a) = (x a)
x a
\"f 6£§ ¿º FGÇ°ú̄s
>rFÇ.
lim f (xx)
x!a
f (a)
a
= f 0(a); xlim
!a(x a) = 0
"f
lim (f (x)
x!a
f (a)) = f 0 (a) 0 = 0
¢̧H
x!a
lim f (x) = f (a)
℄ 1 ℄X î̈
çHoÖõ íHçßoÖ
j
99
$
s
wnÇ. ÕªQ¼Ù f H x = a \"f 5Åqs. Õªo /Äº"î
℄j\ Òqty
í
\
<Êº f x = a \"f 5Åqs m pìr0px t ·ú§"
H ¯ ` ·ú º e. ÕªQ Õª %i

r s m. r ú́K"f f x = a \"f 5Åqs
É
"
Kf ½Ó© pìr0pxÇ ¯ Ér m.
Note h > 0 s "f 0 Ü¼ °ú M: ÄºFGÇ
f (a + h) f (a)
lim
h! 0+ h
>rF Õª °ú̄` f+0 (a)

?/ x = a \"f f _Æ ËÁi&PNÊÁ(right-hand deriva-
tive)
Ç. ðøÍt, h < 0 s"f 0 Ü¼ °ú M: ýaFGÇ
f (a + h) f (a) f (a h) f (a)
lim
h! 0 h
= lim
h! + h 0
rF Õª °ú̄` f (a) ?/ x = a \"f f _Æ i&PNÊÁ(left-hand deriva-

> 0
tive)
Ç. FGÇ_Æ $í
|9ÂÒ' Äºpìr>º f 0 (a) ü< ýapìr>º f 0 (a) >rF ¿º
ú̄s
° °ú Ü¼ f H x = a \"f pì r0px , sM:

+
f 0 (a) = f 0 (a) = f 0 (a)

+
.
s
i&PæÅ℄Æ
6
§ ¿º "î
℄jH 1lxus.
£
1. f H a \"f pìr0px .
2. f 0 (a) ü
< f 0 (a) >rF
+
f+0 (a) = f 0 (a)
s. sM: f 0(a) = f 0 (a) s
+.
¹M
4 x=0\
f" <Êº y = f (x) = jxj _Æ pìr0px$í
` ¸ #.
Solution ½¨çß [0; h℄ \"f î̈
çH
2
oÖ` ½¨

8
h
>
> = 1; h>0
f (0 + h) f (0) h
>
<
h
=>
h
= 1; h<0
>
>
:
h
2h < 0
s ½
¨ç
[0 ℄
ß [
H ;h h; 0℄ ¼ &ñ
_Æ l Ç.
Ü
100 ℄j 3 ©
Êº<ü pìr
<
sÙ¼
f+0 (0) = 1; f 0 (0) = 1
s. "f f H 0 \
"f pìr0px t ·ú§.
¹M 5 6£§ <Êº x = 2 \"f pìr0px ¸2¤ b; _Æ °ú̄` ½¨ #.

(
x2 ; x2
f (x) =
bx + ; x > 2
Solution x = 2 \
"f pìr0px Ù¼ 5Åqs#Q Ç. "f
lim (bx + ) = 2b + = f (2) = 4
x!2+
s. x = 2 \"f ýapìr>ºü< Äºpìr>º °ú Ù¼

f 0 (2) = hlim (2 + h) 4 = 4 2
! 0 h
f 0 (2) = lim+
b (2 + h) + 2b
=b
+
h! 0 h
\"f
b = 4; = 4
e` ·ú º e.
16
12 y x2
-1 1 2 3 4
y4x-4
±¿\ ¤n>ÌfCÅ℄Æ
Ä»9þto¼×\ ØÔ
"é¶_Æ â¤n>(tangent line)Ér "é¶õ Ç &h\"f ëßH fs
.
j 1 ℄X î̈
çHoÖõ íHçßoÖ
℄
101
ªÕXO {9ìøÍ&h ÕªAáÔ\

/ # ℄XÉr #QbG> &ñ
_Æ½+ÉÆ? "é¶õ ℄X` ℄X&h H~½Ó
"
\ f SX/K "é¶õ ℄Xs ÅÒ q5pwK . {9ìøÍ&hÜ¼ f 0(a) >rF½+É M: /BG
y = f (x) _
Æ ÕªAáÔ\ &h P (a; f (a)) H~½Ó\"f SX/ ½+Éº2¤ /BGÉr f%!3 . s

Äº /BG y = f (x)H x = a\f" ±¿\ã× ¤n>ÌfC(lo ally linear)s Ç.
â
A
8 2.5
4 2
A B
2
–1 0 1 2 1.5
–2 0.8 1 1.2
1.9
C B
1.862
1.88
1.86 C
1.86
1.858 1.84
1.82
1.856
0.998 1 1.002 1.8 0.98 1 1.02
ÕªAáÔ\ SX/ ½+Éº2¤ /BG

y = f (x) 0A_Æ Ç &h P (a; f (a)) H~½Ó\"f_Æ î̈
çHoÖ

f (a + h) f (a)
h
pìr>º f 0(a) º§4Ç. "f pìr>º f 0(a) \ Õª &h\"f ¯¤n>+ e ·e(slope
H

of urve) &ñ
_Æ , &h P (a; f (a)) \"f /BG_Æ lÖlü< °ú Ér lÖl\ °úH f` â
>(tangent line)Ü¼ &ñ
_Æ l Ç.
n
¤
102 ℄j 3 ©
Êº<ü pìr
<
â¤n>+ '×ÇaÆÏ
/BG y = f (x) x = a \"f pìr0px . sM: /BG y = f (x) 0A_Æ &
P (a; f (a))
h
\"f ℄X_Æ lÖlH f (a + h) f (a)
m = f 0 (a) = lim
h!0 h
s. "f &h P (a; f (a)) \"f ℄X_Æ ~½Ó&ñ
dÉr 6£§õ °ú .
y f (a) = f 0 (a)(x a)
¹M 6 íÓüt y = x 0A_Æ &h P (1; 1) \"f ℄X_Æ lÖlH

2
lim (1 + hh) 1 = hlim

2 2
m= (2 + h) = 2
h! 0 ! 0
s. "f ℄X_Æ ~½Ó&ñ

dÉr
y 1 = 2(x 1); 7£¤, y = 2x 1
s.
1 P(1,1)
–1 0 1
¹M 7 a 6= 0 {9 M:, x = a \"f <Êº y = f (x) = jxj _Æ pìr>ºH

(
f 0 (a) =
1; a>0
1; a<0
s. ÕªQ x = 0 \"fH pìr0px t ·ú§. "é¶&h sü_Æ &h\"f ÕªAáÔH ¸¿º ²DGè
&hÜ¼ fs. Õª Q "é¶&h\"fH ) ǑÉr ©S!s ZO#Q. "é¶&h H~½Ó\"
fH ÕªAáÔ
\ Áºo SX/ #¸ ï _Æ fÜ¼ stH ·ú§H. 7£¤, pìr>º >rF t ·ú§
H â
ÄºH ²DGè&hÜ¼
+þAs m.
1 0.1 0.01
0.5 0.05 0.005
-1 1 -0.1 0.1 -0.01 0.01

℄ 1 ℄X î̈
çHoÖõ íHçßoÖ
j
103
ì
9
{ Í&hÜ¼ ²DGè&h +þAí
$õ pìr0px$í
Ér 1lxus.
ø
±¿\ ¤n>ÌfC℄ÆÅø i&PæÅ℄Æ
6
§ ¿º "î
℄jH 1lxus.
£
y = f (x) H x = a \f" ²DGè&hÜ¼ +þAs
y = f (x) H x = a \"f pìr0pxs. 7£¤, f 0(a) >rFÇ.
Note BG/ y = p3 x _Æ ÕªAáÔH O(0; 0) H~½Ó\"f SX/ y »¡¤õ î̈

'Ç f%!3

. s â
Äº q2¤ ÕªAáÔH ²DGè&hÜ¼ +þAÜ¼ s ²DGè&h +þAs t ·ú§H.
¤, #
£
7 Q" &h\f" ²DGè&h +þAsêøÍ SX/ %i` M: y »¡¤õ î̈
' t ·ú§Ü¼"f f%!3 s
H

Äº\ {9(H. SX/ %i` M
â : Õª ÕªAáÔ y »¡¤õ î̈
'Ç +þAI ÷&H â
ÄºH ÊÁÒÏâ
>(verti al tangent)` °úH Ç. r ú́K"f
n
¤
lim f (a + hh) f (a) = 1; ¢̧
h!0
H 1

s y = f (x) H x = a \"f ºf℄
` °úH Ç.
X
y
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3
x
-1
.
104 ℄j 3 ©
Êº<ü pìr
<
2â
V

¿ÁÊÁ
þ
1℄
X\"f <Êº f &
_Æ%i_Æ Ç &h x = a \"f pìr0px½+É M: pìr>º f 0(a) \
ñ &ñ
_Æ %i

. <Êº f pìr0
xÇ &h[þt_Æ |9½+Ë` I x 2 I \ / #
p
f (x + h) f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h!0 h
&ñ
_Æ)a <Êº f 0 : I ! R ` f _Æ ¿ÁþÊÁ(derivative) ÂÒǑÉr.
¿ÁþÊÁ+ ÇaÆ+
<Êº f (x) _Æ ¸<Ê
ºH
f 0 (x) = lim f (x + hh)
h!0
f (x)
s.
Note y = f (x) _
Æ ¸<ÊºH 6£§õ °ú s #Q ~½ÓZOÜ¼ ·p.
dy df
y0 ; f 0(x); ; (x)
dx dx
¹M 1 y = xn _Æ ¸<Êº\ ½¨ #. éß, n Ér ºs.

Solution f (x) = xn s
/BNd
an bn = (a b)(an 1
+ an 2
b + + abn 2
+ bn )1
Ü¼ÂÒ'
(x + h)n xn
h
= (x + h x)[(x + h)n + (x + h)n x + + (x + h)xn + xn ℄
1 2 2 1
h
= (x + h)n + (x + h)n x + + (x + h)xn + xn
1 2 2 1
` %3H. i = 1; : : : ; n \ / #

lim (x + h)n i xi = xn
h! 0
1 1
sÙ¼
lim (x + hh) xn
n
h! 0
= hlim
!
(x + h)n + (x + h)n x + + (x + h)xn + xn
0
1 2 2 1
= xn + xn + + xn (
1
¸¿º n >h)
1 1
= nx n 1
℄ 2 ℄X ¸<Êº
j 105
%

` H.
3
Note ©º<Êº f (x) = 1 _Æ ¸<ÊºH e_Æ_Æ z´º x \ / #
f 0 (x) = lim f (x + hh)
h!0
f (x)
= hlim
! h
1 1 =0
0
. sH ©º<Êº\ f (x) = x Ü¼ ?/ 0A l_Æ õü< {9uÇ.
s 0
i&PßÓÏ
s℄j ¿º <Êº_Æ íß\ / # ¸<Êº\ ½¨ # l Ç. ¿º <Êº f; g pìr0px

.
(f (x + h) + g(x + h)) (f (x) + g(x)) = f (x + h) f (x)
+ g(x + hh) g(x)
h h
¼Ù ª\ h ! 0 Ü¼ °ú M:_Æ FGÇ` 2[K ÅÒ » !lr\ /Ç FGÇZOgË:Ü¼ÂÒ'
s
f (x + h) f (x) g(x + h) g(x)
(f + g)0 (x) = hlim
! 0 h
+ hlim
! 0 h
0 0
= f (x) + g (x)
%

\ H. ¢̧Ç ©º \ / #
3
f (x + h) f (x) f (x + h) f (x)
( f )0(x) = hlim
!
0 h
= hlim
! 0 h
= f 0(x)
`

e ·ú º e.

Ò¼T, (×ÊÁ¹̄+ i&Pß

ì
p r0pxÇ ¿º <Êº f (x); g(x) \
/ # 6£§s $í
wnÇ.
(f (x) g(x))0 = f 0 (x) g0 (x)
( f (x))0 = f 0 (x)
¹M
2 6£§ ½Ód_Æ ¸<Êº\ ½¨ #.
f (x) = 2x4 x3 + 3
Solution 0AÆ_ ¿º õ\ s6 x
f 0 (x) = (2x4 )0 (x )0 + (3)0 = 8x
3 3
3x 2
%3H.

`
106 ℄j 3 ©
Êº<ü pìr
<
¹M 3 y = px _Æ ¸<Êº\ ½¨ #.
Solution x > 0 \
/ #
p px
dy
dx
= lim x + hh
h!0
p px px + h + px
x+h
= lim
h!0 h
p p
x+h+ x
= hlim p h
! h( x + h + px)
0
= 2p1 x
s.
¹̄ âÄ+ i&PßÓÏ
,
º¿ <Êº_Æ ½+Ë_Æ ¸<ÊºH y ¸<Êº\ 8Ç ¯ õ °ú . ÕªXO ¿º <Êº_Æ YL_Æ ¸<Êº
H y ¸<Êº\ YLÇ ¯ õ °ú `Æ? r ú́K"f
(f (x)g(x))0 = f 0(x)g0 (x)
$í
wn½+ÉÆ? f (x) = g(x) = x â
Äº\ ÒqtyK ÕªXOt ·ú§6£§` çßéßy ·ú
º e. 7£¤,
(f (x)g(x))0 = (x )0 = 2x
2
stëß
f 0 (x)g0 (x) = 1 1 = 1
sÙ¼
(f (x)g(x))0 6= f 0(x)g0 (x)
s. s℄j YL_Æ ¸<Ê
º\ ½¨K l Ç. f; g pìr0pxÇ <Êº .
(f (x)g(x))0 = lim f (x + h)g(x + h) f (x)g(x)
h!0 h
_Æ ìr\"f f (x)g(x + h) \ NS 8
f (x + h)g(x + h) f (x)g(x)
= f (x + h)g(x + h) f (x)g(x + h) + f (x)g(x + h) f (x)g(x)
= [f (x + h) f (x)℄g(x + h) + f (x)[g(x + h) g(x)℄
jþt º e. sÂÒ'
f (x + h)g(x + h) f (x)g(x) f (x + h) f (x) g(x + h) g(x)
h
= h
g(x + h) + f (x)
h
` %3H. hlim
!0
g(x + h) = g(x) s
Ù¼ ª\ FGÇ` 2[
(f (x)g(x))0 = f 0(x)g(x) + f (x)g0 (x)
j 2 ℄X ¸<Êº
℄ 107
%

` H. g(x) 6= 0 x \ / # g(1x) _Æ ¸<Êº\ ½¨
3
1 1

1 0 = lim g(x + h) g(x)
g(x) h! 0 h
g(x) g(x + h)
= hlim
! hg(x + h)g(x)
0
g(x + h) g(x) 1
= hlim! h
0
lim
h! g (x + h)g (x)0
g0 (x)
= [g(x)℄ 2
(3.1)
`

e ·ú º e.

℄j YL_Æ pìrZOgË:õ d (3.1) ` °ú s s6 x fg((xx)) = f (x) g(1x) _Æ ¸<Êº\ 6£§õ
s
s
ú
° ½¨½+É º e.

f (x) 0 1
1 0

= f 0 (x) + f (x) g(x)
g(x) g(x)
f 0 (x) g0 (x)
= g(x)
f (x)
[g(x)℄2
f (x)g(x) f (x)g0 (x)
0
= [g(x)℄2
¹̄, âÄ+ i&Pß

ì
p r0pxÇ ¿º <Êº f (x); g(x) \
/ # 6£§s $í
wnÇ.
(f (x)g(x))0 = f 0 (x)g(x) + f (x)g0 (x)
fg((xx)) = f (x)g(x[g)(x)℄f (x)g (x)
0 0 0
2
¹M
4 6£§ <Êº_Æ ¸<Êº\ ½
¨ #.
(a) y = (x 2
x + 1)2
(b) y = x x++x x+ 1
3 2
Solution
(a) f (x) = g(x) = x 2
x+1
Z~ YL_Æ pìrZO` s6 x
f 0 (x) = g0 (x) = 2x 1
108 ℄j 3 ©
Êº<ü pìr
<
sÙ¼
[(x
2
x + 1)2 ℄0 = (2x 1)(x 2
x + 1) + (x2 x + 1)(2x 1)
= 2(2x 1)(x 2
x + 1)
s.
x3 + x2
(b) x2 + x + 1
=x x
x +x+1
2
Ü¼ æ¼ >íß` 8 çßéß > ½+É º e.

x3 + x2 0
x 0
x2 + x + 1
= x
x2 + x + 1
= 1 1 (x +(xx2 ++ 1) x(2x + 1)
2
x + 1)2
= 1 (x2 1+ xx+ 1)2
2

¹M 5 /BG y = 1 +x x \ / #

2
(a) /
BG 0A_Æ &h (2; 0:4) \"f ℄X_Æ ~½Ó&ñ
d` ½¨ #.
(b) x »¡¤õ î̈
'Ç ℄
s eÜ¼ ¸¿º ½¨ #.
X
( ) /BG 0A_Æ e_ÆÆ_ &h\"f ℄X_Æ lÖlH 1 &|9 º \O6£§` [O"î
#
.
1(1 + x ) x(2x) = 1 x s
(1 + x ) Ù ¼ x = 2 \"f ℄X_Æ lÖlH
2 2
Solution (a) y0 =
(1 + x ) 2 2 2 2
m=
1 2 = 3
2
(1 + 2 )
2 225
s. "f ℄X_Æ ~½Ó&ñ
dÉr
2 3 3 16
y
5 = 25 (x 2) ) y=
25 x + 25
s.
(b) l
Öl 0 s ÷&H x \ ½¨
1 x = 0 ) x = 1 2
(1 + x ) 2 2
sÙ¼ x »¡¤õ î̈
'Ç ¿º >h_Æ ℄X y = 12 s >rFÇ.
( ) j1 x2 j 1 + x2 Ù¼ e_Æ_Æ x \ / # ℄X_Æ lÖlH
s
1 x 1 x 1

2 2
(1 + x )

1+x 2 2 2
s. "f ℄X_Æ l

ÖlH ½Ó© ℄X/°ú̄s 1 °ú .
j 2 ℄X ¸<Êº
℄ 109
0.5
-1 1
¹M
6 6£§ <Êº_Æ ¸<Êº\ ½
¨ #.
(a) y = x n = x1n (n
Ér º)
(b) y = x 12 = p1x
Solution (a) (xn )0 = nxn 1
sÙ
¼(l 1)

1 0 = nxn 1
= nx n 1
xn (xn )2

s .
(b) (px)0 = 12 x 1=2
sÙ¼(l
3)
p1x = (p 1x
0

x 1 1=2
x)
= 2
2 2
3=2

s .
l 4 _Æ (a)\ _Æ ¸H &ñ
º n\ / #

(xn )0 = nxn 1
(3.2)
$í
wnÇ. ¢̧Ç n = 21 {9 M:\¸ (3.2) H $í
wnÇ. sQÇ pìrZOgË:Ér e_Æ_Æ z´º n
s

\ / #¸ $í
wnÇ. s pìrZOgË:` æ¹V¹̄+ ßÓÏ(power rule)s ÂÒØÔl
ª7
Õ x"î
Ér 3 ℄X(n s Ä»oº â
Ä
£ º)õ 4 © ?? ℄X(n s z´º â
Äº, _þvëH℄j)\"f ¶ú(R

l Ç.
æ¹V¹̄+ i&PßÓÏ

_

e ÆÆ_ z´º r \ / # 6£§ ds $í
wnÇ.
(xr )0 = rxr 1
110 ℄j 3 ©
Êº<ü pìr
<
§N¿ÁþÊÁ
y = f (x) pìr0pxÇ <Êº f _Æ ¸<Êº f 0 ¸ <Êºs. "f f 0 s pìr0px
f _Æ ¸<Êº\ Òqty½+É º e. #l"f f 0 _Æ ¸<Êº\ f 00 ?/ f _
0 Æ lN¿Áþ
ÊÁ(se ond derivative) ÂÒǑÉr.
d
f 00 (x) = (f 0 (x))0 = [f 0 (x)℄
dx
6£§õ °ú Ér l ñ[þts ¸¿º s>¸<Êº\ ?/H X<\ 6 x)a.
d2 y
d dy
f 00 (x); ;; y00
dx2
dx dx
°ú Ér ~½ÓZOÜ¼ f _Æ >¸<ÊºH f 000 ?/ f 00 _Æ ¸<Êº &ñ
_ÆÇ. {9ìøÍ&hÜ¼
º n \ / # n > ¸<ÊºH f (n)(x) ?/ 6£§õ °ú s ) ±ú&hÜ¼ &
_ÆÇ.
ñ
f (n) (x) = [f (n 1)
(x)℄0 = dxd [f n (x)℄
( 1)
¹M 7 l 4(a) _

Æ <Êº y = (x 2
Æ_ s>¸<Êº\ ½¨ #.
x + 1)2
Solution y0 = 2(2x 1)(x 2

x + 1) s
Ù¼ YL\ /Ç pìrZO` 6 x
y00 = 2(2)(x x + 1) + 2(2x 1)(2x 1)
2
= 12x 12x + 6
2
` %3H.
¹M 8 y = x 4
x3 + x s

y0 = 4x 3x + 1
3 2
y00 = 12x 6x2
y000 = 24x 6
y(4) = 24
y(5) = 0
s. "f n 5 s y n = 0 s.
( )

{9ìøÍ&hÜ¼
º n \ / # f (x) = xn s
f (n) (x) = n!; f (n+1)(x) = 0
s. "f f (x) = anxn + an 1 xn 1
++a x+a 1 0 s
f (n) (x) = n!an ; f (n+1) (x) = 0
℄ 2 ℄X ¸<Êº
j 111

s . \V\ [þt#Q, f (x) = (x + 2)(2x 2x + 1)(x 1) s f H x _Æ 4 ds x _Æ >º
2 4
H 2 sÙ¼

f (4) (x) = 4! 2 = 8; f (5)(x) = 0

s .
>¸<ÊºH <Êº_Æ ℄X_Æ l
s Öl_Æ íHçßoÖs. "f s>¸<ÊºH /BG_Æ ¸
`
ª
[O"î
H X<\ ×æ¹̄Ç %i½+É`
Ç. ¸<Êºü< s>¸<Êº\ s6 x # ÕªAáÔ_Æ >h+þA`

ªo
ÕH ¯ Ér 6 ℄X\"f ÒÀl Ç.

ç
) (|¡è (2008Æ̧ &ñ
r 8)
´º ^ |9½+Ë\f" &ñ
_Æ)a <Êº f ¸H z´º x, y \ / #

z
jf (x) f (y)j 5 2jx yj 34

. sM: <Êº f H ©º<Êºt t\ µ1ßy.
)

ç (|¡è (2006Æ̧ ºr 4)
¨çß ( 1; 1) \f" pìr0pxÇ <Êº f 6£§ ¿º ¸|
½
f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y) + xy; lim f (hh) = 5
h!0
ë

` 7á¤rv, f (x) =
ß s.
112 ℄j 3 ©
Êº<ü pìr
<
3â
V
¥
>
o tßÓ
ø
Ï
Á
℄Ê
þ ÁÇ
Æh
a
2℄
X_Æ l 4(a) \ r ¶ú(R. y = (x x + 1) \"f
2 2
f (u) = u ; u = g(x) = x x + 1
2 2
s
y = g2(x) = f (g(x))
ü< °ú s ½+Ë$í
<Êº èq º e. sM:
y0 = 2(x2 x + 1)(2x 1)
Ér f ü< g \ s6 x # ?/ f 0(u) = 2u sÙ¼
y0 = f 0 (g(x))g0 (x) (3.3)
s $í
wnÇ.
¥o>tßÓÏ
sQÇ 'a>d (3.3) Ér {9ìøÍ&h ½+Ë$í
<Êº\ / #¸ $í
wnÇ. y = f (x); z = g(y)
pìr0pxÇ <Êºs
F (x) = (g Æ f )(x) = g(f (x))
.
f (t) f (x)
u(t) = f 0(x)
t x
g(s) g(y) 0
v(s) = g (y)
s y
&ñ
_Æ ¸H t; x; s; y \ / #
f (t) f (x) = (t x)[f 0 (x) + u(t)℄
g(s) g(y) = (s y)[g0 (y) + v(s)℄
$í
wnÇ. "f s = f (t); y = f (x) {9 M:
F (t) F (x) = g(f (t)) g(f (x))
= [f (t) f (x)℄[g0(y) + v(s)℄
= (t x)[f 0(x) + u(t)℄[g0(y) + v(s)℄
sÙ¼ F (t) F (x)
t x
= [f 0(x) + u(t)℄[g0(y) + v(s)℄
s. ÕªQ &ñ
_Æ\ _Æ #
lim u(t) = 0;
t!x
lim v(s) = 0
s!y
℄ 3 ℄X WZOgË:õ %i<Êº &ñ
o
j 113
Ù
s ¼ F (t) F (x)
F 0 (x) = tlim
!x = f 0(x)g0 (y) = f 0(x)g0 (f (x))
t x
$
s
wnÇ. ½+Ë$í
<Êº\ /Ç s
í QÇ pìrZOgË:` ¥o>tßÓÏ( hain rule)s Ç.
o>¥tßÓÏ
Ê
<
º g(y) y = f (x) \"f pì r0px <Êº f (x)) x \f" pìr0px . Õª

Q
½+Ë$í
<Êº F (x) = g(f (x))
H x \"f pìr0px 6£§ ds $í
wnÇ.

F 0 (x) = g0 (f (x))f 0 (x)
Note WZOgË:Ér [j >h s©Æ_ <Êº ½+Ë$í

÷&%3` M:\¸ °ú Ér ~½ÓZOÜ¼ ÅÒ#Q. \V\
t#
þ
[Q
x = h(t); y = g(x); z = f (y)

z = f (g(x)) = f (g(h(t))) \ / #
dz dz dx dz dy dx
dt
= dx =
dt dy dx dt

s . "f
F (t) = (f Æ g Æ h)(t) = f (g(h(t)))

\ / #
dz dz dy dx
F 0 (t) = =
dt dy dx dt
= f 0 (y)g0 (x)h0 (t)
= f 0 (g(h(t)))g0 (h(t))h0 (t)
`%

H.
3
¹M
1 6£§ <Êº_Æ ¸<Êº\ ½¨ #.
(a) y = [g(x)℄n (é
ß, g(x) H pì
r0pxÇ <Êº)

(b) y = (x + 1) (3x
2 3 2
1) 4
Solution
(a) f (u) = un; u = g(x)
f 0(u) = nun s 1
y = f (g(x))
sÙ¼ dy
dx
= f 0(g(x))g0 (x) = n[g(x)℄n 1
g0 (x)
s.
114 ℄j 3 ©
Êº<ü pìr
<
(b) Äº YL_Æ pìrZOgË:\ _Æ #
dy h 0
i h i0
dx
= (x + 1) (3x
2 3 2
1) + (x + 1) (3x
4 2 3 2
1) 4
s. f (u) = u ; g(x) = x + 1 Z~Ü¼ (x + 1) = f (g(x)) sÙ¼ 'Í

3 2
P: pìrÉr
2 3
[f (g(x))℄0 = 3(g(x)) g0(x) = 3(x + 1) (2x) = 6x(x + 1)

2 2 2 2 2
s. °ú Ér ~½ÓZOÜ¼

h 0
i
(3x 2
1) = 4(3x
4 2
1) (6x) = 24x(3x
3 2
1) 3
` %3H. "f

dy
dx
= 6x(x + 1) (3x
2 2 2
1) + 24x(x + 1) (3x
4 2 3 2
1) 3
= 6x(x + 1) (3x
2 2 2
1) (7x + 3)
3 2
s )a.
£¸ÁþÊÁ ªS·× ÇaÆ+ÛÖS ÁþÊÁ

<Êº
y = x2 2; y = x log x
<ü °ú s y = f (x) g1J
æ¼#&` M: )×ÁþÊÁ ªS·× Ø̧«ÅbC7(dened expli itly) Ç.
ÕªQ
x2 + y2 = 25; x3 + y3 = 6xy (3.4)
ü< °ú s <Êº_Æ 'a>d
s "î
SXy ÅÒ#Qtt ·ú§H â
Äº¸ e. {9ìøÍ&hÜ¼

F (x; y) =
sH 'a>dÜ¼
Êº ÅÒ#Q â
Äº £¸ÁþÊÁ ªS·× Ø̧«ÅbC7(dened impli itly) Ç
<
. <Êº 6£§<Êº g1J
ÅÒ#Q â
Äº ³ð&³)a d` (²DGè&hÜ¼) y \ / # Û#
Q
y = f (x)
<ü °ú s ª<Êº g1J èq º eH â

Äº e. \V\ [þt#Q x + y = 25 ` y \ / # Û 2 2
p
y= 25 x2
s )a. "f x + y = 25 ` ª<Êº g1J Ë̈#Q æ¼ 6£§õ °ú s ¿º >h_Æ <Êº ³ð&³
2 2
s )a. p p
f1 (x) = 25 x2 ; f2 (x) = 25 x2
j 3 ℄X WZOgË:õ %i<Êº &ñ
o
℄ 115
y y
f1 f2
-5 5
x x
-5 5
Note { 9ìøÍ&hÜ¼ 6£§<Êº ÅÒQ# ÕªAáÔH _Æ <Êº_Æ ÕªAáÔ m #Q <Êº_Æ
ÕA
ª áÔ_Æ ½+Ë|9½+Ës.
¹M
2 "é¶ x + y = 25 0A_Æ &
2 2
(3; 4) \"f ℄X_Æ ~½Ó&ñ
d` ½¨ #.
h
Solution ℄ X_Æ lÖl\ ¿º t
~½ÓZOÜ¼ ½¨K l .
×ß

' 1. &h (3; 4) H~½Ó\"f ª
Êº 5g æ¼
<
p
y= 25
(25 x ) = x2 = 2 1 2

s . f (x) = x = ; g(x) = 25 x Ü¼ æ¼ y = f (g(x)) s
1 2 2
1
f 0 (x) = x = ; g0 (x) = 2x 1 2
2
Ù
s ¼
y0 = f 0 (g(x))g0 (x) = p x
25 x2

s a. "f &h (3; 4) \"f ℄X_Æ lÖlH
)
f 0 (3) =
3
4
s
.
×ß

' 2. ½+Ë$í
<Êº_Æ pìrZO` s6 x # x + y = 25 _Æ ª` x \ / # pìr
2 2
d 2 2 d dy
dx
( x + y ) = 25
dx
) 2x + 2y dx =0

s . "f &h (3; 4) \"f
dy
dx
= x
y
= 43

s .
ªQÙ¼ ℄X_Æ ~½Ó&ñ
dÉr
Õ
y+4=
3 3 25
4 (x 3) ) y= x
4 4
.
s
116 ℄j 3 ©
Êº<ü pìr
<
y
5 x2 + y2 25
-5 3 5
x
-4 3 x 25
-5 y -
4 4
£¸ÁþÊÁ i&Pß
l 3 _Æ ¿º P: Ûs%!3 6£§<Êº\ ª<Êº g1J Ë̈t ·ú§ pìr>º\ ½
¨ H ¯ `
£¸ÁþÊÁ+ i&Pß(impli it dierentiation)s Ç. s ~½ÓZO` s6 x 6 §<Êº g1J
£
ÅÒ#Q <Êº\ ª<Ê
º g1J Ë̈t ·ú§¸ ÅÒ#Q &h\"f pìr>º\ ½¨½+É º e.
£¸ÁþÊÁ+ i&Pß
6£§<Êº_Æ ª` x \ / # pìrÇ. sM: y H x _Æ <Êº çßÅÒÇ
.
dy=dx \ íÊ H ½Ó` ~½Ó&ñ
d_Æ Ç Ü¼ &ñ
o # dy=dx \ / # ór.
<
¹M 3 Ä»oº r \ / # y = xr s . 6£§ ds $í

wn<Ê` #.
dy
y0 = = rxr 1
dx
Solution "f è
&ñ
º p; q \ / # r = pq . ÕªQ

yp = xq
÷& ª` x \ / # pìr
pyp 1 y0 = qxq 1
` %3H. q
y0 = xq 1 y1 p = rxq 1
x(1 p) pq
p
\"f x _Æ tº\ >í

ß
q
q 1 + (1 p)
p
= q 1 + pq q=r 1
o
j 117
%

` H. "f
3
y0 = rxr 1
$
s
wnÇ.
í
¹M
4 'a>d x + y = 6xy \"f dy=dx \ ½¨ #.
3 3
Solution ª` x \ / # p

ìr
d 3 3
dx
(x + y ) = dxd (6xy) ) 3x2 + 3y2 dx
dy dy
= 6y + 6x dx
.
s dy
dx

\ Ç

¤
á
A¼
Ü
¸

dy
dx
\ / # Û
dy dy 2y x2
(3y2 6x) dx = 6y 3x2 ) dx = y2 2x
.
s
§<Êº_Æ pìrZOÉr >pìr>
£
6 º\ ½¨ H X<\¸ 6 x½+É º e.
¹M
5 'a>d y + xy = 1 \"f y00 \ ½¨ #.
2
Solution ª` x \ / # pìr

2yy0 + y + xy0 = 0 (3.5)

s (3.5) _Æ ª` r x \ / # pìr

2(y0) + 2yy00 + y0 +
2
y0 + xy00 =0

s . y00 ` ÇÜ¼ ¸ &ñ
o

(2y + x)y00 = 2(y0) 2
2y0

s . y0 = y=(2y + x) s
Ù¼ /{9 # &ñ
o
y00 =
2(y0)2 + 2y0 = 2y2 + 2xy
2y + x (2y + x)3

s .
℄ÁþÊÁ ÇaÆh
f (x) = 2x 1õ
f _Æ %i<Êº
f(x) = 12 x + 12
1
H lÖl yy 2 ü< 1=2 "f %iºs. s¯ Ér lÖl 0 s ¸H {9 <Êº\

/
# $í
wn H z´s. 7£¤,
y = f (x) = ax + b (a 6= 0)
118 ℄j 3 ©
Êº<ü pìr
<
_Æ %i<ÊºH
y=f 1
(x) = xa b
a
sÙ¼ f _Æ lÖl a ü< f _Æ lÖl a1 H ½Ó© %iºs. s¯ Ér f y = x \ / #
1
/gA s1lx` f_Æ lÖlH ½Ó© "f_Æ %iº ÷&l M:ëHs.
sQÇ f ü< g = f _Æ lÖl\ /Ç %iº 'a>H +þA<Êº ǑÉr â
Äº\¸ %i
1
r $í
wnÇ. ÕªQ s â
Äº #Q" &h\"f_Æ lÖl\ 9K Ht\ ×æy óøÍßé #
3
Ç. &h (a; f (a)) \

"f y = f (x) _Æ lÖl f 0(a) 6= 0 s &h (f (a); a) \
f" y = g(x)
_Æ lÖlH 1=f (a) s. "f b = f (a) Z~Ü¼ a = g(b) s
0
g0(b) = 0
1 = 1
f (a) f 0 (g(b))
s.
y
f'(a)
(f -1)' (b)
(a,b)
y = f(x) (b,a)
x
y = f -1(x)
y=x
℄ÁþÊÁ ÇaÆh
½¨çß\"f &ñ
_Æ)a p
ìr0pxÇ <Êº y = f (x) &ñ
_Æ%i_Æ ¸H &h\"f f 0(x) 6= 0 s, f
_Æ %i<Êº g = f >rF pìr0px . b = f (a) \"f g = f _Æ pì
1
r>ºH
1
6£§õ °ú . 1 1
g0 (b) = 0 = f 0(g(b)) (3.6)
f (a)
Note 1. %
i<Êº &ñ
o
_Æ Ǒ:rÉr sáÔmÞÔ_Æ ³ðlZO` s6 x 6£§õ °ú s jþt º e.
dx
= 1
dy dy=dx
2. %i<Êº >rF pìr0px H ¯ ` îß (3.6) Ér 6£§<Êº_Æ pìrZOÜ¼¸ ~1>
{9 º e. 7£¤, g(f (x)) = x sÙ¼ ª` x \ / # pìr
g0 (f (x))f 0 (x) = 1
3#QÖ¼ &\
h "f /G
B _
Æ lÖlH Õª &h\"f ℄X_Æ lÖl &ñ
_ÆHd` l%3 .
o
j 119

s . b = f (a) s a = g(b) sÙ¼
g0 (b) = 0
1
f (g(b))
s
.
¹M
6 <Êº f (x) = x + 3x H ¸H z´º\"f %i<Êº g >rF<Ê` [O"î
, sM: pìr
3

> º g0(4) \ ½¨ #.
Solution e _Æ_Æ z´º x \ / #
f 0 (x) = 3x2 + 3 > 0
Ù
s ¼ %i<Êº &ñ
o\ _Æ # %i
Êº g >rFÇ.
<
f (a) = a3 + 3a = 4

s a = 1 sÙ¼ g(4) = 1 s.
"f
g0(4) = 0
1 = f 01(1) = 16
f (g(4))

s .
–1 0 1 2 3 4
x
–1
120 ℄j 3 ©
Êº<ü pìr
<
4â
V

¿ÁÊÁ
þ +££

/BN¸ª_Æ Ûæ\ |` Ô#Q V,Ü¼ rçßs tz\ Ûæ_Æ ìøÍt2£§¸ Zþt#Q, ³ð
h&õ ÂÒx¸ Zþt#Qèß. ìøÍt2£§õ ³ð&h, ÂÒxH "f 'aºs e. r ú́K" f, H
ǑÉr _Æ <Êº èq º e. ú́§Ér â
Äº ÂÒx_Æ oÖ` ½¨ l ìøÍt2£§s ³ðh&
_Æ oÖ` ½¨ H s̀ çßéß . "f ÂÒx_Æ oÖ` s6 x #
¯ ǑÉr oÖ
` ½¨½+É º e s̀ ò́Ö&hs |¨ ¯ s. sXO> 'a)a ¿º º_Æ <Êº 'a>ü< Ç º

_Æ oÖ` s6 x # ǑÉr º_Æ oÖ` ½¨ # l Ç. sM:, ½¨ H oÖÉr /
ÂÒìr rçß\ /Ç oÖs.
¹M 1 ½¨ ¸ª_Æ /+þAÛæ\ ìr{© 4000 l _Æ ó¡µ¢§` Ô#Q V, e. s ÛæÉr ³ðh&s
2
400m s \"fH îß tëß s 8 V,#Qt \P|¨ 0A+«>$í
s e Ç. ³ðh&
s 400m {9 M: rçß\ /Ç ìøÍt2£§_Æ oÖõ ³ð&h_Æ oÖ` ½¨ #.
2
Solution ì øÍt2£§s r {9 M: ³ð&hõ ÂÒxH yy

= 43 r
S = 4r2 ; V 3
s. ³ð&hs 400(m ) {9 M: ìøÍt2£§Ér r = 10(m) s ÂÒx_Æ rçß\ ǑÉr oÖÉr
2
dV
dt
= 4(m3=min)
s.4 "f ÂÒx_Æ d\"f ª` t \ / # pìr
dV 4
= 3r2 dr
dt 3 dt
s. "f r = 10 {9 M:
4 = 4 102 dr
dt
) dr = 1 0:0032
dt 100
sÙ¼ ìøÍt2£§_Æ oÖÉr
dr
dt
0:0032(m=min) = 0:32( m=min)
s. ³ð&h_Æ oÖÉr ³ð&h_Æ d` t \ / # pìr
dS
dt
= 4 2r dr
dt
sÙ¼ r = 10 {9 M: drdt = 0:032 e` s6 x
dS
dt
= 8 10 0:032 8:04(m =min) 2
e` ·ú º e.

Note s l\f" ^ º e1pws #Q" éß0A\ 6 x Ö¼\ ǑÉr ²ú` % ` º e.
3
ÕªQ éß0A\ 8̈íß °ú Ér ²ú` %3H. s 7áxÀÓ_Æ ëH℄j\"f 6 x H éß0A\ {9'a÷&
> :x{9 # ÅÒ¸2¤ Å
Ò_Æ # Ç.
4 1m3 = 1000l
s .
℄ 4 ℄X ¸<Êº_Æ 6£x6 x
j 121
¹M
2 6£§õ °ú s sÛ¼ß¼a >BH ¸ª("é¶Þ)_Æ Óüt×ß¼\"f í{© 300 l _Æ Óüts 4R
Ë
e
. Óüt_Æ Z}s 5m {9 M: Z}s_Æ oÖ` ½¨ #. ¢̧, Z}s 2m {9 M: Z}s_Æ

oÖ
É
r 5m {9 M:_Æ Y> C ÷&H?
10
Solution Óüt×ß¼\ $©)a Óüt_Æ ª` V

dV
dt
= 0:3 (m =se )
3
(3.7)

s . Z}s h {9 M: º_Æ ìøÍt2£§` r s fyy+þA_Æ ²ú©6£§q\"f
h : 10 = r : 6 ) r = 53 h
%

` H. "f Z}s h {9 M: Óüt_Æ ÂÒxH
3
V = 31 r h = 13 259 h h = 253 h (m )
2 2 3 3
(3.8)

s WZOgË:\ _Æ # ÂÒx_Æ oÖÉr 6£§õ °ú .

dV
= 3 3h dh = 9 h dh
2 2
(3.9)
dt 25 dt 25 dt
h=5{ 9 M: d (3.7) õ (3.9) \"f
0:3 = 259 5 dh
2
dt
= 9
dh
dt
) dh
dt
= 1 0:0106
30
%3H. #l"f ÂÒ ñH Z}s ±úf` _ÆpÇ. ¢̧Ç, Z}s 2 {9 M: Z}s_Æ oÖ

`
r
É

0:3 = 259 2 dh
2
dt
= 9 254 dh
dt
) dh dt
= 254 301
÷
s &Ù¼ 5m {9 M: oÖ_Æ 254 = 6:25 C )a.
¹M
3 § ·¡¤Aá¤\"f § \ ¾Ó # â
¹1ÏíH¹1Ï r5Åq 60 km ²úo e. §

·¡¤Aá¤ 0.75 km t&h\"f §
1lxAá¤ 1 km t&h\"f 1lxAá¤Ü¼ ²úoH õ5Åq |¾Ó` µ1Ï|

%

i. íH¹1Ï \ eH Speed gun Ü¼ 8£¤&ñ
Ç s _Æ 5Åq¸ r5Åq 40 km {9 M: s _Æ z´
122 ℄j 3 ©
Êº<ü pìr
<
℄j 5Åq¸\ ½¨ #.
Solution § \ "é¶&hÜ¼ x »¡¤_Æ ª_Æ ~½Ó¾Ós 1lxAá¤, y »¡¤_Æ ª_Æ ~½Ó¾Ó`
·¡¤Aá¤s

. x(t) \ ry t \"f õ5Åq |¾Ó_Æ x ýa³ð, y(t) \ íH¹1Ï _Æ y ýa³ð . ÕªQ
ÅÒ#Q ¸| Ér dy
x(0) = 1; y(0) = 0:75;
= 60 (3.10)
dt t=0
Ü¼ jþt º e õ5Åq |¾Ó_Æ 5Åq¸H dxdt s. íH¹1Ï ü< õ5Åq |¾Ó_Æ o\ z

z = x + y ; ¢̧ H z = x + y (3.11)
p
2 2 2 2 2
s $í
wnÇ. d (3.11) ` 6£§<ÊºpìrZOÜ¼ pìr
2z dz = 2x dx + 2y dy ; ¢̧H z dzdt = x dxdt + y dydt (3.12)
dt dt dt
` %3H. t = 0 \"f
(0) + y (0) = ( 34 ) + 1 = 54
r
z (0) =
p
x
2 2 2 2
s speed gun _Æ 5Åq¸ 8£¤&ñ

\ _Æ #
dz

dt t=0
= 40
sÙ¼ ¸| (3.10) ` d (3.12) \ V,#Q ÅÒ
5 dz = 1 dx + 3 dy ) 5 40 = dx + 3 ( 60)
4 dt dt 4 dt 4 dt 4
\f"
= 50 + 34 60 = 95(km=hour)
dx
dt
s. ÕªQÙ¼ õ5Åq
|¾Ó_Æ z´℄j5Åq¸H r5Åq 95km s.
j 5 ℄X î̈
çH°ú̄&ñ
o<ü FG°ú̄
℄ 123
V 5 â

Ë
Æ!
^ G
CêÇ
± Æh
aÿ? ;
G
³ê
±
&_
ñ Æ%is z´º|9½+Ë <Êº_Æ ÕªAáÔ\ ÕªǑ2; . Ä»ÇÇ î̈

\ ÕªAáÔ\ Õªo9 x
Æ#
_ 0A\ #Q¼Ö &ñ
¸ ú̧"f Õª9 ½+ÉÆ? 6£§Ér
3
y = x3 120x
ÆÕ
_ ªAÔá\ ½¨çß [ 5; 5℄ \f" ÕªǑ
; ¯ s.
2
y
400
200
-5 5
x
-200
-400
ÕA
ª áÔH ÅÒ#Q ½¨çß\f" éßíHyè H ¸ª` sHX< sH xlim
!1 y = 1 H z´` Òqt

y ÕªAáÔ ^_Æ :£¤$í
s ^ ºH \O. sXO> <Êº ^_Æ :£¤$í
s t ·ú§Ü¼
¼
Ù 6£§õ °ú s x _Æ #30A\ Zþt#
"f r Õª9 . 6£§Ér °ú Ér <Êº\ ½¨çß [ 50; 50℄ \
fÕ
" ªǑ2; ¯ s.
y
100 000
-40 40
x
-100 000
s
\H <ÊºH éßíH7£x H ¸ª` sHX< [ 5; 5℄ \"f ÕªǑ2; ÕªAáÔÂÒ' s ¢̧Ç

´s

z _` ·ú º e. sQÇ &³©Ér <Êº_Æ u%is ÅÒ &t"f "é¶&hH~½Ó\"f {9#Q
H ©/&hÜ¼ Ér o ryo÷&t ·ú§¤l M:ëHs. 6£§Ér ½¨çß [ 15; 15℄ \"f °ú Ér

Ê
<
º_Æ ÕªAáÔ\ ÕªǑ2; ¯ s.
y
400
200
-10 10
x
-200
-400
124 j℄ 3 © Êº<ü pìr
<
s ÕªAáÔ\ _Æ 6 ÆtH 7£x 6 ÆtH yè r Õª sÊê\
H 7£x
H +þAI\ # ïr. "f s ÕªAáÔH ·ú¡_Æ ¿º ÕªAáÔ s̀ ú́§Ér &ñ
\ Äºo\>
K ïr. sXO> <Êº_ Æ ÕªAáÔ\ Õªwn= M: #QÖ¼ ½¨çß\"f ÕªAáÔ\ ÕªoÖ¼\ Äºo
%3` º eH &ñ
_Æ s ²ú. s℄j <Êº_Æ ÕªAáÔ\ Õªwn= M: %3
ª H &ñ
\ ¶ú

(R Õª &ñ
[þt` ¸¿º ?/9 ÕªAáÔ\ #QÖ¼ ½¨çß\"f Õª9 Ht\ ¶ú(Rl
Ç.
·+ ÇaÆh
þj/°ú̄þjè°ú̄ &ñ
o \ _Æ {2³ ½¨çß [a; b℄ \"f &ñ
_Æ)a 5Åq<ÊºH ½Ó© þj/°ú̄õ þj
è°ú̄` °úH. s õ
\ s6 x 6£§ ·+ ÇaÆh(Rolle's theorem)\ 7£x"î
½ É º e.
+
·+ ÇaÆh
<Êº f (x) {2³ ½¨çß [a; b℄ \"f 5Åqs \PǑ2; ½¨çß (a; b) \f" pìr0px .
f (a) = f (b) s

f 0 ( ) = 0
` ëß7á¤ H ½¨çß (a; b) îß\ &h#Q¸ >rFÇ.
<Êº f (x) {2³ ½¨çß [a; b℄ \"f 5ÅqsÙ¼, s ½¨çß\"f þj/°ú̄ M õ þjè°ú̄ m ` °ú
H.
1. M = m s f (x) H {2³ ½¨çß [a; b℄ \"f ©º<Êºs. "f a < m s f (a) = f (b) sÙ¼ \PǑ2;½¨çß (a; b) _Æ Ç &h \ / #
f ( ) = M ¢̧ H f ( ) = m
s $í
wnÇ. ëß
f ( ) = M s + h 2 [a; b℄ ¸H h \ / #

f ( + h) f ( )
j 5 ℄X î̈
çH°ú̄&ñ
o<ü FG°ú̄
℄ 125
s. f" h > 0 s f ( + h) f ( )
h
0
s f (x) x = \"f pìr0px Ù¼
f ( + h) f ( )
f 0( ) = lim 0
h! 0+ h
s. ðøÍt h < 0 s

f ( + h) f ( )
h
0
s f (x) x = \"f pìr0px Ù¼
f ( + h) f ( )
f 0 ( ) = lim 0
h! 0 h
s. "f f 0( ) = 0 s. f ( ) = m â
Äº_Æ 7£x"î
Ér _þvëH℄j z|.
Note. <Êº f (x) \PǑ2;½¨çß (a; b) \"f pìr0px H ¸| s $í
wn t ·ú§Ü¼ \_Æ &ñ

o H $í
wn t ·ú§` º¸ e. \V\ [þt#Q, f (x) = jxj H {2³ ½¨çß [ 1; 1℄ \"f 5Åqs

f ( 1) = f (1) = 1 s tëß, \PǑ2; ½
¨çß ( 1; 1) \"f f 0( ) = 0 H >rF t ·ú§H.
Ë^Æ!
G±ê ÇaÆh
C
\_Æ &ñ
o\ s6 x 6£§ Ë^Æ!
G±ê ÇaÆh(mean value theorem)\ %3H.
C
^ÆË!CG±ê ÇaÆh
Ê
<
º f (x) {2³ ½¨çß [a; b℄ \
"f 5Åqs \PǑ2; ½¨çß (a; b) \f" pìr0px .
ª
Õ Q 6£§ 1pxd f (b) f (a)
f 0( ) =
b a
ëß7á¤ H ½¨çß (a; b) îß\

` &h#Q¸ >rFÇ.
Note î̈H°ú̄&ñ
oH #Q" ½¨çß\"f &ñ
_Æ)a pìr0pxÇ <Êº_Æ î̈
çHoÖõ °ú Ér íHçß

ç
oÖ
` °úH &hs >rFÇH ¯ ` ú́K ïr.

126 ℄j 3 ©
Êº<ü pìr
<
f (x)
a b
\_Æ &ñ
oÂÒ' î̈
çH°ú̄ &ñ
o\ 7£x"î
l 0A # <Êº g(x) \ 6£§õ °ú s &ñ
_Æ .
f (b) f (a)
g(x) = f (x) f (a) (x a)
b a
g(x)
H ½¨çß [a; b℄ \"f 5Åqs ½¨çß (a; b) \"fH pìr0px . ¢̧Ç
g(a) = g(b) = 0
sÙ¼ \_Æ &ñ
o\ _Æ #
f (b) f (a)
0 = g0( ) = f 0( ) b a
` ëß7á¤ H \PǑ2; ½¨çß (a; b) îß\ >rFÇ.
j 5 ℄X î̈
çH°ú̄&ñ
o<ü FG°ú̄
℄ 127
¿Á
ÊÁÿ? ÁþÊÁ+ ¤ḈÔ
þ
½¨çß [a; b℄ \"f f 0(x) = 0 s . î̈
çH°ú̄&ñ
o\ _Æ x 2 I \ / #
f (x) f (a)
x a
= f 0( ) = 0
2 [a; b℄ >rFÇ. f" ¸H x 2 [a; b℄ \ / #

f (x) = f (a)

º<Êº )a. s℄j #Q" ½¨çß I \"f &ñ
_Æ)a <Êº y = f (x) \ / # f 0(x) > 0 s
©
Q
# {9s {9#QHt ¶ú(Rl
" . ½¨çß ?/_Æ e_Æ_Æ ¿º &h x; y (x < y) \ / #
f (y) f (x)
y x
= f 0( )
&

[x; y℄ \ >rFÇ. "f x < y s
h
f (y) f (x) = f 0 ( )(y x) > 0
s$

wnÇ. r ú́K"f ½¨çß I \"f <Êº y = f (x) H 'K¤ÁþÊÁ(stri tly in reasing
í
fun tion)s . ðøÍt ½¨çß_Æ ¸H &h\"f f 0(x) < 0 s f H Õª ½¨çß\"f 'KḈÔ¿Áþ
5
Á(stri tly de reasing fun tion) Hd` {9 º e.

Ê
¿ÁþÊÁ?ÿ ÁþÊÁ+ ¤ḈÔ

Ê
<
º y = f (x) ½¨çß I _Æ ¸ H x \ / #

f 0 (x) = 0 s
f (x) H ©º<Êºs.
f 0 (x) > 0 s
f (x) H íH7x<Êºs.
£
f 0 (x) < 0 s
f (x) H íHyè<Êºs.

¹M
1 6£§ <Êº 7£x
H ½
¨çßõ yè H ½¨çß` ½¨ #.
f (x) = 2x3 3x 2
12x + 6;
3x4
Solution f 0 (x) > 0
½¨çßõ f 0(x) < 0 ½¨çß` ½¨ )a.
f 0 (x) = 6x 6x 12 = 6(x 2)(x + 1)
2
5½
¨ç _
ßIÆe_
Æ_Æ ¿º&
h x; y (x / #
\< y)
¢̧H
f (x) f (y )( f (x) < f (y ))
s \
f 7
x
£ Ê
< º ¢̧
( Hí
H7
x
£ Ê
< º Ç
) .
128 j℄ 3 © Êº<ü pìr
<
sÙ¼ x = 1; 2 \"
f f 0(x) = 0 s. Õª sü_Æ ½¨çß\"f f 0(x) _Æ ÂÒ ñ\ ½¨K 6£§
õ °ú .
3x< 1 1<x<2 2<x4

(x + 1) + +
(x 2) +
f 0 (x) + +
f (x) 7£x yè 7£x
"f <Êº y = f (x) H ½¨çß ( 1; 2) \"fH yè Qt ½¨çß\"fH 7£xÇ.
0A_Æ õH ÂÒ1pxd
` 7£x"î
H X<\¸ Ä»6 x . r ú́K"f, f (a) = b s
x > a \
/ #
f 0 (x) > 0 s
f (x) > b
f 0 (x) < 0 s
f (x) 0 s ½Ó© f (x) > g(x) e
3 2 2
` #.

Solution h(x) = f (x) g(x) = x 3x + 4x
3 2
. ÕªQ h(0) = 0 s
h0 (x) = 3x2
6x + 4 = 3(x 1) + 1 > 0 2
sÙ¼ h(x) H íH7£x<Êºs. "f x > 0 s

h(x) > h(0) = 0
sÙ¼
f (x) > g(x)
$í
wnÇ.
ç) (|¡è (2007Æ̧ &ñ

r 7)
z´º^\"f pì
r0pxÇ ¿º >h_Æ <Êº f (x); g(x) 6£§¸| ` ëß7á¤Ç.

8
<
f 0 (x) = g(x)
:g 0 (x) = f (x)
ÕªQ f (x) + g(x) s ©ºe` #.
2 2
)ç (|¡è (2006Æ̧

&ñ
r 3)
j 5 ℄X î̈
çH°ú̄&ñ
o<ü FG°ú̄
℄ 129
<Êº f pìr0px xlim!1 f (x) = 3 {
0 9 M:, xlim
!1[f (x + 2) f (x 2)℄ = s
.
)

ç (|¡è (2006Æ̧ ºr 9)
¨ç
½ [0; 1) \f" 5Åqs ½¨çß (0; 1) \"f ¿º pìr0pxÇ <Êº f f (0) = 0 ` ëß7á¤r
ß

v ¢̧Ç 0 < x < 1 \ /K"f f 00(x) 5 0 \ ëß7á¤r~´ M:, 6£§` 7£x"î
.
f (x + y) 5 f (x) + f (y) (x; y = 0)
;³7G±êø ;³¿G±ê
l 1 \f" f _Æ ÕªAÔá\ Õª9 6£§õ °ú .
y
38
13
x
-3 -1 2 4
-14
-39
ÕªAáÔÒÂ' x = 4 {9 M: þj /°ú̄ f (4) = 38, x = 3 {9 M: þjè°ú̄ f ( 3) = 39 e` ·ú
e. ëß ½¨çß` ( 2; 0) Ü¼ ℄jÇ (1; 3) Ü¼ ℄jÇÇ 'Í P: â
ÄºH x = 1
º
"
\ f þj/°ú̄` °ú ¿º P: â
ÄºH x = 2 \"f þjè°ú̄` °úHH ¯ ` 'a¹1Ï½+É º e. s
>
O
X &ñ
_Æ%i\"f Ç &h x = a ` í<Ê H #Q" \PǑ2; ½¨çß\"f f (a) þj/°ú̄(þjè°ú̄)s ÷&
y = f (x) H x = a \f" FG/(F

Gè) )a , x = a \ FG/&h(FGè&h), f (a) \ ;³
G
7ê(;³¿G±ê)(lo al maximum(lo al minimum))s Ç.
±
³;7G±êø ;³¿G±ê
Ê
<
º y = f (x) a \ í<Ê H #Q" \PǑ2;½¨çß_Æ ¸H x \ / #
f (x) f (a) (f (x) f (a))

s f H x = a \"f FG/°ú̄ (FGè°ú̄) f (a) \ °úH Ç.

Note FG/&hõ FGè&h` :xd#

Q ;³\(extremal point)s , FG/°ú̄õ FGè°ú̄`
130 ℄j 3 ©
Êº<ü pìr
<
:xd#Q ;³G±ê(extremum)s Ç.
Note 6£§ ÕªaË>\"f ^ º e1pws FG/°ú̄s ½Ó© FGè°ú̄ H ¯ Ér m.
y y
x x
s℄j pìr0pxÇ
Êº\ / # FG&h\"f #Q" $í
|9s eHt\ ¶ú(Rl
< Ç. Äº
y = f (x) _
Æ ¸<Êº y = f 0(x) 5Åq<Êº .6
l 1 \f" ÕªAá Ô\ ¶ú(R FG/&hõ FGè&h\"f pìr>ºH 0 s Hd` ·ú º e.
sQÇ z´Ér pìr0 xÇ ¸H <Êº\ / # $í
wnÇ. pìr0pxÇ <Êº y = f (x) x =
p
\"f FG/°ú̄` °úH
. ÕªQ #Q" ªº h \ / # ½¨çß ( h; + h) _Æ ¸H x
\ / #
f (x) f ( )
$í
wnÇ. "f x 2 ( ; + h) s
f (x) f ( )
x
0
sÙ¼
f+0 ( ) = lim f (xx)
x! +
f ( )

0
s $í
wnÇ. ðøÍt x 2 ( h; ) s
x < 0 sÙ¼
f (x) f ( )
x
0
s $í
wn
f 0 ( ) = lim f (xx)
x!
f ( )

0
` %3H. f H x = \"f pìr0px Ù¼
f+0 ( ) = f 0 ( )
s f 0( ) = 0 e` ·
º e.
ú
6p
ìr0
x
pÇ
Ê
< º_
Æ¸<Êº ½Ó© 5Åq ¯ Ér m. 6£§ <ÊºH s
f
0
(x) f
0
x =0 \f"
5
qs
Å
\
V

s.(
_
vë
þH℄
j) 8<
2 sin 1 x6= 0 ; x
( )=
:0 f x
=0;
x
x
ª
ÕQ
Äºo

À
ÒH
/ÂÒìr_Æ pìr0pxÇ <Êº[þtÉr ¸<Êº¸ 5Åqs.
j 5 ℄X î̈
çH°ú̄&ñ
o<ü FG°ú̄
℄ 131
;³\U "+ i&PNÊÁ

x= \ f" pìr0pxÇ <Êº y = f (x) x = \"f FG°ú̄` t
f 0( ) = 0 s.
Note s õ_Æ %iÉr {9ìøÍ&hÜ¼ s m. r ú́K"f pìr0pxÇ <Êº y = f (x) \

/ # f 0( ) = 0 s K"f y = f (x) ½Ó© FG°ú̄` °úH ¯ Ér m.
\V\ [þt#Q, f (x) = x \"f f 0(x) = 3x sÙ¼ f 0(0) = 0 s. tëß f H éßíH7£x
3 2
H <ÊºsÙ¼ f H x = 0 \"f FG°ú̄` °út ·ú§H. {9ìøÍ&hÜ¼ e>&h x = \ lïrÜ¼

f0 _
Æ ÂÒñ t ·ú§Ü¼ x = H FG&hs ÷&t ·ú§H.
y
Note e>&h x = ÅÒ\"f f 0 _

Æ ÂÒ ñ 7 f H x = \"f FG°ú̄` °úH. r ú́
"
Kf f _Æ ÂÒ ñ + \f"
0 7 FG/°ú̄`, \"f + 7 FGè°ú̄` °úH.
ÑÏN
\
6£§ ÕªaË>[þt\"f ^ º eH
%!3 <Êº y = f (x) x = \"f pìr0px t ·ú§8¸
¯
G°
Fú̄` |9 º e.
y y
x x
"f #Q" <Êº y = f (x) x = \"f FG°ú̄` °úH f 0( ) >rF t ·ú§ ¢̧
H f 0( ) = 0 s. sQÇ $í
|9` °úH &h x = \ ÑÏN\( riti al point)s Ç.

7
7 §F
\

"f
H½
¨ç
_
ßÆ=
ª Q°
åú̄`
e
>&h\ í<ÊrvH â
Äº¸ e.

132 ℄j 3 ©
Êº<ü pìr
<
ÑÏN\
f 0 ( )
>rF t ·ú§ f 0( ) = 0 &h x = \ e>&hs Ç.
Note 0 A_Æ 7H_Æ[þt` ¹̄ x = \"f y = f (x) FG°ú̄` t x = H e
>&hs.

r ú́ x = e>&hs m y = f (x) H x = \"f FG°ú̄` °út ·ú§
H. f"

FG°ú̄` ½¨ l 0AK" fH e>&hëß ¶ú(R )a.
¹M 3 6£§ <Êº_Æ e>&h` ¸¿º ½¨ FG/°ú̄õ FGè°ú̄` ½¨ #.
(a) f (x) = x 4
2x + 1
2
(b) f (x) = x 4
4x + 11
3
Solution
(a) f 0(x) = 4x 3
4x = 4x(x 1)(x + 1) s Ù¼ [j >h_Æ e>&h x = 0; 1; 1 s
>rFÇ.
e>&h` lïrÜ¼ f (x) _Æ ÂÒ ñ\ ½¨ 6£§õ °ú .
0
x 1 0 1

f 0 (x) 0 + 0 0 +
f (x) & FGè°ú̄GF/°ú̄ & FGè°ú̄ %
%
x= 1\ "f F Gè°ú̄ f ( 1) = 0, x = 0 \"f FG/°ú̄ f (0) = 1, x = 1 \
f" FGè°ú̄
f (1) = 0 `
°ú
H.

y
1
x
-2 -1 1 2
-1
(b) f 0(x) = 4x 3
12x = 4x (x 3) s
2 2
Ù¼ ¿º >h_Æ e>&h x = 0; 3 s >rFÇ. e>&h
` lïrÜ¼ f (x) _Æ ÂÒ ñ\ ½¨ 6£§õ °ú .
0
x 0 3

f (x)
0 0 0 +
f (x) & FG°ú̄ _ & FGè°ú̄ %
j 5 ℄X î̈
çH°ú̄&ñ
o<ü FG°ú̄
℄ 133
x=3\ "f FGè°ú̄ f (3) = 16 ` t9 ǑÉr FG°ú̄Ér >rF t ·ú§H.
50
30
11
x
-1 1 2 3 4
-16
134 ℄j 3 ©
Êº<ü pìr
<
6â
V
Á
Ê
þ Á+ Ü
«8è«
6£§ ¿º ÕªAáÔH ¸¿
º 7£x H <Êº_Æ ÕªAáÔstëß ǑÉr :£¤fç
` °úH.
ÁþÊÁ+ ¡·´Å℄Æ
ÅÒ#Q ½¨çß\f" 'Í P: ÕªAáÔH D× ¡·´( on ave down) ¿º P: ÕªA
ÔáH 8× ¡·´( on ave up) Ç. sH /BG 0A_Æ e_Æ_Æ ¿º &h` %i` M:
0A ^2¤Ç â
ÄºH /
G_Æ ÕªAáÔ f_Æ ÕªAáÔ 0A\, A ^2¤Ç
B
ÄºH /BG
â
_Æ ÕªAáÔ f_Æ Õ ªAáÔ A\ e.
ßë f (x) pìr0

xÇ <Êº 'Í P: â
ÄºH x &t ℄X_Æ lÖl &h&h
p
. r ú́K"f f (x) yèÇ. ìøÍ ¿º P: â
ÄºH ℄X_Æ lÖl f 0(x) &h&h &
0
. sQÇ $í
|9` p ìr0pxÇ <Êº y = f (x) _Æ ^2¤$í
` &ñ
_Æ H X<\ 6 xÇ.
þÁÊÁ+ ¡·´Å℄Æ
pìr0pxÇ <Êº y = f (x)
½¨çß (a; b) \"f f 0 s 7£x y = f (x) H A ^2¤s.
½¨çß (a; b) \f" f 0 s yè y = f (x) H 0A ^2¤s.
j 6 ℄X <Êº_Æ ÕªAáÔ
℄ 135
ëß y = f (x) _Æ s>¸<Êº >rF 0A_Æ õH 6£§õ °ú s jþt º e.
lN¿ÁþÊÁÿ? ¡·´Å℄Æ
º pìr0pxÇ <Êº y = f (x)
¿
½¨çß (a; b) \"f f 00 > 0 s
y = f (x) H A ^2¤s.
½
¨çß (a; b) \f" f 00 < 0 s y = f (x) H 0A ^2¤s.
¹M
1 5 ℄X_Æ l 3 \f" 0A ^2¤ ½¨çßõ A ^2¤ ½¨çß` ½¨ #.
Solution (a) f 00 (x) = 12x 4 = 12 x p1 x + p1 s
3 Ù ¼ ½¨çßZ> f 00 _Æ ÂÒ ñ\

2
3
(
ú
¶ R 6£§õ °ú .
x p1 p1

3 3
f 00 (x) + 0 0 +
f (x) A ^
¤2 0A ^2¤ A ^2¤

"f ½¨çß p1 ; p1
3 3 \ "fH 0A ^2¤ Qt ½¨çß\"fH A ^2¤ .

(b) f 00(x) = 12x 24x = 12x(x 2) ½

2
¨çßZ> f 00 _Æ ÂÒ ñ\ ¶ú(R 6£§õ °ú .
x 0 2

f (x)
00 + 0 0 +
f (x)A ^ 2¤ 0A ^2¤ A ^2¤

"f ½¨çß (0; 2) \"fH 0A ^¤2 Qt ½¨çß\"fH A ^2¤ .
£o>
\
¯
l 1(a) \"f x = p13 _Æ ¢,aAá¤\"f /BGÉr A ^2¤ ¸ǑÉrAá¤\"fH 0A ^
¤

2 Ç ¸ªs ÷& x = p13 _Æ ¢,aAá¤\"f /BGÉr 0A ^2¤ ¸ǑÉrAá¤\"fH A ^2¤

Ç ¸ªs )a. sXO> /BG_Æ ^2¤Ç ¸ªs 7 H &h` £o>¯\(in e tion point)s

Ç

.
¹M
2 Dh >h[O)a 'Å sàÔ_Æ {9 º(éß0A : ëß"î
)H rçß t (éß0A : >hZ4) \ /
136 ℄j 3 ©
Êº<ü pìr
<
# 6£§õ °ú s ÅÒ#
Q Ç.
f (t) =
20t 2
; t0
27 + t 2
y = f (t) _
Æ /BG&h` ½¨ /BG&h H%\"f #Q" &³©s {9#QHt [O"î
#.
20t 540 Ù
27 + t = 20 27 + t s ¼
2
Solution f (t) = 2 2
f 0 (t) =
1080t
(27 + t ) 2 2
f 00 (t) =
1080 4320t 2
(27 + t ) (27 + t )
2 2 2 3
= 3240(9 t) 2
(27 + t ) 2 3
s. "f r"é¶ ºH éßíH7£x 9 t = 3 \"f Ä»{9Ç /BG&h` °úH. t < 3 s
f (t) > 0 s
00 t > 3 s f 00(t) < 0 sÙ¼ f 0(t) H t = 3 \"f þj/°ú̄` °úH. r ú́K
"f 'Å sàÔ\ >h[O 3>hZ4 Êê\ ½©{9º f 0(t) H þj/ )a. 3 >hZ4s t
8úx{9 ºH >5Åq Zþttëß ½©{9 ºH ×#Q[þtl rÇ.
y
y f HtL
15
10
5
y f ¢HtL
t
3 6 9 12 15 18
lN¿ÁþÊÁ ÷5ÇaÆß

e>&h\"f <Êº 0A ^2¤ FG/°ú̄` °úH. ¢̧Ç e>&h\"f <Êº A ^
2¤ FGè°ú̄` °ú
H. s z´Ér f 00 5Åq â
Äº 6£§õ °ú s Ë̈#Q jþt º e.

lN¿ÁþÊÁ ÷5ÇaÆß

f 0 ( ) = 0 s f 00 5Åq{9 M:
f 00 ( ) > 0 s
f H \"f FGè°ú̄` °úH.

f 00 ( ) < 0 s
f H \"f FG/°ú̄` °úH.
℄ 6 ℄X <Êº_Æ ÕªAáÔ
j 137
¹M
3 5 X℄_Æ l 3 ` r ¶
(R.
ú
(a) f 00(x) = 12x 4 s [j >h_Æ e>&h x = 0; 1; 1 ` °úH.
2
f 00 (0) < 0; f 00 (1) > 0; f 00 ( 1) > 0

sÙ¼ x = 0 \"fH FG/°ú̄`
x = 1 \"fH FGè°ú̄` °úH.

(b) f 00(x) = 12x 12 s
2
¿º >h_Æ e>&h x = 0; 3 ` °úH.
f 00 (0) = 0; f 00 (3) > 0
sÙ¼ x = 3 \f"H FGè°
ú̄` °úH. x = 0 \"fH s>¸<ÊºóøÍ&ñ
ZO` 6 x½+É º
\O.
Ü«8è« Ü«he
tFKÆt Cîr ?/6 xþt[` s6 x # <Êº_Æ ÕªAáÔ\ Õª9 l . <Êº_Æ ÕªAáÔ\
Õo
ª l 0AK"fH Äº x _Æ #30A\ &ñ
# Ç. {9ìøÍ&hÜ¼ <Êº y = f (x) _Æ &ñ
_Æ%iÉr

¤Z
£
: y ÅÒ#Qtt ·ú§Ér â
Äº f (x) _Æp\ °úH þj/|9½+ËÜ¼ ú̧H. ÕªQ &ñ
_Æ%is Áº
>
Ç

Ç â
Äº Ä»ÇÇ î̈

\ &ñ
_Æ%i`
¸¿º ?/H ¯ Ér Ô0px . "f ÕªAáÔ\ Õª9

t H x _Æ #30A\ ℄jÇ # HX< y = f (x) \ /Ç &ñ
\ °ú eH ¸H &h` í<Ê

# Ç.{9ìøÍ&hÜ¼ <Êº_Æ ÕªAáÔ\ ÕªoH â
Äº 6£§õ °ú Ér ¯ [þts >rF ÕªAáÔ\
ðr
³ Ç.
(a) x-℄ X¼# : ÕªAÔáü< x »¡¤s ëßH &h
~½Ó&ñ
d f (x) = 0 ` ór.
(b) y-℄ X¼# : ÕªAáÔ<ü y »¡¤s ëß H &h
y-℄ X¼# (0; f (0))
( ) /gA$í
y» ¡¤ /gA : f ( x) = f (x)
"é¶&h /gA : f ( x) = f (x)
(d) ºî̈
&hHõ ºfh&H
lim f (x) = L, ¢̧
x!1
H x!lim1 f (x) = L s y = L Ér ºî̈
&hHs.
x!a
lim f (x) = 1, ¢̧ H xlim
!a
f (x) = 1 s x = a H ºf&hHs.
(e) e >&h
f 0 (x) >rF t ·ú§ f 0(x) = 0 x \ ½¨Ç.
(f) <Êº_Æ 7£x H ½¨çßõ y è H ½¨çß
e>&hõ e>&h s_Æ ½¨ç \"f f 0_Æ ÂÒ ñ\ óøÍ&ñ
Ç.
ß
(g) F G/°ú̄, FGè°ú̄
e>&h H~½Ó\"f f 0 _Æ ÂÒñ 7 Ht ¶ú(R :r. + \"f 7 FG/°ú̄, \
"f + 7 FGè°ú̄` °ú H.

138 ℄j 3 ©
Êº<ü pìr
<
(h) /BG&h
~½Ó&ñ
d f 00(x) = 0 ` ór. /BG&h H~½Ó\"f f 00(x) _Æ ÂÒ ñ\ SX # ÕªAáÔ 0A
^2¤Ç ½¨çßõ A ^2¤Ç ½¨çß` ½¨Ç.
¹M 4 6£§ <Êº_Æ ÕªAáÔ\ Õª9.

(a) f (x) = x = (2 x) (b) f (x) = 11 + xx
2 3 2
Solution
(a) f (0) = 0 s
Ù¼ y ℄X¼#Ér 0 s.
f (x) = 0 ) x = 0; x = 2
sÙ¼ ¿º >h_Æ x-℄X¼# 0; 2 >rFÇ.
f ( x) = ( x) = (x + 2) = x = (x + 2)
2 3 2 3
sÙ¼
f ( x) 6= f (x); f ( x) 6= f (x)
s. "f y » ¤\ / # /gAs m "é¶&h\ / #¸ /gAs m
¡ . f (x) H ¸
H z´º\"f 5
q <ÊºsÙ¼ ºf&hH¸ >rF t ·ú§H. ¢̧Ç,
Å
x!1
lim f (x) = 1; x!
lim1 f (x) = 1
sÙ¼ ºî̈
&h
HÉr >rF t ·ú§H. s℄j e>&h` ½¨ # .

= 32 x = (2 x) x = = x = 23 (2 x) x

f 0 (x) 1 3 2 3 1 3
= x = 43 53 x

1 3
sÙ¼ ¿º >h_Æ e >&h x = 0; 45 >rFÇ. e>&h H~½Ó\"f f 0 _Æ ÂÒ ñ\ ¶ú(R

6£§õ °ú .
x 0 4
5
f 0 (x) >rF t ·ú§6£§ + 0
f (x) & 0(F
Gè°ú̄) % 1.034(FG/°ú̄) &
<Êº_Æ ^2¤<Ê`
l 0A # s>¸<Êº\ ½¨

f 00 (x) =
1
4 5 x 5 x = 13 x = 43 + 103 x

3x
4=3 1=3 4 3
3 3 3
\f" f 00(x) H x = 0 \"f >rF t ·ú§ f 00

2 = 0 s
. s &h ÅÒ0A\
f" f 00 _Æ ÂÒ
5
ñ\ ¸ 6£§õ °ú .
℄ 139
x 2 0

5
f (x)
00 + 0 >rF t ·ú§6£§
f (x) A ^2¤ 0A ^2¤ 0A ^2¤
tFKÆt 'a¹1ÏÇ ¯ ` # ÕªAáÔ\ Õªo 6£§õ °ú .
y
1.034
x
-1 0.8 2 3
-1
Note l 4(a) \"f <ÊºH ½¨çß ( 52 ; 0) õ ½¨çß (0; 1) \"f yy 0A ^2¤s.
tëß ½¨çß ( 52 ; 1) \"f ^2¤Ér m.
(b) Ä
º f (0) = 1 sÙ¼ y-℄X¼Ér 1 s.
#
f (x) = 0 , 1 x =0 2
sÙ¼ ¿º >h_Æ x-℄X¼# 1; 1 s >rFÇ.

f ( x) =
1 ( x) = 1 x = f (x)
2 2
1 + ( x) 1 + x 2 2
sÙ¼ y »¡¤\ / # /gAs. f (x) = 1 + 1 +2 x sÙ¼ 2
lim f (x) = 1; x!lim1 f (x) = 1

x!1
s y = 1 Ér Ä»{9Ç ºî̈

&hHs. ìr¸ ½Ó© ªº Ä»odsÙ¼ ºf&hH
Ér >rF t ·ú§H.
1 + 1 +2 x
0

f 0(x) = 2
= 4x
1+x 2
sÙ¼ _Æ e>&h x = 0 s >rFÇ.

f 00 (x) = 4x 0

1+x 2
4(3 x 1)
= (1 + x )
2
2 3
140 ℄j 3 ©
Êº<ü pìr
<
sÙ¼ ¿º >h_Æ /BG&h x = p13 s >rFÇ. e>&hõ /BG&h` lïrÜ¼ f 0õ f 00_Æ

ÂÒ ñ\ ½¨ 6£§õ °ú .
p1 0 p1
x
3 3
f 0 (x) + + + 0
f 00 (x) 0 + + + 0
tFKÆt ¶ú(R :r ¯ ` / # ÕªAáÔ\ Õªo 6£§õ °ú .
y
x
-4 -2 2 4
-1
'×ÇaÆÏ+
FD9
s <Êº y = x + ax + b H FGè°ú̄` °úH. sM: FGè°ú̄s 0 ß¼ s ~½Ó&ñ
d
2
2
x + ax + b = 0 _Æ z´HÉr >rF t ·ú§H. ìøÍ FGè°ú̄s 0 Ü¼ ¿º >h_Æ z´H` °ú
H. sXO> FG°ú̄\"f <Êº_Æ ÂÒ ñ\ ·ú /6£x H ~½Ó&ñ
d_Æ z´Hs Y> >h >rF Ht ·ú
º e. \V\ [þt#Q <Êº
f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + x + d (a 6= 0)
Æ_ e>&hs \O s éß¸<Êº ÷&Ù¼ Ä»{9Ç z´H` °úH. e>& s ¿º >hs
h
½Ó© FG/°ú̄õ FG è°ú̄` °úH. sM: FG/°ú̄` , FGè°ú̄` ( 6= ) 6£§
õ\ ×æçßú̄°&ñ
oÂÒ' ~1> 'a¹1Ï½+É º e.
1. > 0 s f (x) = 0 Ér Ä»{9Ç z´H` °úH.
℄ 141
2. < 0 s f (x) = 0 Ér "f ǑÉr [j z´H` °úH.
3. = 0 s
f (x) = 0 Ér ¿º >h_Æ z´H` °úH.
sQÇ ~½ÓZOÉr {9ìøÍ&h pìr0px <Êº Y> >h_Æ z´H` °úHt\ óøÍéß H X<\¸ &h
xs

6 0px .
¹M
5 ~½Ó&ñ
d x 5x + 5x 7 = 0 Ér Y> >h_Æ z´H` °úHt ·ú.
5 3 2
Solution f (x) = x 5x + 5x 7
5 3 2

f 0 (x) = 5x415x + 10x = 5x(x 1) (x + 2)
2 2
a. "f y = f (x) H x = 2 \"f FG/°ú̄ f ( 2) = 23 ` °ú x = 0 \"f FGè°ú̄
)
f (0) = 7 \ °úH. ǑÉr FG°ú̄Ér >rF t ·ú§H. ½¨çß ( 1; 2℄ ü< ½¨çß [1; 1) \"f y
y = f (x) H éßíH7£xÇ.

y
lim f (x) = 1; f ( 2) > 0
x! 1
Ù
s ¼ ×æçßú̄°&ñ
o\ _Æ ½¨çß ( 1; 2℄ \ Ä»{9Ç z´Hs >rFÇ. ¢̧Ç
lim f (x) = 1; f (1) < 0
x!1
sÙ
¼ ½¨çß [1; 1) \"f¸ Ä»{9
Ç z´Hs >rFÇ. t}Ü¼ ½¨çß [ 2; 1℄ \"f y = f (x)

H éßíHyè

f( 2) > 0; f (1) < 0
sÙ
¼ ½¨çß [ 2; 1℄ \"f¸ ×æçß°ú̄&ñ
o\ _Æ # Ä»{9Ç z´Hs >rF<Ê` ·ú º e.
f ¸¿º [j >h_Æ z´Hs >rFÇ.
"
142 ℄j 3 ©
Êº<ü pìr
<
y
21
-2 1
x
-7
V 4 *
×

ï\ÔöÁþÊÁ+ i
&P
V â

º
1ÔḈ
Ç ÁÊ
þ Á
y_

Æ ß¼lH Æ; Æ 0 %!3 {9ìøÍ&hÜ¼ ìrZO` s6 x # ·p ÕªQ sǑ:r&hÜ¼
30 45 30 60 .
H ñ¸ZO` s6 x # y_Æ ß¼l\

z´º ·p ñ¸ZOÉr y_Æ ß¼l\ éß0A"é¶\"f /
.
x
£
6H ñ_Æ U´s\ s6 x # ?/H ~½ÓZOs éß0A"é¶\"f ñ_Æ U´s {9 M: /6£x H
. 1
æd

×y` &ñ
_Æ
1 rad gò5Ñ radian s {9H
1 ( ) .
1rad
Ít
ø
ì2£§s ìøÍ"é¶_Æ ñ_Æ U´sH sÙ¼
1
180 =
Æ (rad)

s "f
.
Æ Æ
30 =
Æ 180
= (rad) ; 45 =
Æ 180
= (rad)
6 6 4 4
:£¤Z>y D¥êøÍ_Æ 0A+«>s \OÜ¼ ñ¸ZO_Æ éß0A
s . rad Ér Òqt|ÄÌ 6 xÇ .
ºÇÔḈÁþÊÁ+ ÇaÆ+
143
144 j℄ © íZ4 Êº_Æ pìr
< 4
ýa³ðî̈

\"f "é¶&h` ×ædÜ¼ H éß0A"é¶Ér 6£§õ °ú s 6£§<Êº\ s6 x # èq º
e .
x2 + y2 = 1
sM: x »¡¤\f" ª_Æ ~
Ó¾ÓÜ¼ ×ædy
½ 1
(rad) \ /6£x H éß0A"é¶_Æ ýa³ð\
( os ; sin )
&ñ
_ÆÇ .2
1
sin Θ
Θ
cos Θ 1
ñ
&_Æ\ _Æ &h ( os ; sin )
H ¸H z´º \ / # éß0A"é¶ 0A\ eÜ¼Ù¼ 6£§ ds
$í
wnÇ .
os
2
+ sin2 = 1
éß0A"é¶_Æ ×ædyÉr sÙ¼ ï<Êº
2 os ü< <Êº Ér ¸¿º ÅÒl ÅÒl<Ê
sin 2
ºs .

os( + 2 k) = os ; k
sin( + 2 k H &ñ
º
) = sin ( )
ºÇÔḈÁþÊÁ+ Å℄Æ
I
os
2
+ sin2 = 1

os( + 2 k) = os ;
sin( + 2 k) = sin (k
H &ñ
º)
¢̧Ç "é¶_Æ /gA$í

\ _Æ # 6£§ 1pxd[þts $í
wn<Ê` ·ú º e .
)
os( = os; )
sin( = sin
os( ) = os ; sin( ) = sin
os( + ) = os ; sin( + ) = sin
1 r>ì
Í
ø /~
Ó¾
½ Ó`
_
ÆpÇ.
2 &
s
_
ñÆ\_Æ
0 2 \ / # fyy+þA` s6 xÇ &ñ
_Æü< {9uÇ.

x9Æ ; sin = Z}s
os =
± ±
j ℄X y<Êº
℄ 1 145
1 1 1
sin Θ sin Θ sin Θ
Π-Θ Θ+Π
Θ Θ Θ
-Θ cos Θ 1 cosHΠ - ΘL cos Θ 1 cosHΘ + ΠL cos Θ 1
sinH-ΘL sinHΘ + ΠL
II
os( ) = os; sin( ) = sin
os( ) = os ; sin( ) = sin
os( + ) = os ; sin( + ) = sin
éß0A"é¶ 0A_Æ &h ( x; y) \

ªÆ_ ~
Ó¾ÓÜ¼ =2(= 90Æ) ëßpu r ( y; x) ÷&Ù¼
½

os( + )= sin ; sin( + ) = os (4.1)
2 2
$

wnÇ
í .
1
y sin Θ
x
Θ
-y x cos Θ 1

d (4.1) õ y<Êº_Æ $í
|9 _Æ 'Í P: d` s6 x
II

os( ) = sin( ) = sin
2

sin( ) = os( ) = os
2
`

e ·ú º e
.
146 ℄j © íZ4
4 Êº_Æ pìr
<
III

os + = sin ; sin + = os
2 2

os = sin ; sin = os
2 2
òøÍH$àÔ<Êº tan H sin

tan =
os
&ñ
_ÆÇ n \"fëß sÙ¼ òøÍH$àÔ<Êº_Æ &ñ
_Æ%iÉr 6 n
. = + os =0 = +

z´
ºs õ ï_Æ /Ç $í
|9` s6 x 6£§ ds $í
wn<Ê` ·ú º e
.
2
.
2
tan() =
tan
tan( ) = tan
tan( + ) = tan
t} d\f" ï <Êº <Êºü<H ²úo òøÍH$àÔ<Êº_Æ ÅÒlH e` ·ú º e <Ê
, .
º_Æ ÕªAÔá\ ÕªoH ~½ÓZOÉr 1px<Æ§ §F\ l êøÍ .
ºÇÔḈÁþÊÁ+ Á' ûgÇ

Æh
a
éß0A"é¶ 0A_Æ ¿º &h A ;
(1 0) õ B
; s_Æ oH ¿º &h C ( os ; sin )
( os( + ) sin( + ))
ü< D ( os( ); sin( )) = ( os ; sin )
s_Æ oü< °ú .
1 1
B C
Α
Β 1 Α 1
A -Β
"f
(1 os( + ))2 + sin2 ( + ) = ( os os )2 + (sin + sin )2
s $í
wnÇ ½Ó1pxd
. os2 + sin2 = 1 `
s6 x # s d` &ñ
o
2 2 os( + ) = 2 2( os os sin sin )
s ÷&Ù¼
os( + ) = os os sin sin
℄ ℄X y<Êº
j 1 147
%

` H s d\ /
3 . \
/{9
os( ) = os os + sin sin
$
s
wn s d\f" /
í 2
`
/{9

sin( + ) = os( )
2

= os( ) os + sin( ) sin
2 2
= sin os + os sin
%

\ H t}Ü¼ s d_Æ /
3 . \ /{9
sin( ) = sin os os sin
%

\ H ¢̧Ç òøÍH$àÔ<Êº_Æ &ñ
_
3 . Æ\ _Æ #
+ )
sin( sin os + os sin
tan( + ) = =
os( + ) os os sin sin
$
s
wnÇ ìrü< ìr¸\ ¸¿º
í . os os ¾º
tan + tan
tan( + ) =
1 tan tan
%

\ H s d\ /
3 . \ /{9
tan
tan
tan( ) =
1 + tan tan
%

` H 0A\ %3Ér #Qt 1pxd
3 . ` y<Êº_Æ » !lr&ñ
o Ç
.
ºÇÔḈÁþÊÁ+ Á' ûgÇaÆh

os( ) = os os sin sin (4 ¤ ñ1lxíH)
sin( ) = sin os os sin (4 ¤ ñ1lxíH)
tan tan
) (4
¤ ñ1lxíH)
1 tan tan
tan( =
¹M
1 6£§ °ú̄` ½¨ # .
Æ (b) sin 75 Æ ( ) tan 75 Æ

(a) os 15 = os
12
148 ℄j © íZ4
4 Êº_Æ pìr
<
Solution Æ
(a) 15 = 45 Æ 30 = Æ
4

6
sÙ¼
Æ

os 15 = os
4 6

= os os + sin sin
p 4p 6
p 4 6
2 3 21
= +
p2 2
p 2 2
=
6+
4
2
0:9659
s .
p p
(b) sin 75Æ = sin(90Æ 15Æ ) = os 15Æ = 0:9659
6+ 2
4
Æ Æ
( ) 75 = 45 + 30 = Æ
4
+

6
sÙ¼
Æ

tan 75 = tan +
4 6

tan 4 + tan 6
=
1 tan 4 tan 6
1+ p13 p
=
1 p13 = p3 + 1
3 1
p
= 2+ 3
s .
ºÇÔḈÁþÊÁ+ :Ḉ¯»Ï
ï<Êº_Æ » !
r&ñ
o\"f
l = = s

os(2 ) = os os sin sin
os sin
2 2
=
2 os 2 sin
2 2
= 1 = 1
` %3H °ú Ér â

Äº
. <Êºü< òøÍH$àÔ<Êº\ /Ç 'a>d¸ &ñ
o 6£§õ °ú s 1px .
d` :Ḉ¯»Ïs Ç .
:Ḉ¯»Ï
os(2 ) = os
2
sin
2

= 2 os
2
1 = 1 2 sin
2

sin(2 ) = 2 sin os
2 tan
tan(2 ) =
1 tan2
j X℄ y<Êº
℄ 1 149
ï\ /Ç Cy/BNdÉr 6

§õ °ú s Ë̈#Q jþt º e
£ .
1 + os 2 1 os 2
os
2
= ; sin
2
=
2 2

"f
1 os 2
tan
2
=
1 + os 2
%

` H s d[þt\ / = \ V,Ér ¯ ` ð5Ḉ¯»Ïs Ç
3 . 2 .
ð5Ḉ¯»Ï

1 + os
1 os
1 os
os
2
= ; sin
2
= ; tan
2
=
2 2 2 2 2 1 + os
ºÇÔḈ
ÁþÊÁ+ TÒ¼Å℄Æ
z´º a; b \ / #
y = f (x) = a sin x + b os x
p
ÅÒl ÅÒl<Êºs sj℄ s <Êº_Æ þj/°ú̄` ½¨Kl Ç A
H
2 . . = a2 + b2

h
a b i
a os x + b sin x = A os x + sin x
A A

s .

a 2 b 2
+ =1
A A
Ù
s ¼ &h a b
H éß0A"é¶ x2 + y2 = 1 0A_Æ &hs. "f

;
A A
a b
os = ; sin =
A A
\ / #

a b
os x + sin x = os os x + sin sin x = os(x )
A A
$í
wnÇ ÕªQ¼Ù
s .
f (x) = a os x + b sin x = A os(x )
¼
Ü jþt º e þj/°ú̄Ér A pa b þjè°ú̄Ér A s y f x _Æ ÕªAáÔH y
= 2 + 2, . = ( ) =
A x_
os Æ ÕªAáÔ\ x »¡¤ ª_Æ ~½Ó¾ÓÜ¼ ëßpu î̈
's1lx %3#Q .
150 ℄j © íZ4
4 Êº_Æ pìr
<
y
A Α
-A
sXO> a x b x g1J_Æ <Êº\ A

os + sin os( x ), ¢̧
H A sin(x + ) g1J Ë̈#Q jþt º e
HX< s\ ºÇÔḈÁþÊÁ
+ TÒ¼Å℄Æs Ç .
ºÇÔḈÁþÊÁ+ TÒ¼Å℄Æ
p
A = a2 + b2; os
a
= ;
A
sin =
b
A
s 6£§ 1pxds $í
wnÇ.
a os x + b sin x = A os(x )
Note y<Êº_Æ ½

Ë$í
Ér <Êº\ s6 x # èq º¸ e
+ .
¹M 2 \"f f
( ) = os_Æ þj/°ú̄` ½¨ f
+ sin ( )=1 s ÷
&H \ ½¨
# .
p
p s
h i
p
1 1
Solution os
+ sin = 2 os + sin .
2 2
os = p1 ; sin = p1
2 2
÷&H \ ½¨ =

4
sÙ¼
p

os + sin = 2 os
4
s "f f _Æ þ
. j/°ú̄Ér
( ) =

4
\"f p s 2 . f () = 1 s
÷&H H
p
¢̧H

2 os
4
=1 ; os
4
= p1
2
\ ëß7á¤ ¼Ù

4
=
4
; ¢̧H

4
=

4
s "f
.

= 0;
2
℄ ℄X y<Êº
j 1 151
"
\ f f s )a
( )=1 .
152 ℄j © íZ4
4 Êº_Æ pìr
<
â
V
º
ÔḈ
Ç ÁþÊ
2 Á+
¿Á
Ê
þ Á
<Êº_Æ » !lrZOgË:\"f
sin( x + h) = sin x os h + os x sin h
sÙ¼
sin( x + h) sin x = sin x( os h 1) + os x sin h
s )a "f
.
x + h) sin x
x0
sin(
(sin ) = lim
h!0 h
os h sin h
h i
1
= lim sin x + os x
h!0 h h
os h 1 sin h
= sin x lim + os x lim
h!0 h h!0 h
= sin x 0 + os x 1
= os x
e` ·ú º e .

os x = sin x ; sin x = os x
2 2
sÙ¼ ½+Ë$í
<Êº_Æ pìrZOÜ¼ÂÒ'
h
i 0

0
[ os ℄ x0 = sin x = os x x
2 2 2

= os x = sin x
2
Hd` ·ú º e . tan x_

Æ ¸<ÊºH 6£§õ °ú s ℄_Æ pìrZOÜ¼ÂÒ' ½¨½+É º e.
0 = sin x 0

(tan x)
os x
(sin x)0 os x sin x( os x)0
=
os x
2
os2 x + sin x
2
=
os2 x
= se x
2
6£§ y<Êº 1 1 1
s x= ; se x= ; ot x=
sin x os x tan x
\ /Ç pìr/BNd¸ ℄
_Æ pìrZOÜ¼ ½¨½+É º eÜ¼9 _þvëH℄j z|
.
ºÇÔḈÁþÊÁ+ ¿ÁþÊ
Á
x0
(sin ) = os x; x0
( s ) = s x ot x
( os x)0 = sin x; (se x)0 = se x tan x
(tan x)0 = se 2 x; ( ot x)0 = s 2 x
℄ ℄X y<Êº_Æ ¸<Êº
j 2 153
¹M
1 £§6 <Êº_Æ ¸<Êº\ ½
¨ # .
y = sin x tan x sin x

(a) (b) y=
1 os x
Solution (a) YL_Æ pìrZOgË:` s6 x

(sin x tan x)0 = x 0 x + sin x(tan x)0
(sin ) tan
os x tan x + sin x se x
2
=
= sin x + se x tan x
%

` H
3 .
(b)℄_Æ pìrZO` s6 x

sin x 0 os (1 x os ) x x
sin (sin ) x
=
1 os x (1 x
os )2
os x ( os2 x + sin2 x)
=
(1 os x)2
1
=
os x 1

s .
6£§ lH y<Êºü< 'aº # ÅÒ ¸H ÂÒ1pxd` êr
.
¹M
2 < x < \ / # 6£§ ÂÒ1pxds $í
wn<Ê` #
0
2
.
x sin x x
2

Solution f (x) = sin x

½¨çß [0; ℄ \"f
2
f 00 (x) = sin x<0

sÙ
¼ f x x
H ÅÒ#Q ½¨ç
\"f 0A ^2¤ . "f ¿º &h (0; 0) õ
ß
` e±

( ) = sin ;1
Hf

2
2
y= x

H/

G f x
B ( ) = sin x
A\ e
. ÕªQÙ¼ 'Í P: ÂÒ1pxd

x sin x
2

$
s
wnÇ ¿º P: ÂÒ1pxd` 7£x"î
l 0AK"fH
í .
g(x) = x sin x

. g(0) = 0 s

g0 (x) = 1 os x0
154 ℄j © íZ4
4 Êº_Æ pìr
<
sÙ¼ y = g(x)
H 7
x<Êºs. "f x > 0 s
£
g(x) g(0) = 0 ) x sin x
s $í
wnÇ .
y
2x
yx y
1 Π
Π x
2
Π
¹M 3 6£§ <Êº_Æ ÕªAáÔ\ Õª9 .
f (x) = os 2x 2 os x
Solution
(i) ÒÅl$í
f x : (
+2 )= f (x) s
Ù¼ ½¨çß [ ; ℄\"f_Æ ÕªAáÔëß Õªo )a
.
(ii) ℄X#¼ f
: (0) = 1 sÙ¼ y ℄X¼#Ér s x X℄¼#` ½¨ l 0A # ~½Ó&ñ
d
- 1 . -
os 2 x 2 os x = 2 os2 x 1 2 os x=0
` Û p
1 3
os x= <0
2
s "f x ℄X¼#Ér ½¨çß ; \ >rFÇ "f ½¨çß
.3 - [2 ℄ . [ :℄ \
H ¿º >h
_Æ x ℄X¼#s >rFÇ .
(iii) &hH ºî̈

&h
: H ¢̧H ºf&hHÉr >rF t ·ú§H
, .
(iv) /gA$í
f ( x) = os( x
x) = os 2x os x = f (x)
2 ) os(
sÙ¼ y »¡¤\ / # /gAs. "f 0 x \"f ÕªAáÔ\ Õªo

Qt ½¨çß
\"f_Æ ÕªAáÔH /gA$í
` s6 x # Õªwn= º e .
(v) <Êº_Æ 7£xyõ FG°ú̄ s℄j FG°ú̄` ½¨ # l
: .
f 0 (x) x + 2 sin x = 4 sin x os x + 2 sin x

= 2 sin 2
= 2 sin x(1 2 os x)
sÙ¼ ½¨çß [0; ℄ \"f e>&h x = 0; ; >rFÇ. e>&h` lïrÜ¼ <Êº_Æ 7£x

y` ¸ 6£§õ °ú .
3
p
3
i
% y
<
Ê
º\C
Äº
s °ú̄Ér x = ar os 1
2
3
Ü¼ èq º e6£§` ·ú º e.
j ℄X y<Êº_Æ ¸<Êº
℄ 2 155

x 0 3

f 0 (x) 0 0 + 0
f (x) 1 & 2
3
% 3
(vi) ªÕAáÔ Õªol ½¨çß ; \

: [0 "f_Æ ÕªAáÔH 6£§ ¢,aAá¤ ÕªaË>õ °ú y »¡¤\ / # /
℄ .
gAsH z´` s6 x ½¨çß ; \"f_Æ ÕªAáÔH 6£§ ¸ǑÉrAá¤ ÕªaË>õ °ú
[ ℄ .
y y
3 3
x x
-Π - Π3 Π
3
Π -Π - Π3 Π
3
Π
-1 -1
-1.5 -1.5
6£§ ÕªaË>Ér ÅÒl$í

` s6 x # ½¨çß [ 3; 3℄ \
/ # ÕªAáÔ\ ÕªǑ2; ¯ s.
y
3
x
-3 Π -2 Π -Π Π 2Π 3Π
-1
-1.5
156 ℄j © íZ4
4 Êº_Æ pìr
<
â
V

º
℄ ÔḈÁ
Ç 3Ê
þ Áÿ?
¿ÁÊ
þ Á
<Êº y x H ÅÒl<ÊºsÙ¼ {9/{9 /6£xs m "f z´º ^|9½+Ë\"f
= sin .
<Êº_Æ %i<Êº\ &
_Æ½+É º \O ÕªQ &ñ
_Æ%i` = ; = ℄jÇ <ÊºH
ñ . [ 2 2℄
[ = ; = \
2 2℄ "f ; H {9/{9 /6£xs )a "f &ñ
_Æ%i` = ; = ℄jÇ
[ 1 1℄ . [ 2 2℄
Ç <ÊºH %i<Ê º\ °úH .
sXO> &ñ
_Æ)a %i
Êº\ ℄ê>ÁþÊÁ inverse sine fun tion ÂÒØÔ
< ( )
y = ar sin x
·p %i<Êº_Æ &ñ
_Æ%iÉr
.4 [ 1 1℄; s u%iÉr = ; = s [ 2 2℄ .
y = ar sin x , sin y xs= y 2 2
1.5
1
y
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 0.5
x
–1 –0.5 0 0.5 1
–1
x
–0.5
–1
–1.5
ï<Êº y x_
Æ &ñ
_Æ%i` ; ℄jÇ # %3#QtH ï<Êº_
= os Æ %i<Êº\
[0 ℄
℄óê>ÁþÊÁ inverse osine fun tion ÂÒØÔ
( )
y = ar os x
·p %iï
.<Êº_Æ &ñ
_Æ%iÉr
[ 1 1℄; s u%iÉr ; s [0 ℄ .
y = ar os x , os y xs= y 0
1 3
0 2
–2 –1 1 2 3 4 5
y
–1 1
–1 0 1
x
¹M 4 6£§ °ú̄` ½

¨ # .
4
i
% y
<
Ê
º\ y = sin
1x ³ðl l¸ Ç.
j ℄X %iy<Êº<ü ¸<Êº
℄ 3 157

1 1 3
(a) ar sin (b) ar os ( ) tan ar sin
2 2 5
Solution
(a) sin

6
=
1
2
s H 6

2
<ü s\ eÜ¼Ù¼
2

1

ar sin =
2 6
s .

s
H õ s\ eÜ¼Ù¼

2 1 2
(b) os = 0
3 2 3

1

2
ar os =
2 3
s .
> sÙ¼ < < e` ·ú º e 6£§õ °ú

3 3
( ) = ar sin . sin = 0 0 .
s Ç ys s ± _Æ U

5
´s fyy+þA` Õª9
5
5 2
.
5
3
θ
4
xÛ¼ &ñ
o\ _Æ # x
Æ_Æ U´sH e` ·ú º e "f
9 4 .

3 3
tan ar sin = tan =
5 4
s.
òH$àÔ<ÊºH &ñ

_Æ%i` = ; = ℄jÇ {9/{9 /6£xs )a "f %i<Êº\
Í
ø ( 2 2) .
_
ñ
&Æ½+É º eHX< s %i<Êº\ ℄ö5½dçÁþÊÁ inverse tangent fun tion ÂÒØÔ
( )
y = ar tan x

·p %iòøÍH$àÔ<Êº_Æ &ñ
_Æ%iÉr
. ( 1; 1) s
u%iÉr ( =2; =2) s.
y=xs

y = ar tan x , tan
2
<y<
2
y 1
–6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6
–1 x
–2
158 ℄j © íZ4
4 Êº_Æ pìr
<
¹M 5 6£§` çßéßy # .
(a) sin(ar tan ) x (b) sin(2 ar sin ) x
Solution
(a) = ar tan x
. ÕªQ =2 < < =2 s. 6£§õ °ú s Ç ys
s x9Æ
_Æ U´s fyy+þA` Õªo
1 .5
x2 + 1
x
Θ
1
tan = x s
Ù¼ y+þA_Æ Z}sH x s xÛ¼ &ñ
o\ _Æ # ±
_Æ U´sH
p
1+x s .
2"f x
sin(ar tan x) = sin = p
1+ x2
s .
(b) = ar sin x
. <Êº_Æ Cy/BNd
sin 2 = 2 sin os
\"f sin x xs
= sin(ar sin ) = x = sin sÙ¼ 6£§õ °ú s Ç ys s ±
_Æ U´s f
yy+þA` Õªo
1 .
1
x
Θ
1 - x2
r xÛ¼_Æ &ñ

o\ _Æ x9Æ_Æ U´sH p 1 x2 s ÷& os =
p
1 x2 s
)a f"
.
p
sin(2 ar sin ) = 2 x x 1 x2
` %3H .
5 > 0
s
y
+A
þr 1ìr\, < 0 s y+þAÉr 4 ìr\ Õª9.
É
j ℄X %iy<Êº<ü ¸<Êº
℄ 3 159
℄ºÇÔḈÁ
þÊÁ

y = ar sin x , siny = x and
2
y
2
y = ar os x , os y = x and 0y

y = ar tan x , tan y = x and
2
<y<
2
℄º
ÔḈÁþÊÁ+ i&P
Ç
<Êº y = f (x) = sin x
H
¸H &h\"f pìr0px =2 < x < =2 s
y0 = os x > 0
sÙ
¼ %i<Êº &ñ
o\ _Æ # %i
<Êº y = ar sin x
H 1 <x<1{
9 M: pìr0px .
r
%i<Êº &ñ
o_Æ õ\
f (x) = sin x; g(x) = ar sin x

\ / # &h6 x
g0 (x)
1 1
f 0 (g(x))
= =
os(ar sin ) x

s . ar sin x=

sin = x;
2

2
Ù
s ¼ p
os ar sin x = os = 1 x2
`

e ·ú º e "f
.
g0 (x) = (ar sin x)0 = p 1

1 x2
%

` H
3 .
x 0 = se 2 x > 0 s
(tan ) Ù¼ % <Êº&ñ
o\ _Æ # %iòøÍH$àÔ<Êº¸
i pìr0px . y =
ar tan x
x = tan y s. ª` x \ / # pìr
1 = (se
2
y)y0

s
se
2
y = 1 + tan2 y = 1 + x2
Ù
s ¼
y0 = (ar tan x)0 =
1
1+ x2

s .
160 ℄j © íZ4
4 Êº_Æ pìr
<
℄ºÇÔḈÁ
þÊÁ+ ¿Á
ÊÁ
þ
d
dx
(ar sin x) = p 1
1 x2
d
dx
(ar os x) = p 1
1 x2
d 1
(ar tan x) =
dx 1+ x2
Note %i<Êºü< %iï<Êº_Æ ¸<ÊºH ÂÒ ñëß ìøÍ/s °ú Ér <Êºs r ú́K .
"f
(ar sin x + ar os x)0 = 0; 0 x 2
s "f
. ar sin x + ar os x = C s
ar sin 0 = 0; ar os 0 =

2
sÙ¼

ar sin x + ar os x =
2
s $í
wnÇ .
¹M 6 6£§ <Êº[þt_Æ ¸<Êº\ ½¨ # .
1 g(x) = ar tan x
p
(a) f (x) = ar sin (b)
x
Solution ½+Ë$í
<Êº_Æ pìrZO` &h6 xÇ .

1
0 1

1
0
a
( ) ar sin = p
x 1 (1 =x)2 x

= p
1
x
1
= p 1
1 1 =x2 2
x4 x2
( )b (ar tan
px)0 =
1
px) p 0
( x)
1+( 2
=
1
p
1
1+x2 x
= p
1
2 x(1 + x)

j ℄X tº<Êºü< ªÕ<Êº
℄ 4 161
V â

m
ÊÁÁ
Ê
þ Á?ÿ ×Ü«Á
4 Ê
þ Á
_
ª
Æ z´º a \ / # z´º |9½+Ë\"f &ñ
_Æ)a <Êº
f (x) = ax
m

` ÊÁÁþÊÁ exponential fun tion Ç #l"f º n \ / #
( ) .
an = a| a{z a}
( a \
n YLÇ ¯ )
¼
Ü &ñ
_Æ
a n= 1
an
Ü
¼ &ñ
_ÆÇ . a0 = 1
Z~H. x Ä»oºs "f è &ñ
º p; q \ / # x =
p
q

t
þ
j º e p
ax = ( a)p q
¼
Ü &ñ
_ÆÇ.6 ÕªXO Áºoº x \ / # ax H #Q" _Æp{9Æ? s â
Äº, ax _Æ &ñ
_ÆH
»o
Ä º_Æ â
Äº%!3 f℄X&hstH ·ú§. x \ º§4 H e_Æ_Æ Ä»oº º\P (xn ) \ / #
ax = nlim
!1 a
x n
¼
Ü &ñ
_ÆÇ .7
mÊÁÁþÊÁ+ Å℄Æ
tº<ÊºH 6£§õ °ú s tº_ Æ $í

|9` ëß7á¤Ç x; y Ä»oº â
ÄºH tº_Æ $í
|9
.
\"
f {9 º e {9ìøÍ&h z´º_Æ â
ÄºH º\P_Æ FGÇ_Æ $í
|9` s6 x {9 º e

.
mÊÁÁþÊÁ+ Å℄Æ
_
ª
Æ z´º a; b ü< e_Æ_Æ z´º x; y \ / # 6£§ 1pxds $í
wnÇ .
ax ay = ax+y ax
1. 4. = ax y
ay
2. ( ax )y = axy
ax
a x
3. ax bx = (ab)x 5.
bx
=
b
tº<Êº y = ax H a > s

1 7£x<Êºs

lim
x!1
ax = 1; x!
lim
1a
x=0
6 pa
q
Hq℄
jYL
%
`
i M
:a÷
&HÄ
»{9Ç ªº\ _ÆpÇ.
7 s
º ú̧
&
_
ñ Æ÷
&Ht
, 7
¤, x
£ º§

4 H ¸H Ä»oº º\P\ / # °ú Ér FGÇ°ú̄Ü¼ º§4 Ht\ /Ç 7H
_ÆH #l"
f
H
À
Òt ·
§
ú x
. s
QÇ
H_
7 ÆH K$3<Æs /åLp&hìr<Æ §F\ l êøÍ.
162 ℄j © íZ4
4 Êº_Æ pìr
<
s ¢̧Ç
. , 0 <a<1s
yè<Êºs
lim
x!1
ax = 0; lim
x! 1a
x= 1
s y = ax _
Æ ÕªAá
Ôü< y = _Æ ÕªAáÔH y »¡¤\ / # /gAs
x
1 x
. = a .
a
y b-x y bx
y a-x y ax
ê>Ä©Å℄Æ*×
tº<ÊºH ½¨$
©s ~½Ó$í
Óüt|9_Æ Ôæõ 1px r \"f_Æ &³©` º<Æ&hÜ¼
í
¸+þAo l\ &h½+ËÇ <Êºs .
Äº ½¨$í
©` ¶
(Rl <Êº P P t \ rçß t \"f #Q" ÒqtÓüt_
ú . = ( ) Æ >h^º
>h^ºH
. º ÅÒ#QtÙ¼ >h^º<Êº P P t H 6£§õ °ú s >éß ¸ªÆ_ <Ê
= ( )
º )a sXO> ½¨çß\"f ©º°ú̄` °úH <Êº\ Ní5ÁþÊÁ step fun tion Ç >h
. ( ) .
^º H â
Äº >éß Êº\ 6£§ ÕªaË>%!3 ÂÒ×¼Qîr /BGÜ¼ Hr&"f 6 xÇ
< .
´z+«>z´\"f ~Ì_o
\ vîr /BNçßõ %ò
ª` Øæìr > ℄j/BN 'a¹1ÏÇ õ
.
~Ì_o_Æ >h^ºH Ç rçß\ ¿º C Zþt#Q z¤ °ú Ér ~½ÓdÜ¼ ~Ì_o_Æ >h^º Zþt
.
#Qèß íl ~Ì_o _Æ >h^º P {9 M: 0
P (1) = 2P (0) = 2P0

P (2) = 2P (1) = 2 P0
2
P (3) = 2P (2) = 2 P0
3
s {9ìøÍ&hÜ¼ º t \ / #

.
P (t) = 2t P0
℄ ℄X tº<Êºü< ªÕ<Êº
j 4 163

s ~Ì_o_Æ ºH 5Åq&hÜ¼ 7£xÇ &ñ
e_Æ_Æ z´º t \ / # >h^º
8
Ê
<
ºH P tP &ñ
Ç s ~½ÓdÜ¼ ½¨ 7£x½+É M: ½¨H mÊÁ\ã× Å℄Æ
= 2 .
× exponential growth Ç

* Ç

0
( ) .
¹M
1 'a¹1Ï` r½+É M: o_Æ ~Ì_o e%3 ìr\ ~Ì_o_Æ º
100 . 30
H ¿º C Zþt#Qèß ½+É M: ¿º rçß Êê ~Ì_o_Æ ºH Y> o ¢̧ ìr Êê ~Ì_o

? , 15
_
Æ ºH Y> o ?
Solution 'a¹1Ï` rÇ t t rçß Êê ~Ì_o_Æ º\ P t ( )
P (0) = 100; P (0:5) = 2P (0) = 200

s {9ìøÍ&hÜ¼
¢̧H P t
P (0:5t) = 100 2t ; ( ) = 100 2 2t
jþt º e "f ¿º rçß Êê_Æ ~Ì_o_Æ ºH

.
P (2) = 100 24 = 1600

s ìr Êê
. 15 0.25 rçß ÊêsÙ¼
P (0:25) = 100 20:5 141

s .
ð5ḈÔe
5ðḈÔe half-life êøÍ Óüt|9s Ôæõ
( ) ÷& ǑÉr Óüt|9 +þA÷&#Q "é¶A ª_Æ ìøÍÜ¼ ×#Q×¼
HX

<\ oH rçß` {9(H \V\ [þt#Q ¨·×å̧ 218
. _Æ ìøÍylH ìrÜ¼ ·ú
(218Po) 3.05
94
R e tFK m g _Æ e³ous e` M: t ìr Êê_Æ e³ou_Æ ª` m t ÕªQ
. 0 ( ) .
m0 m0
m(3:05) = ; m(6:10) =
2 22
m0 m0
m(9:15) = ; m(12:20) =
23 24

s "f e³ou_Æ ª m t H 6£§ dÜ¼ ³ð&³½+É º e
. ( ) .
m0
m(3:05t) =
2t
¢̧
Hs
= 3 05 : t
u8̈ s ìr Êê e³ou_Æ ªÉr 6£§õ °ú .
m
m(s) = s=30:05 = m0 2 3 05
s
:
2
¹M
2 óu Ra-226 _Æ ìøÍylH 1600 Æ̧s .
8 º
Æ\
<"f_
Æ5
q&
Å
h
õ
¯ H
s e. #l"fH 59ìrÆt o \O 60ìr\ ¿º C ÷&H ¯ s m
Õª
s\
>5q7
Å x
£ # 60ì
r\

H¿
º C )aH >pws.
164 ℄j © íZ4 Êº_Æ pìr
< 4
(a) &³F mg _Æ óu

100 s >rF½+É M: t Æ̧ Êê óu
Ra-226 _Æ ª` ½¨
# Ra-226 .
(b) 800 Æ̧ Êê óu_Æ ª` ìøÍ`aË> # èº&h s 'Í P:oÆt ½¨ # .
Solution
(a) m(t) \
t Æ̧ Êê z
eH óu Ra-226 _Æ ªs . ìøÍyl 1600 Æ̧
s¼Ù
t
1
m(1600t) = 100
2
Ü¼ jþt º e "f t=1600

1
m(t) = 100
2
e` ·ú º e .
(b) m
(800) ` ½¨ )a
.
800
1600
m(800) = 100
1
2
=
100
p 70:7(mg)
2
×Ü«ÁþÊÁ+ ÇaÆ+
a>0s a 6= 1 s tº<Êº f (x) = ax H 7£x<Êºs yè<ÊºsÙ¼ {9/{9
/6£xs. "f f
H %i<Êº\ °úH. sM: tº<Êº_Æ %i<Êº\ (base)s a ×«ÜÁþ

ÊÁ(logarithmi fun tion) ÂÒØÔ loga x ·p. r ú́K"f
y = loga x , x = ay
\ _ÆpÇ .
¹M 3 6£§` çßéßy # .
(a) log2 8 (b) log100 10 p

( ) log 3
1
3
Solution (a) 23 = 8 sÙ¼ log2 8 = 3 s .
p
(b) =
100 = 1001 2 = 10 sÙ¼ log100 10 =
1
2
s .
p x

1
( ) log 3 =
3
p x = 3x=2 = 1 = (3) 1
( 3)
3
sÙ¼ x = 2 s .
×Ü«ÁþÊÁ+ Ü«8è
«
j X℄ tº<Êºü< ªÕ<Êº
℄ 4 165
tº<Êº_Æ &ñ

_Æ%iÉr z´º_Æ |
½+Ë R s u%iÉr R sÙ¼ Õª<Êº_Æ &ñ
_Æ%iÉr R
9 + +
,
%
u Ér R s a > s tº<Ê
i . º y ax H éßíH7£x Ù¼ %i<Êº y a x ¸ éßíH7£x
1 = = log
Ç ðøÍt < a < s
. tº<Êº y ax H éßíHyè Ù¼ %i<Êº y a x
0 1 = = log
¸é
íHyèÇ ¢̧Ç a ; a a sÙ¼ ¸H a \ / #
ß . 0
=1 1
=
loga 1 = 0 ; loga a=1

s r ú́Kf" y a x _Æ Õ
. ªAáÔH ¿º &h ; õ a; ` tèß
= log (1 0) ( 1) .
Õª<Êº y a x H tº<Ê

= log º y ax _Æ %i<ÊºsÙ¼ ¿º ÕªAáÔH f y x \ /
= =
#
/gAs tº<Êº y a
. x H a > {9 M: ÅÒ ØÔ> 7£x H <Êºs "f
= 1 .
ª
Õ Êº y a x H ÒÅ Ö¼o> 7£x H <Êºs b > a > â
Äº tº<Êºü< Õª<Ê
< = log . 1
º_
Æ ÕªAÔá\ °ú s Õª9 yy 6£§õ °ú .
y bx y ax
y loga HxL
y logb HxL
x
log 1 x= loga xs
Ù¼ y = log 1 x _Æ ÕªAáÔü< y = loga x _Æ ÕªAáÔH x »¡¤\ / # /gA

s a
.
a
y loga HxL
y log 1 HxL
a
ªA
ÕáÔÒÂ' ªÕ<Êº f x a x \ / # 6£§ z´[þt` 'a¹1Ï½+É º e
( ) = log ( ) .
a> s a 9þtº2¤ x ! 1 {9 M: <ÊºH ;;y 7£xÇ

1 , .
a> s x!1 a x 1; x! + a x 1 s

1 lim log = lim log
0
= .
<a< s 0 x!1 a x 1; x! + a x 1 s

1 lim log = lim log
0
= .
166 ℄j © íZ4
4 Êº_Æ pìr
<
×Ü«ÁþÊÁ+ Å℄Æ
Õª<ÊºH tº

Êº_Æ %i<ÊºsÙ¼ tº<Êº_Æ $í
|9\"f Õª $í
|9[þt` Ä»
< ¸½+É º e .
ax1 ax2 = ax1 +x2

\"f y 1 = ax1 ; y2 = ax2
x1 = loga y1 ; x2 = loga y2
s y y 1 2 = ax1 +x2 Ù¼
s
x1 + x2 = loga (y1 y2)
s $í
wnÇ "f .
y y
loga 1 + loga 2 = loga ( 1 2 ) yy
e` ·ú º e °ú Ér ~½ÓZOÜ¼ 6£§ ds $í
wn<Ê` {9 º e
. .
y1

loga = loga 1 y loga 2 y
y2
loga x
r = r loga x
¹̄, âÄ, mÊÁ U 7ø5 ×Ü«ÁþÊÁ+ Å℄Æ
ª_Æ z´º x; y e_Æ_Æ z´º r \ / # 6£§ ds $í

wnÇ
, .
YL_Æ ZOgË: a xy ( ax ) log ( ) = log + loga y

℄_Æ ZOgË: x
a y ( ax ) log = log loga y

tº_Æ ZOgË: (ax
r r ax ) log = log
¹M 4 6£§ °ú̄` ½

¨ # .
p p
(a) log7 ( 2 + 1) + log7 ( 2 1)
(b) log3 63 log3 7

p p
( ) log10 30 log10 12 + log10 2
Solution (a) YL_Æ ZOgË:` &h6 x

p p p p
log7 ( 2 + 1) + log7 ( 2 1) = log7 ( 2 + 1)( 2 1) = log7 1 = 0
s .
(b) ℄_Æ ZOgË:\ _Æ 63

log3 63 log3 7 = log3 = log3 9
7
s tº_Æ ZOg
:\ _Æ # 6£§ °ú̄` %3H
Ë .
2
log3 9 = log3 3 = 2 log3 3 = 2
℄ 4 167
( )YL_Æ ZOgË:õ ℄_Æ ZOgË:` °ú s

6 x
p p p p
p30 2 = log 10

log10 30 log10 12 + log10 2 = log10 10
12
s f" tº_Æ ZOgË:\ _Æ #

.
p 1=2 1
log10 10 = log10 10 =
2
` %3H .
¹M
5 6£§ °ú̄` çßéßy # .
x 1
(a) a2 log a (b) 3 2 log3 5
Solution (a) a2 log a x = aloga x2 = x2
1 p5 p
(b) 3 2 log3 5 = 3log3 = 5
¥o>×Ü«
x9Æº ©º e s x9Æº\
Òqt|ÄÌ 6£§õ °ú s ?/l Ç
.
loge x = log x
sM
: x \ ¥o>×Ü«ÁþÊÁ natural logarithm ÂÒǑÉr {9ìøÍ&h x9Æº a a > ; a 6
log ( ) .9 ( 0 = 1)
°

\ H Õª<ÊºH ªÕ<Êº\ s6 x # èq º e y a x s x ay s
ú . = log =

ª
\ Õª\ 2[K ÅÒ

log x = log ay = y log a
Ù
s¼ log x
y = loga x =
log a
$

wnÇ s\ x9Æ_Æ 8̈/BNds
í . Ç .
+ £o>».É¯»Ï
log x
loga x=
log a
¹M
6 loga b= {
9 M:, 6£§ °ú̄` \ s6 x # ?/#Q.
9 1
x
pÆ
< §
§F\
"f
Hx
Æs
9 10

6
©xÕª_Æ â
Äº x9Æ` Òqt|ÄÌ # æ¼ Õª_Æ â
Äº ln ` 6 xÇ.

168 ℄j © íZ4
4 Êº_Æ pìr
<
(a) logb a (b) log 1
a
b ( ) loga2 b
Solution 9Æx_Æ 8̈/

Nd\ _Æ
B =
log b
log a
s .
(a) r x9Æ_Æ 8̈/BNd\ _Æ

log a 1
logb a= =
log b
s .
(b) x9Æ_Æ 8̈/BNdõ

log a 1
= log a
H z´` s6 x
log b log b
log 1 b = =
a 1 log a
log
a
log b
= =
log a
s .
( ) loga2 b=
log
a
b
log 2
=
log
2 log
b
a
=

2
s .
mÊÁ'×ÇaÆÏ
tº<ÊºH {9/{
<ÊºsÙ¼
9
ax = ay
s x = y$
í
wnÇ
. x9Æs \ M:\H ª\ Õª\ 2[ # Û#Q ïr
. \V\ [þt#Q
2
x = 3x2 ; x 6= 0
{9 M: ª\ Õª\ 2[
log 2
x = log 3x2 ) x log 2 = x 2
log 3
sÙ¼
x=
log 2
log 3
0:63
s )a .
¹M 7 ?/ÂÒ:r¸ Æ Ít©\"f oÅÒ\ Æ?/ t ìrs tèß Êê oÅÒ_Æ :r¸\ f t
2 C ( )
6£§õ °ú s
?/#Q .10
0:02t
f (t) = 24 22e
(a) 10 ìr Êê oÅÒ_Æ :r¸H \O rçß Êê oÅÒ_Æ :r¸H \O
? 1 ?
10 d
s
rÅ
É Â©
>
U +
jḈ
Æ ßÓÏ( ooling law of Newton)\ _Æ # Ä»¸)a.
℄ 4 169
(b) rçßs ú́§s t oÅÒ_Æ r¸H #QbG> ÷&H

: ?
( ) oÅÒ © }feH :r¸H ÆC Ç oÅÒ\ © }fe> r9 oÅÒ\ r
6 .
l Y> ìr \ oÅÒ\ Ít©\"f Æ?/ Z~ H ?
Solution Solution y f t _ = Æ ÕªAáÔH 6£§õ °ú

( ) .
y
24
20
10
2
10 60 120
x
(a) f (10) = 24 22e 0:2

5:99; f (60) = 24 22 e 1:2
17:37 s
.
(b) lim
t!1
f (t) = 24 s
Ù¼ rçßs
ú́§s t(t ! 1) oÅÒ_Æ :r¸(f (t))H 24 ÆC º§4
Ç .
( ) oÅÒ rl t ìr \ Æ?/ Z~H

0:02t
24 22e =6
s $í
wn H t \ ¹1ÔÜ¼ )a &ñ
o # ª \ Õª\ 2[
.
e 0:02t
=
18
22
) : t
0 02 = log
18
22
02 :
sÙ¼ :
t
02
= 10
0 02:
s r ú́K"f rl ìr \ Æ?/ Z~Ü¼ )a
. 10 .
170 ℄j © íZ4
4 Êº_Æ pìr
<
â
V
m
ÊÁ
5×Ü«Á
Ê
þ Á
+¿Á
Ê
þ Á ,
tº<Êº f x ( )= ax _
Æ ¸<Êº\ &ñ
_Æ\ s6 x # >íß
ax+h ax
f 0 (x) = lim
h!0 h
ax(ah 1)
= lim
h!0 h
x ah 1
= a lim
h!0 h
` %3H "f f x

. ( )= ax x =0 \"f pìr0px r ú́K"f ,
ah
f 0 (0) =
1
lim = La
h!0 h
>rF
( ax )0 = La ax
Hd` ·ú º e FGÇ°ú̄ La H ÕªAáÔ f x
. ( )= ax _Æ x =0 \"f_Æ lÖls
a 7£x .
La _Æ °ú̄¸ 7£x Ê` ~1> ·ú º e
< .
y 3x y 2x
5
1.
x
-1 1 2
¥o>(×ÊÁ
a = 2; 2:5; 3
â
Ä
º f 0(0) ` ºu&hÜ¼ H°ú̄` ½¨K 11
2h 2:5 h 3h
L2 =
h!
lim
h0
1
0:69; L : = lim
h!
25
h
1
0:92; L
0
3 = lim
h!0 h
1
1:10
11 0 \
Æ
îrh\

/ # H°ú̄` ½¨ # 6£§õ °ú .
2h 1 2:5h 1 3h 1
h
h h h
0.1 0.7177 0.9596 1.1612
0.01 0.6956 0.9205 1.1047
0.001 0.6934 0.9167 1.0992
0.0001 0.6932 0.9163 1.0987
0.00001 0.6931 0.9163 1.0986
℄ ℄X tº ªÕ<Êº_Æ ¸<Ê
j 5 , º 171
`

e ·ú º e s dÜ¼ÂÒ' :
. 25 <a<3 °ú̄ ×æ\"f
La = f 0 (0) = 1
÷&H º >rF<Ê` ·ú º eHX< s º\ ëH e ?/ ¥o>(×ÊÁ ÂÒǑÉr sXO
s .
>&

_Æ)a ©ºH © ℄X\"f &ñ
_Æ)a ©ºü< {9uÇ
ñ 2 1 .12
¥o>(×ÊÁ
6
§ d` ëß7á¤ H z´º\ ©º e Ç
£ .
eh 1
lim =1
h!0 h
Note ñ
&_ÆÂÒ' ©º e \ x9ÆÜ¼ °úH tº<Êº f x ( ) = ex _Æ ¸<ÊºH l
{
õ uÇ
9 .
f 0 (x) = (ex)0 = ex = f (x)

"f ½+Ë$í
<Êº_Æ pìrZO\ _Æ 6£§ d` %3H .
d g(x) 0 0 g(x) g 0 (x)

(e ) = f (g (x))g (x) = e
dx
¤y
£
: ©º k \ / # g(x) = kx s
d kx kx 0 kx
(e ) = e (kx) = ke (4.2)
dx
$
wnÇ. Ë̈#Q ú́ g _Æ oÖ` ?/H ¸<Êº g0 Ér g _Æ k Cs.
í
g0 (x) = kg(x)
mÊÁÁþÊÁ+ ¿ÁþÊÁ
Õª<ÊºH tº<Êº y = ex _
Æ %i<Êºs. "f 6£§ 1pxds $í
wnÇ.
log ex = x; elog x = x
l
#"f 1pxd
elog x = x
H{

ìøÍ&h <Êº\ tº<Êº +þAr&ÅÒH Ä»6 xÇ /BNds \V\ [þt#Q x9Æs a tº<Ê
9 .

ºH 6£§õ °ú s èq º e
.
y = ax = (elog a )x = ex log a

"f d (4.2) ÂÒ'
(ax )0 = (ex log a )0 = (log a)ex log a = ax log a
12

© º_
ÆǑ
r³
É ð
³
&

172 ℄j © íZ4
4 Êº_Æ pìr
<
` %3H .
mÊÁÁþÊÁ+ ¿ÁþÊ
Á
d x x d x x d g(x) g(x) g 0 (x)
(e ) = e ; (a ) = a log a; ; (e )=e
dx dx dx
¹M 1 %6£§ P o_Æ ~Ì_o e` M: Ç rçß\ ~Ì_o_Æ º 5Åq&

Ü¼ ¿º C
h
Zþt#Qèß Õ
ªQ ry t \"f ~Ì_o_Æ >h^º<Êº\ P P jþt º e
0
. t =2 .
0
d t d t log 2
) = (log 2)2 (0:69)2
(2 ) = (e
t t
dt dt
sÙ¼ ~Ì_o >h^
º_Æ $í
©ÒÉr
dP d
(P 2 ) P0 (0:69)2
=
t t
dt dt 0
s. \V\ [þt#Q íl>h^º P0 = 50 s%3 5 rçß Êê_Æ $í
©ÒÉr
dP
dt t=5
o rçß
50(0:69)25 = 1104 ( / )
s s¯ Ér rçß Ê

. ê\ ~Ì_o_Æ >h^ºH rçß{© o_Æ qÖ $í
©ÇH ¯
5 1104
` _ÆpÇ .
ç) (|¡è &ñ

r ëH℄j
Æ̧ (2008 6)
<Êº h x H h
( ) s9 h0 (0) = 0 (0) = 1 s z´º ^ |9½+Ë\"f &ñ
_Æ)a 5Åq<Êº f x
. ( )
_ Æ Cº x \ / # 3x 1
f (x) = h(x)
x
(sin )2
s f _Æ °ú̄Ér
(0) s .
)ç (|¡è (2007 &ñ

r ëH℄j
Æ̧ 3)
g(0) = 0; g0(0) = 3 <Êº g\ / # <Êº f \

8
ex gx
<(
; x 6= 0
1) ( )
f (x) = 2x 2
:
0 ; x=0
½+É M: , f 0 (0) = s .

j 5 , º 173

ç
) (|¡è Æ̧ ºr ëH℄j
(2006 10)
6£§
8
< ex
x
1
(x 6= 0);
f (x) =
:1 (x = 0)
°
õ s &ñ
_Æ)a <Êº f ½¨çß
ú ( 1; 1) \
"f 5Åq<Êºs, 7£x<Êºe` s.
i&P'×ÇaÆÏ
tº<Êº y = Cax = Cekx (k = log a) _
Æ ¸<ÊºH
y0 = (log a)(Cax ) = ky (4.3)
sÙ
¼ _Æ ©ºC )a sQÇ $í
|9` °úH <Êº ¢̧ e`Æ ²úÉr fs
. ? .
ú́
r Kf"
y0 = ky

s y = Cekx s. s\ sl 0A # f 0(x) = kf (x) .

g(x) = f (x)=ekx = f (x)e kx

g0 (x) = f 0 (x)e kx + f (x)( ke kx )
=
0
(f (x) kf (x))e kx = 0

s f" g x
. ( )= C s r ú́K"f
.
f (x) = Cekx

s .
d õ °ú s ¸<Êº\ í<Ê H ~½Ó&ñ

d` i&P'×ÇaÆÏ dierential equation s
(4.3) ( )
Ç

.
¹M
2 :r¸ y Óüt^\ :r¸ A /BNçß\ Z~¤` M: rçß t \"f_Æ Óüt^_Æ :r¸
y ft H ¾»_Æ ÍtyZOgË:\ _Æ
6£§õ °ú s ÅÒ#Q
0
= ( ) .
y = f (t) = A + (y0 A)e kt ; k>0

M
s : y0 ` y \ s6 x # ?/#Q s ds _Æp H \ [O"î
#
. .
Solution t º_Æ pìrZOgË:` s6

x

y0 = k(y0 A)e kt = k (y A)
%3H "f Óüt^_Æ :r¸ /

` . Nçß_Æ :r¸ ±úÜ¼
B
y0 = k(y A) > 0
174 j℄ © íZ4
Êº_Æ pìr
< 4
sÙ¼ Óüt^_Æ :r¸

H ` Óüt^_Æ :r¸ /BNçß_Æ :r¸ Z}Ü¼

y0 = k(y A) < 0
sÙ¼ Óüt^_Æ :r¸H ?/9çß ¢̧Ç Óüt^_Æ :r¸_Æ oÖÉr Óüt^ü< /BNçß_Æ :r
. ¸ s\ q
VYÇ .
3×¯ÁþÊÁ(hyperboli fun tion)
¸H <Êº f H 6£§õ °ú s Äº<Êºü< l<Êº_Æ ½+ËÜ¼ ìrK # jþt º e .
f (x) + f ( x) f (x) f ( x)
f (x) = +
2 2
ëß tº<Êº ex \ s

~½ÓZOÜ¼ æ¼ 6£§õ °ú .
ex + e x ex e x
ex = +
2 2
sM: Äº<Êº ÂÒìr` 3×¯óê>ÁþÊÁ hyperboli osine l<Êº ÂÒìr` 3×¯ê>Áþ

( ),
ÊÁ hyperboli sine ÂÒǑÉr tº<Êº ex Ér ÁºÇ pìr0px Ù¼ ©/BGï<Êº
( ) .
ü< ©/BG<Êº¸ Á
ºÇ pìr0px 9
x0
( osh ) = sinh x; x0
(sinh ) = osh x1
s x 0 > sÙ¼ ©/BG<ÊºH 'K¤ÁþÊÁ stri tly in reasing fun tion e`
. (sinh ) 0 ( )
·ú º e .
10 10
8
5
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3
x
4
–5
2
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
x –10
y = osh x y = sinh x
3×¯ÁþÊÁ
ex + e x ex e x
©/BGï<Êº : osh x=
2
, ©/BG<Êº : sinh x=
2
j X℄ tº ªÕ<Êº_Æ ¸<Ê
℄ 5 , º 175
&ñ
_Æ\ _Æ # 6£§ 1pxds $í
w
Ç
n .

et + e t 2
et e t 2
2
osh t sinh
2
t= =1
2 2

"f
x = osh t; y = sinh t
Z
~Ü¼ Õª ÕªAáÔH 3×¯¤n> hyperbola _Æ {9ÂÒ )a
( ) .13
0 0.5 1 1.5
–1
3×¯¤n>+ 95ª
x = osh t; y = sinh t
ýa³ðî̈
0A_Æ &h (x; y) _Æ 2[H ©/BG
x2 y2 = 1; x 1
)a
s .
3×
ö5½dçÁþÊÁ
¯
×3¯ö5½dçÁþÊÁ hyperboli tangent H ©/BG<Êºü< ©/BGï<Êº_Æ q &ñ
_Æ
( )
Ç

.
x x sinh x e e
tanh x= =
osh x ex + e x
/
©
GòøÍH$àÔ<Êº_Æ â
ÄºH
B

x 0
x0
sinh
(tanh ) =
osh x
(sinh x)0 osh x x
sinh ( osh ) x0
=
osh
2
x
osh
2
x sinh
2
x
=
osh
2
x
1
=
osh
2
x
13 y
<
Êº
H"
¶_
é ÆB
>h
o\æ
¼

. 7
¤, "é¶_Æ ~½Ó&ñ
d x2 + y2 = 1 Ér x = os t; y = sin t B>ho½+É º e.
£
176 ℄j © íZ4Êº_Æ pìr
< 4
s "f ©/BGòøÍH$àÔ<ÊºH 'K¤ÁþÊÁ stri tly in reasing fun tion s ¢̧Ç
. ( ) .
x!1
lim tanh x = 1; x!
lim
1 tanh x = 1
s .
1
y
–4 –2 0 2 4
x
–1
©/BG<ÊºH s2£§s

Ä»Çëßpus y<Êºü< Ä»Ç ½Ó1pxd` ëß7á¤Ç \
V\ [þt#Q .
£§6Ér y<Êº_Æ Cy /BNdõ ÅÒ Ä»Ç +þAI\ °úH
.14
¹M 3 6£§ 1pxds $í

wn<Ê` # .
sinh 2 x = 2 sinh x osh x; osh 2 x = osh2 x + sinh2 x

Solution &ñ
_Æ\ s6 x # ~1> {9 º e .

ex e x ex + e x
2 sinh x osh x = 2
2 2
e2x e 2x
=
2
= sinh 2 x

ex + e x 2
ex e x 2
osh
2
x + sinh2 x = +
2 2
e2x + e 2x
=
2
= osh 2 x
3×¯ÁþÊÁ+ ℄ÁþÊÁ
©/BG<Êº<ü
/BGòøÍH$àÔ<ÊºH {9/{9/6£xsÙ¼ %i<Êº >rFÇ
© /BG<Êº
© .
_Æ %i<Êº<ü ©/BGòøÍH
àÔ<Êº_Æ %i<ÊºH
$
y = sinh 1 x; y = tanh 1 x
yy ?/l Ç ©/BG<Êº_Æ %i<ÊºH &ñ
_Æ%is z´º_Æ |9½+Ë R
. ìøÍ ©/BG

òøÍH$àÔ<Êº_Æ %i<ÊºH &ñ
_Æ%is < x < s ¢̧Ç &ñ
_Æ%i` x ℄j
1 1 . Ç ©/BG
0
ï<Êº_Æ %i<Êº¸ >rFÇ sM: Õª %i<Êº\
.
y = osh 1 x
14 Ò
Â ñ\
Ä»_
Æ½
É
+
¯
j 5 , º 177
&

_ÆÇ ©/BGï<Êº_Æ %i<ÊºH &ñ
_Æ%is x s 6£§ ÕªaË>Ér ©/BG<Êº &h
ñ . 1 . ( )
<Õ
ü ª %i<Êº z´ [þt` °ú Ér î̈

( ) \ ÕªǑ2; ¯ s .
y = sinh x; y = sinh 1 x y = osh x; y = osh 1 x y = tanh x; y = tanh 1 x
3×¯ÁþÊÁ+ ℄ÁþÊÁ
y = sinh 1 x , x = sinh y
y = osh 1 x , x = osh y and x 1; y 0
y = tanh 1 x , x = tanh y and 1<x<1
%i<Êº_Æ pìrZOõ ©/BG<Êº_

Æ ½Ó1pxd` s6 x %i©/BG<Êº_Æ ¸<Êº\ ½¨½+É º e .
¹M
4 d
dx
osh
1
x= p 2
x
1
1
; (x > 1) e
` #.
Solution y = osh 1 x

x = osh y; y 0 s. ª` x \ / # pìr

d dy
x = (sinh y)
dx dx

s . Ç¼# osh2 y sinh2 y = 1 s
y 0 sÙ¼
q p
sinh y= osh
2
y 1= x2 1

s "f
.
dy
dx
=
1
y
= p 1
sinh x2 1
%

` H
3 .
/BG<ÊºH tº<Êº\ s6 x
©
# èq º eÜ¼Ù¼ %i©/BG<ÊºH Õª<Êº\ s6 x

# èq º e .
¹M
5 x \ / # 6£§ ds $í
wn<Ê` #
1 .
p
y = osh 1 x = log(x + x2 1)
178 ℄j © íZ4
4 Êº_Æ pìr
<
Solution %i<Êº_Æ &ñ
_ÆÂÒ'
ey + e y
x = osh y = ; y0
2
sÙ¼ ª\ 2ey \ YL

e2y + 1 = 2ey x; ) ey 2
2 ey x + 1 = 0
` %3H . u = ey ( 1)
Z~Ü¼ u \ /Ç s d
u2 2xu + 1 = 0
` %3 u sÙ¼ H_Æ /BNd\"f
1
p
u = x + x2 1
e` ·ú º e . u = ey sÙ¼ ª\ Õª\ 2[

p
y = log(x + x2 1)
` %3H .
×Ü«ÁþÊÁ+ ¿ÁþÊ
Á
y = log x
ey = x s. ª` x \ / # pìr

d y y dy = 1
(e ) = e
dx dx
` %3 ª` ey ¾º dy 1 1
= =
dx ey x
` %3H. ¢̧Ç, loga x = log x
log a
sÙ¼
d
1
loga x =
dx x log a
s .
×Ü«ÁþÊÁ+ ¿ÁþÊ
Á
d 1 d 1
(log x) = ; (log x) =
dx x dx a x log a
½+Ë$í
<Êº y gx
= log ( ) = f (g(x)) \
/ # WZOgË:` &h6 x f 0(u) = 1
u
sÙ¼
dy g0 (x)
= f 0 (g(x))g0 (x) =
dx g(x)
j 5 , º 179
$
s
wnÇ
í .
TÒ¼Å℄ÆÁþÊÁ+ ¿ÁþÊÁ
d g0 (x)
(log g (x)) =
dx g(x)
¹M
6 6£§ <Êº_Æ ¸<Êº\ ½
¨ # .
(a) y = log os x
(b) y = log(1 + x2 )
( ) y = (log(1 + x2 ))2
Solution ½+Ë$í
<Êº_Æ pìrZO` &
6 x yy 6£§õ °ú
h .
x0 sin x
y0 =
( os )
(a) = = tan x
os x os x
(1 + x2 )0 2x
(b) y0 = =
1 + x2 1 + x2
x x x2 )
y0 = 2(log(1 + x2 ))(log(1 + x2 ))0 = 2(log(1 + x2 ))
2 4 log(1 +
( ) =
1 + x2 1+ x2
)

ç (|¡è (2006 Æ̧ &ñ
r ëH℄j 4)
G y x
B
/ ln = ln y0 A_Æ &h e e ; e \"f s /BG\ ℄X H ℄X_Æ lÖlH
( 1
)

s .
y = log jxj
H x 6= 0 z´º\ / # &ñ
_Æ)a.
(
x; x>0
log jxj = log
log( x); x < 0
Ù
s¼ x > s 0
0 0
log jxj = log x =
1
x

s x < s 0
0
0
log jxj = log( x) =
1
x
=
1
x
%

` H s õH l%3½+É ëßÇ u eH /BNds
3 . .15
15 &hì
r`

½
É
+
¯
180 ℄j © íZ4
4 Êº_Æ pìr
<
(log jxj)0 = x1
ç) (|¡è (2005 Æ̧ &ñ

r ëH℄j
4)
~½Ó&ñ
d x ln = x s ¸f Ç >h_Æ z´H` °ú¸2¤ H ª_Æ z´º H
2
s
.
×Ü«i&Pß
LY ℄ ¢̧H tº\ / # Õª\ 2[ yy ½+Ë YLÜ¼ 8̈)a s
, , QÇ Õª<Ê , , .
º_Æ $í
|9` s6 x
4¤ú̧Ç <Êº_Æ ¸<Êº¸ çßéß > ½¨½+É º e \V\ [þt#Q
.
log[( x2 + 1)3 (x 5
1) ℄ = 3 log( x2 + 1) + 5 log(x 1)
sÙ¼
0 0 0
log[( x2 + 1)3 (x 5
1) ℄ = 3 log( x2 + 1) + 5 log( x 1)
6 x 5
= +
x 2 +1 x 1
\ %3H
.
¹M 7 6£§ <Êº_Æ ¸<Êº\ ½¨ # .

r
x+3 1 + x2

(a) y = log
2
(b) y = log p3
x+1 1 + x3
Solution
r
x+3
sÙ¼
h i
2 1
(a) y = log = log(2 x + 3) log( x + 1)
x+1 2
h i
y0 =
1 2 1
2 2 x+3 x+1
s .
x3 ) s
Ù¼
1 + x2

y = log p3
1
= log(1 + x )
2
(b) log(1 +
1 + x3 3
x 3 2x x x2
y0 =
2 1 2
=
1 + x2 31+ x3 1 + x2 1 + x3
s .
Õª<Êº m¸ YL ℄ ¢̧H tº ³ð&³)a â

Äº ª\ Õª\ 2[ # >íß
, ,
s̀ >íßs /'0>
\V\ [þt#Q .
y = xx
j 5 , º 181
"
\ f ª\ Õª\ 2[
log y = x log x

s 6£§<Êº pìrZO` s6 x # x \ / # pìr
y0
y
= log x+x
1
x
) y0 = xx (log x + 1)
`%

H sXO> ª\ Õª\ 2
3 . [ # ¸<Êº\ ½¨ H ~½ÓZO` ×Ü«i&Pßs Ç .
¹M
8 6£§ <Êº_Æ ¸<Êº\ ½¨ # .
p
x x
( 2 + 1)( 2 + 4)
y=
x2 + 2
Solution ª\ Õª\ 2[
h i
1
log y= log( x2 + 1) + log(x2 + 4) log( x2 + 2)
2
Ù
s ¼ ª` x \ /Ç ¸<Êº\
½¨

y0 1
h
2 x 2 x i
2x
= +
y 2 x2 + 1 x2 + 4 x2 + 2
Ù
s ¼ p
h
x x x i
x x
y0 =
2 ( 2 + 1)( 2 + 4)
+
x2 +1 x 2 +4 x
2 +2 x 2 +2
%

` H
3 .

ç
) (|¡è Æ̧ $í
2[¸ &ñ
r
(2009 ëH℄j 2)
a ª_Æ ©º{9 M: x > # 0A\"f <Êº y

3 x(x _Æ þjè°ú̄Ér s
a
)
, 0 = .

ç
) (|¡è (2007Æ̧ $í
2[¸ ºr ëH℄j 7)
< x < e{ 9 M: ; f x xx e < x{9 M: s

x
ln ln
f1 (x) = (1 ) 2( )= ( )
x
< x < e{ 9 M
: g0 x g x g x xx e` #
2
g(x) = f2 1 Æ f1 (x) (1
[ ( )℄ (1 ln )
) . ( )= .
[1 ln ( )℄ 2
)

ç (|¡è (2005Æ̧ $í
2[¸ &ñ
r
ëH℄j 5)
G xy
B
/ = yx 0
A_Æ &h ; \"f s /BG\ ℄X H f_Æ lÖlH
(2 4) s .
5*
V ×

i&P+ ££
1â
V

×qR
Ó+ ß
± Ó

Ï
ÄºoH © ℄X\f" #
2 4 Q +þAI_Æ ÂÒ&ñ
+þA_Æ FGÇ°ú̄` ½¨ %i Õª ×æ #Q" ¯ Ér /º&h $í
9|` s6 x %i

p
x

l x
l
2 2 +1
4 1
;
x! x x!
lim ( 4) lim ( 5)
2 2 x 2 x 0 2
#Q" ¯ Ér l <Æ&h $í

|9` s6 x %i .
t! t
t
llim
0
sin
( 8)
s ℄X\"fH sQÇ ÂÒ&ñ

+þA_Æ FGÇ°ú̄` ½¨ H {9ìøÍ&h ~½ÓZO` ·úl Ç .
×qR±Ó+ ßÓÏ
pìr0pxÇ ¿º <Êº f; g \ / #
f (a) = g (a) = 0
s . f 0 ; g0 s 5Åqs g0 a ( ) = 06 s

f (x) f (a)
f (x) x a
x!a g (x) x!a g(x) g(a)
lim = lim
x a
f (x) f (a)
limx!a
x a
=
g(x) g(a)
limx!a
x a
f 0 (a)
g 0 (a)
=
182
℄ 1 ℄X x»1ÏÆ_ ZOgË:
j 183

s s õH ×qR±Ó+ ßÓÏ
. (L'Hospital's rule) Æ_ :£¤ºÇ â
Äºs {9ìøÍ&h x»1Ï_Æ.
g
O
Z:Ér a 1 {9 M:¸ $í
wnÇ ¢̧Ç x
Ë = . = a\
"f_Æ <Êº°ú̄s 1 â
Äº\¸ $í
wnÇ .
1
×qR±Ó+ ßÓÏ
ì
p r0pxÇ <Êº f; g \ / # FGÇ°ú̄

f 0 (x)
x!a g 0 (x)
lim
>rFÇ
s . a2[ 1; 1 ℄ \ / #
fa ( ) = g (a) = 0 s
x!a f
lim ( x) =
x!a
lim g (x) = 1

s 6£§ 1pxds $í
wnÇ
.
f 0 (x)
f (x)
x!a g (x) x!a g 0 (x)
lim = lim
Note 'Í P: ¸| s 6£§õ °ú s

7á§ 8 {9ìøÍo ÷&#Q¸ °ú Ér õ $í
wnÇ .
f (x) = g (x) = 0
x! x!a
lim lim
x»1Ï_Æ &ñ
oH 0/0 g1Js 1=1 g1J_Æ ÂÒ&ñ
+þA_Æ FGÇ°ú̄` ½¨ HX< Ä»6 x \V\ [þt .
Q
# 1
log(1 + x) 1+x
x!0 x!0
lim = lim = 1
x 1
g1J_Æ ÂÒ&ñ
+þA\ x»1Ï_Æ ZOgË:` &h6 xÇ ¯ s 6£§Ér 1=1 g1J_Æ ÂÒ&ñ
+þA_Æ >íß\
r
É 0/0
x
»1Ï_Æ ZOgË:` &h6 xÇ ¯ s .
x 1
x!1 ex x!1 ex
lim = lim = 0
¹M
1 x»1ÏÆ_ ZOgË:` s6 x # 6£§ ds $í
wn<Ê` # .
sin t 1 os t 1
t!0 t!0
(a) lim = 1 (b) lim =
t t2 2
Solution
(a) rì ìr¸_Æ FGÇ°ú̄s ¸¿º

, 0 0/0 g1J_Æ ÂÒ&ñ
+þAs "f x»1Ï_Æ ZOgË:\ _Æ
.
# sin t os t
t!0 t!0
lim = lim = 1
t 1
s .
1 x
»Ï_Æ Z
1 g
O:
Ë rá
É Ô|ÓÛ
½ ¼_
Æ) 7¤
á x»
Ï2 _Æ s2£§` "f "î
î
"÷&%3tëß z´℄jH Û¼0AÛ¼_Æ Ä»"î
Ç º<Æ |9îß
1
ZØÔ¾ºs
_Æ*×S
ßÅÁl
(Jean Bernoulli)_Æ \Oh&s.
184 j℄ 5 © p
ìr_Æ 6£x x6
(b) i%r ìr ìr¸_
, Æ FGÇ°ú̄s ¸¿º 0 0/0 g1J_Æ ÂÒ&ñ
+þAs "f x»Ï_Æ ZOgË:\
1 .
_Æ # 1 os t sin t
t!0 t!0
lim = lim
t2 2 t
` %3H ¿º
.P: FGÇ°ú̄¸
0/0 g1J_Æ ÂÒ&ñ
+þAsÙ¼ r x»1Ï_Æ ZOgË:`
&h6 x

1 os t os t 1
t!0 t!0
lim = lim =
t2 2 2
)a .
6£§õ °ú s x»
Ï_Æ ZOgË:` ¿º s© &h6 x # FGÇ°ú̄` ½¨ l¸ Ç
1 .
¹M 2 6£§ FGÇ°ú̄` ½¨ # .
xn log x
; (p > 0)
x!1
(a) (b) lim
ex xp
Solution
(a) f (x) = xn (n Ér º ), g (x) = ex \ / # a = 1\

"f x»1Ï_Æ ZOgË:` ìøÍ4¤ #
&h6 x
xn nxn 1
x!1 ex x!1 ex
lim = lim
n!
= =
x!1 ex
lim = 0
` %3H "f e_Æ_Æ ½Ód p x \ / #

. ( )
p(x)
x!1
lim = 0
ex
s .
(b) 1=1 g
1J_Æ ÂÒ&

+þAs
ñ . x»1Ï_Æ ZOgË:` &h6 x 6£§` %3H .
log x x
1
1
x!1 x!1 x!1

lim = lim = lim = 0
xp pxp 1 pxp

Note A0_Æ õH tº<Êº x ÅÒ &t #Q" ½Ód À1Ïo 7£x ªÕ<Êº
H ÅÒ ;;y 7£x
Ê` _ÆpÇ
< .
¹̄ £¿M + ÉÙÇ

ÆÌfC
a
x!a
lim f (x) = 0;
x!a
lim g (x) = 1 s x!a f x g x _Æ °ú̄Ér "î
SX t ·ú§ s â
ÄºH
lim ( ) ( ) .
3
fg =
1
f
=g
; ¢̧H fg =
1
g
=f
3
s

Ä
â º0 1 J_
1
g Æ ÂÒ&ñ
þA+s Ç.
℄ 1 ℄X x»1ÏÆ_ ZOgË:
j 185
J
1
g Ë̈#Q æ¼ ¢̧H 1=1 g1J_Æ ÂÒ&ñ
+þA` ëß[þt º e "f x»1Ï_Æ ZOgË:` &h
0/0, .
x½

6 É º e x!a f x 1; x!a g x 1 â
Äº f g g1J` 1 1 g1J_Æ ÂÒ&ñ
+þAs
+ . lim ( ) = lim ( ) =

%ir &h{©Ç íß` :x # ¢̧H 1=1 g1J_Æ ÂÒ&ñ
+þA` ëß[þt#Q FGÇ°ú̄` ½¨Ç
0/0, .
¹M
3 6£§ FGÇ°ú̄` ½¨ # .

x log x 1 1
x!0+
(a) lim
x!1
(b) lim
log x x 1
Solution
(a) 0 1 ( ) g1Jstëß 6£§õ °

s 1=1 g1J 5g"f x»1Ï_Æ ZOgË:` &h6 x½+É º e
ú .
x
log 1 =x
x log x
x!0+ x!0+ =x x!0+
lim = lim = lim
1 1 =x2
x) = 0
x!0+
= lim (
(b) :xìr # >íß 6£§õ °

s
ú 0/0 g1J_Æ ÂÒ&ñ
+þA` %3H .
1 1
(x 1) log x
x!1 x!0
lim = lim
log x x 1 (x 1) log x
"f x»1Ï_Æ ZOgË:` &h6
x 6£§` %3H
.
x ( 1) log x 1
1
x
x!1 (x x!1
lim = lim
1) log x xlog
1 x
x
x 1
x!1 x log x + x
= lim
1
=
x!1
lim
log
1
x + xx + 1 1
=
1
2

mÊÁÌfC+ ÉÙÇaÆÌfC
FGÇ°ú̄
f (x)℄g(x)
x!a
lim [
r
É
6£§õ °ú s #Q g1J_Æ ÂÒ&ñ
+þA`
°úH
.
1. 0 g1J x!a f x ; x!a g x

0
: lim ( ) = 0 lim ( ) = 0
2. 1 g 1J x!a f x 1; x!a g x
0
: lim ( ) = lim ( ) = 0
3. 1
1g 1J x!a f x ; x!a g x 1
: lim ( ) = 1 lim ( ) =
j
[
Äº ¸¿º tº<Êº +þAI Ë̈#Q jþt º e r ú́K"f
â .
[f (x)℄g(x) = eg(x) log(f (x))

s tº limx !a [g(x) log(f (x))℄ = s
tº<ÊºH ¸H &h\"f 5ÅqsÙ¼
f (x)℄g(x) = elimx!a [g(x) log(f (x))℄ = e
x!a
lim [
186 ℄j 5 © p
ìr_Æ 6£x x6
$í
wnÇ .
¹M 4 6£§ FGÇ°ú̄` ½¨ # .
xx x)1=x 1 x
x!0+ x!1
(a) lim (b) lim (1 +
x!1
( ) lim (1 + )
x2
Solution
(a) 0
0
g1J_Æ ÂÒ&ñ
+þAs
. log xx = x log x s x! lim
0+
x log x = 0 sÙ¼
xx = ex log x = e0 = 1
x!0+ x!0+
lim lim
` %3H .
(b) 1 g 0
1J_Æ ÂÒ&ñ
+þAs . log(1 + x)1=x =
log(1 +
x
x)
H 1=1 g1J_Æ ÂÒ&ñ
+þAs x»1Ï_Æ .
ZOgË:\ _Æ 1
log(1 + x) 1+x
x!1 x!1
lim = lim = 0
x 1
sÙ¼
x)1=x = elimx!1
log(1+x)
x e0 = 1
x!1
lim (1 + =
s )a .
( ) 1
1g 1J_Æ ÂÒ&ñ
+þAs ÅÒ#Q <Êº\ Õª\ 2[
. log(1 +
1 x
x log(1 + x12 ) H 1
x2 ) = 0
g1J_Æ ÂÒ&ñ
þA+s .
1 log(1 +
x2 )
1
log( x2 + 1) log( x2 )
x log(1 +
x!1 x!1 x!1
lim ) = lim = lim
x2 1 =x 1=x
s¼Ù x»1Ï_
Æ ZOgË:` &h6 x
2x 2
1 x2 +1 x 2 x
x log(1 +
x!1 x!1 x!1
lim ) = lim = lim = 0
x2 1 =x2 (1 + x2 )
s "f
.
1 x
e0 = 1
x!1
lim (1 + ) =
x2
s .
¹M 5 <Êº f x ( ) = xx Æ_ ÕªAáÔ\ Õª9 .
Solution <Êº y = f (x) _Æ &ñ

_Æ%iÉr x > z´º|9½+Ë R s
0
+
. xx > 0 s

f 0 (x) = xx (log x + 1)
sÙ¼ Ä»{9Ç e>&

x
h =
1
e \"f FGè°ú̄ f (
1
e) = e 1=e
` °úH .
j 1 ℄X x»1ÏÆ_ ZOgË:
℄ 187
1 1 1
x x< x>
e e e
f 0 (x) 0 +
f (x) & FGè°ú̄ %
xx = 1
x!1
lim
Ù
s ¼ ºî̈
&hHÉr >rF t ·ú§Ü¼9
f 00 (x) = ( xx )0 (log x + 1) + xx (log x + 1)0
1
= xx (log x + 1)2 + xx
x
1
= xx ((log x + 1)2 + ) > 0
x
sÙ
¼ /BGÉr ½Ó© A ^2¤ tFKÆt ¶ú(R :r ¯ õ l \ / ÕªAáÔ\ Õª
. 4

o 6£§õ °ú
.
y
1
x
ã
1 2
ók
+ Ë^Æ!CG±êÇaÆh
x»1Ï_Æ ZOgË:` 7£x"î

l 0AK"fH {9ìøÍo)a î̈
çH°ú̄&ñ
o 9¹̄ 6£§ &ñ
oH áÔ|½Ó .
¼_
ÛÆ º<Æ ók (Cau hy _Æ s2£§` "f ók+ Ë^Æ!CG±êÇaÆh ÂÒǑÉr
4
) .
ók+ Ë^Æ!CG±ê ÇaÆh

º <Êº f; g {2³ ½¨çß
¿ [ a; b℄ \"f 5Åqs \PǑ2; ½¨çß ( a; b) \"f pìr0px
f 0 ( )[g (b) g (a)℄ = g 0 ( )[f (b) f (a)℄ (5.1)
ëß7á¤ H 2

\ (a; b) >rFÇ .
Note ïr_Æ î̈
çH°ú̄&ñ
o\"f g x ( ) = x s g0 x( ) = 1 sÙ¼ {9ìøÍ î̈
çH°ú̄&ñ
o )a .
4 Augustin Cau hy(1789{1867)

188 j℄ 5 © p ìr_Æ 6£x x6
Note g (a) 6= g (b) s ¸H x \ / # g0 x ( 6
) = 0 s d (5.1) Ér 6£§õ °ú s jþt º e
.
f 0 ( ) f (b) g (a)
g 0 ( )
=
g (b) g (a)
s dÉr ¿º <Êº_Æ î̈
çHoÖ_Æ qü< íHçßoÖ_Æ q °ú tH íHçßs e6£§` _ÆpÇ
.
ïr_Æ î̈
çH°ú̄ &ñ
oH <Êº
f (b) f (a)
h(x) = f (x) f (a) [g (x) g (a)℄
g (b) g (a)
\ / # \_Æ &ñ
o\
&h6 x ~1> {9 º e
.
×qR±Ó ßÓÏ+ ¤
Æ
Z
f (a) = g (a) = 0 ( 1<a<1 ) â

Äº\ 7£x"î
l Ç ïr_Æ î̈
çH°ú̄&ñ
o\ _Æ
.
5
f (x) f (x) f (a) f 0 ( x )

g 0 ( x )
= =
g (x) g (x) g (a)
º x a ü< x s
\ >rFÇ . x!a s x ! a sÙ¼
f (x) f 0 ( x ) f 0 (x)
x!a g (x) x !a g 0 ( x ) x!a g 0 (x)
lim = lim = lim
$í
wnÇ . a=1 t
s =
1
x
ÕªQ x ! 1 {9 M: t ! s
. "f +
0 .
f (x) f ( 1t )
x!1 g (x)
lim = lim
!
t 0+ g ( 1t )
sÙ¼ a Ä»Ç½+É M
:_Æ x»1Ï_Æ ZOgË:` 6 x½+É º e .
f ( 1t ) f 0 ( 1t ) t21
! g0( 1t ) t21
lim = lim
!
t 0+ g ( 1t ) t 0+
f 0 ( 1t ) f 0 (x)
t!0+ g 0 ( t ) x!1 g 0 (x)
= lim = lim
1
ÕªQÙ¼ f a ( ) = g (a) = 0 ( 1a1 ) {9 M: "é¶ H õ\ %3H .
5 lim f (x) = lim g (x) =

!
x a !
x a
1 â
ÄºH 1pxº<Æ §F\ l êøÍ.
j 2 ℄X þj&hoëH℄j
℄ 189
V 2 â

i

\ª%V
K
Å#
Ò Q ¸| \"f þj©Æ_ ×þ` ¹1ÔH ¯ ` i\ª
Ç þj©_Æ ×þs
(optimization) .
Í ÅÒ#Q ©S!\ þj/°ú̄` ¹

ø
ê ÔH ¯ {9 º¸ e m þjè°ú̄` ¹1ÔH ¯ s |¨ º¸
1

e .
V\ [þt#Q ℄j¸_Æ {9©\"fH &ñ

K Óüt|¾Ó` þjè_Æ q6 xÜ¼ Òqtíß l\ ³1Ï ¯ s
\ ,

,èq_Æ {9©\f"H &ñ
K Ǒ\ 0pxÇ Ç ú́§Ér ª_Æ Óüt| ` ½+É ¯ s Óüt .
Ó\
À îr%ò
H |s &ñ
K
t&h[þt` © ØÔ> ¸¿º ~½ÓëH½+É º eH â
\ ¹1Ô

·#

z Q Ç â
%ò
_Æ â
Äº q6 xÉr þjèo sîrÉr þj/o l\ "é¶½+É ¯ s s ℄X
. .
"
\ fH pìr` s6 x # þj&ho ëH℄j\ K H ~½ÓZO` ¶ú(Rl Ç Äº þj/°ú̄ þj . ,
è°
ú̄_Æ &ñ
_Æ\ r Ç ¶ú(R .
i7G±ê i¿G±ê ,
D\"f &ñ
_Æ)a <Êº f ü< &h x 2 D \ / # 0
D_ Æ ¸H &h x \ / # f x f x s x ` f _Æ i7\s f x `

( ) ( 0) ( 0)
f_
Æ i7G±ê s Ç
0
(absolute maximum) .
D_ Æ ¸H &h x \ / # f x f x s x ` f Æ_ i¿\s f x `

( ) ( 0) ( 0)
f_
Æ i¿G±ê s Ç
0
(absolute minimum) .
i7
G±ê i¿G±ê Ä© e
,
jþ/þjè°ú̄ &ñ
o\ _Æ # 5
q <Êº y f x H `½¨çß a; b \"f þj/°ú̄ þjè°ú̄
Å = ( ) [ ℄ ,
°úH Õªo e>&hs /BM\"fH þj/°ú̄ ¢̧H þjè°ú̄` |9 º \O "f þj

` . , .
/°
ú̄ þjè°ú̄Ér e>&h ¢̧H ª =
, Q&h\"f %3#Q "f {2³ ½¨çß a; b \"f 5Åq<Êº
å . [ ℄
y f x _
= Æ þj/°ú̄ þjè°ú̄Ér 6
( ) §õ °ú Ér ~½ÓZOÜ¼ ½¨½+É º e
£ , .
i7G±ê i¿G±ê Ä© e

,

{ ³ ½¨çß a; b \"f 5Åq<Êº y f x \ / #
2 [ ℄ = ( )
y f x _
1. Æ e>&h\"f f _Æ °ú̄` ¸¿º ½¨Ç
= ( )
½¨çß a; b _Æ ª =åQ&h\"f_Æ °ú̄ f a ü< f b \ ½¨Ç

2. [ ℄ ( ) ( ) .
\"f ½¨Ç °ú̄ ×æ\"f © H °ú̄s þj/°ú̄ © Ér °ú̄s þjè°ú̄s )a
3. 1, 2 , .
Note {2³ ½¨çß a; b \"f <Êº y

[ ℄ = f (x) pìr0px Ér 6£§õ °ú s Ë̈#Q jþt º
1.
190 ℄j 5 © p
ìr_Æ 6£x x6
e .
1a. : f 0 ( ) = 0 s ÷&H \ / # f \ ¸¿º ½¨Ç ( ) .
¹M 1 <Êº f x ( ) = 2 x3 3 x2 12x+6 \ / # 6£§ ½¨çß\"f þj/°ú̄õ þjè°ú̄` ½¨

# .
(a) [ ;
3 4℄ ( ) [ ; :
3 1 5℄
(b) [ : ;
0 5 4℄ (d) [ : ; :
0 5 1 5℄
Solution ¸H z´º\"f pìr0pxÇ <ÊºsÙ¼ e>&hÉr f 0 x ( ) = 0 &h x = 1 2 ; s .
e>&h\"f f _Æ °ú̄Ér yy

f( 1) = 13 ; f (2) = 14
s .
(a) ( f 3) = 39;f sÙ¼ x \"f þj/°ú̄ x \"f þjè°ú̄ \ °ú

(4) = 38 = 4 38, = 3 39
H .
(b) ÅÒ#Q ½¨çß\ e>&h x Ér í<Ê÷&t ·ú§H f :

= 1 sÙ¼ x : ; ; . ( 0 5) = 11 = 0 5 2 4
\"f <Êº°ú̄` q§ x \"f þj/°ú̄ x \"f þjè°ú̄ \ °úH
= 4 38, = 2 14 .
y y
38 38
13 13
x x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-14 -14
-39 -39
( ) ÒÅ#Q ½¨çß\ e >&h x H í<Ê÷&t ·ú§ f :

= 2 sÙ¼ x ; ; : \ (1 5) = 12 = 3 1 1 5
"f <Êº°ú̄` q§ x \"f þj/°ú̄ x \"f þjè°ú̄ \

= 1 °úH
13, = 3 39 .
(d) ÅÒQ# ½¨çß\ e >&hs ¸ í<Ê÷&t ·ú§Ü¼Ù¼ ª =åQ&hëß q§Ç
.
f( :
0 5) = 11 ; f (1:5) = 12
sÙ¼ x = 0 5 : \"f þj/°ú̄ 11, x = 1:5 \"f þjè°ú̄ 12 \ °úH .

y y
38 38
13 13
x x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-14 -14
-39 -39
℄ 2 ℄X jþ&hoëH℄j
j 191
¹M
2 £§6 <Êº_Æ þj/°ú̄õ þ
jè°ú̄` ½¨ # .
x2 x + 1
(a) f (x) =
x2 + x + 1
; 0 x 4
p
(b) f (x) = x 4 x2
( ) f (x) = ex sin x; x
Solution
(a) f _Æ ¸<Êº\ ½¨

x x2 + x + 1) (x2 x + 1)(2x + 1)
f 0 (x)
(2 1)(
=
(x + x + 1)
2 2
x2 1)
2(
=
(x x + 1)2
2 +
s ìr¸H ½Ó© ªºsÙ¼

f 0 (x) = 0 ) x = 1
s ÕªQ x sÙ

. 0 ¼ Ä»{9Ç e>&h x
4 = 1 ` °úH e>&hõ ª =åQ&h\"f
.
<Êº_Æ °ú̄` ½¨

2
1 4 4+1 13
f (0) = 1; f (1) = ; f (4) = 2 +4+1
=
3 4 21
s "f x
. = 0 \"f þj/°ú̄ 1, x=1 \"f þjè°ú̄ ` °úH 1
3
.
x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
(b) &ñ
_Æ%is /åL÷&#Q et ·ú§
r â
Äº &ñ
_Æ%iÉr Õª <Êº _Æp\ °úH þj/ |9½+Ë` _Æp
É
Ç "f f _Æ &ñ
_Æ%iÉr x s f _Æ ¸<Êº\ ½¨
. 2 2 .
p x
f 0 (x) p 2
= 4 x2 + x
2 4 x2
px x x2 )
2 2
=
4
= p
2(2
4 x2 4 x2
192 j℄ 5 © p
ìr_Æ 6£x x6
p
sÙ¼ &ñ
_Æ%i î
\ ¿º >h_Æ e>&h x
ß = 2 \ °úH e>&h\"f_Æ <Ê
. º°ú̄Ér
p p
f( 2) = 2 ; f( 2) = 2
s ª =åQ&h\"

fH
f (2) = f ( 2) = 0
p p
sÙ¼ x = 2 \"f þj/°ú̄ \ 2 , x= 2 \"f þjè°ú̄ \ °úH 2 .
x
-2 - 2 2 2
-2
( ) f _Æ ¸<Êº\ ½¨

f 0 (x) = ex (sin x + os x)
s ex > sÙ¼ e>&hÉr
0 sin x + os x = 0 ` ëß7á¤ H x s "f e>&hÉr
.
3
x= ;
4 4
s ª =åQ&h\"

. f_Æ <Êº°ú̄Ér
f ( ) = f ( ) = 0
s e>&h\"
f_Æ <Êº°ú̄Ér
3 3
e4 e

f
4
= p 7 46: ; f
4
= p 4
0 32:
2 2
sÙ¼ x =
3
4

\"f þj/°ú̄ 7.46, x=

4
\"f þjè°ú̄ 0 32: \ °úH .
y
7.46
3Π
x
-Π - Π4 -0.32
4
Π
j 2 ℄X þj&hoëH℄j
℄ 193
ÅÒ#Q ½¨çßs Ä»ÇÇ {2³ ½¨ç

a; b â
Äº\H þj/°ú̄õ þjè°ú̄s ½Ó© >rF
ß [ ℄
H

Ér m ÅÒQ# ½¨çßs ÁºÇ ½¨çß â
Äº\H x ! 1 {9 M:_Æ FGÇ°ú̄` 9K
¯ .

Ç .
¹M
3 6£§ <Êº_Æ þj/°ú̄õ þjè°ú̄s >rF ½¨ # .
(a) f (x) =
x2 x + 1 (b) f (x) = xe x2 =2 ; x0
x2 + x + 1
Solution
(a) l \"f ¿º >h_Æ e>&h x

2 = 1 s >rF<Ê` ¶ú(R¤ <Êº_Æ 7£xy³ð\ Õª9
.
6£§õ °ú .
x 1 1

f 0 (x) + 0 0 +
GF/°ú̄ & FGè°ú̄

f (x) % 3( )
1
3
( ) %
ìr¸ ½Ó© ªºsÙ¼ <ÊºH ¸H z´º\"f &ñ
_Æ÷&
x2 x + 1 x2 x + 1
x!1 x2 + x + 1 x! 1 x2 + x + 1
lim = lim = 1
sÙ¼ x > s 1

1
3
< f (x) < 1 s x < s 1 1 < f (x) < 3 s .
x
-1 1
"f x \"f þj/°ú̄

= 1 3, x=1 \"f þjè°ú̄ ` °úH 1
3
.
(b) f_
Æ ¸<Êº\ ½¨
f 0 (x) = e x2 =2
+ xe x2 =2
( x) = (1 x2 )e x2 =2
s. e x2 =2 >0 sÙ¼

f 0 (x) = 0 ) x = 1
s "f x e>&hÉr x
. 0 = 1 s e>&h\"f <Êº°ú̄Ér
.
1=2
f (1) = e
s <Êº_Æ 7£xy³ð\ Õª9 6£§õ °ú .
194 ℄j 5 © p
ìr_Æ 6£x x6
x 1
f 0 (x) + 0
f (x) % e
1
2(FG/°ú̄ ) &
x2 =2
xe
x!1
lim = 0
sÙ¼ x > s
1 0 < f (x) < e
1
2 s f (0) = 0 s .
0.61
x
1
f" x = 0 "f þjè°ú̄

\ 0, x=1 \"f þj/°ú̄ e 1
2 :
0 61 ` °úH.
i\ª %KV
&³©s â
℄
jÖ̧1lx\"f_Æ þj&ho ëH℄jH q6 x` þjèo ò́Ö` þj/o H
Hë℄j 1px` í<ÊÇ /ÂÒìr_Æ ëH℄j\H º Ñüt s©s ÅÒ#Qt9 º s_
. Æ 'a>ds
ÅÒ#Q s â
Äº þ
. jèo ¢̧H þj/o z·Ér <Êº\ _Æ º ?/H ¯ s Äº
,
÷&#Q Ç ¢̧Ç Å

. Ò#Q 'a>d\"f º 2[½+É º eH #30A¸ ½¨ # Ç
.
¹M 4 {\ fy +þA ¸ª_Æ Öo\ 5g"f er ½Ó\ ëß[þt9 Ç Ö
o_Æ U´s .
15 m {9 M: ½Ó_Æ V,s\ þj/ 9 ½Ó_Æ [j_Æ U´s\ #QbG> K H
,
?
y y
Solution
_Æ U´s\ x [j_Æ U´s\ y ÕªQ x; y H 6£§õ °ú Ér ¸| `
, .
ëß7á¤Ç.
x + 2y = 15; x 0; y0 (5.2)

℄ 2 ℄X þj&hoëH℄j
j 195
Ó
½
_Æ V,sH
A = xy
Ù
s ¼ ëH℄jH ¸| (5.2) \ ëß7á¤
H x; y ×æ\"f A = xy \ þj/o H x; y \ ½¨ H ¯ s

a
) ¸| \"f
. (5.2)
x = 15 2 y0
Ù
s¼ y 2[½+É º eH #30AH 0 y 15
2
s
A = (15 2 ) y y = 15y 2y2

s A Æ_ e>&hÉr
.
A0 = 15 ) 15
4y=0 y=

s
4
A00 = 4 <0
Ù
s ¼ y =
15
4
\"f A H FG/°ú̄
15 15 225
(15 2 ) = :
= 28 125 ( m2 )
4 4 8
°

` H <Êº A _Æ 7£xy` ¶ú(
ú . R 6£§õ °ú .
x 0 <x< 15
4
x= 15
4
x> 15
4
A0 + 0
A % FG/°ú̄ &

"f Ä»{9Ç FG/°ú̄Ér þj/°ú̄s )a sM: þj/°ú̄Ér .
15 15
15 225
f = 15 = = 28 125 :
4 2 4 8

s .
ìøÍ&hÜ¼ þj&ho ëH℄jH 6£§õ °ú Ér õ&ñ
` 5g"f KÇ
9
{ .
i\ª %KV+ BÚr
1. ¸| \ eH ptº[þt` s

6 x # þj&ho z·Ér <Êº 3lq&h<Êº \ ½¨Ç ( ) .
2. ¸| \ eH ptº\ /Ç ¸| ` ½¨ s ptº[þt s_Æ 'a>d` ½¨Ç .
3. ÅÒ#Q ¸| d` s6 x # 3lq&h<Êº\ {9º<Êº Ë̈#Q H .
4. 3lq&h<Êº_Æ e>&h` ¸¿º ½¨Ç .
5. e>&hõ ¸| _Æ =åQ&h\" f 3lq&h<Êº_Æ °ú̄` ¸¿º ½¨Ç .
6. 0A\"f ½¨Ç °ú̄ ×æ\"f H °ú̄s þj/°ú̄ © Ér °ú̄s þjè°ú̄s )a
© , .
196 ℄j 5 © p
ìr_Æ 6£x x6
ÑÏN\l
D1
l %!3 <Êº &ñ
_Æ)a ½¨çß îß\ e>&hs ëß eH â
Äº\ ¶ú(R y f x
4 . = ( )
Ä»{9Ç e>&h` °
e>&h ¢,aAá¤\"fH 7£x e>&h ¸ǑÉrAá¤\"fH y
ú è e>
&h\"f þj/°ú̄` °ú H ìøÍ/ e>&h ¢,aAá¤\"fH yè e>&h ¸ǑÉrAá¤\"fH 7£x
.
e>&h\"f þjè° ú̄` °úH .
y = f (x)
Ä»{9Ç e>&h x = \ °ú x 6 \"f pìr0px s z´Ér 6£§õ °ú s jþt º e
= .
ËÂ
ø5 ÑÏN\
y f x Ä
= ( »{9Ç e>&h x \ °ú x 6 \"f pìr0px
) = = .
x< { 9 M: f 0 x > s x > {9 M: f 0 x < s y f x H x \"f þj/
( ) 0 ( ) 0 = ( ) =
°ú̄ f \ °ú

( )H
.
x< { 9 M: f 0 x < s x > {9 M: f 0 x > s y f x H x \f" þjè
( ) 0 ( ) 0 = ( ) =
°ú̄ f \ °ú

( )H
.
¹M 5 h& õ "é¶ x y s_Æ o\ ½¨ #

(2,1)
2
+
2
= 1
6
.
Solution "é¶ 0A_Æ e_Æ_Æ &h x; y ü< h& ; s_Æ oH ( ) (2 1)
p
(x 2)
2 +( y 1)
2
s ¿º &h s_Æ o_Æ ℄jYLs þjè{9 M: o¸ þjèsÙ¼

.
d2 = (x 2)
2
+( y 1)
2
Æ_ þjè°ú̄` ½¨ l Ç #l"f . x; y )

( H éß0A"é¶ 0A_Æ &hsÙ¼ 6£§õ °ú Ér ¸| ` ëß
7á¤Ç .
x2 + y 2 = 1
¢̧Ç &h
, (2,1) s ì
r_Æ &hsÙ¼ x
1 0 ; y0 s
p
y= 1 x2
Ü¼ jþt º e s z´` s6 x d ` x _Æ <Êº èq º e
.
2
.
d2 = x
( 2)
2
+( y 1)
2
= x2 4x + 4 + y2 2y+1
p
= 6 4 x 2 1 x 2
6 ì
9
{ Í&
øÜ
h ¼
Ç&
õ
h
¸+þA s_Æ oH Ç &hõ ¸+þA 0AÆ_ &h s_Æ o_Æ þjè°ú̄Ü¼ &ñ
_Æ
Ç
.
℄ 2 ℄X þj&hoëH℄j
j 197

"f 3lq&h<Êº\ p
f (x) = 6 4 x 2 1 x2

. f (x) _Æ e>&h` ½¨
x
f 0 (x) = p ) p
2 2
4 2 = 0 x=
2 1 x 2 5
<Êº f _Æ 7£xy` ¶ú(R

s . 6£§õ °ú .
x 0 < x < p25 x = p25 p25 < x < 1

f0 0 +
f GFè°ú̄ & %

"f Ä»{9Ç FGè°ú̄Ér þjè°ú̄s ÷& sM: þjè°ú̄Ér
p
f p
2
= 6 4 p 2
2 p
1
= 6 2 5
5 5 5
"f &h

s . (2,1) õ "é¶ x 2
+ y2 = 1 s_Æ oH
q p p
6 2 5 = 5 1

s .
>&hs Ä»{9Ç â
Äº e>&h\"f <Êº 0A ^2¤ s &hÉr þj/&hs )a ìøÍ/

e .
A
^2¤ þjè&hs )a .
y = f (x) ¿º pìr0pxÇ <Êº{9 M: s $í

|9Ér 6£§õ °ú s jþt º e .
¿º pìr0pxÇ <Êº y f x x \"f Ä»{9Ç e>&h` °úH

= ( ) = .
f 00 > s
( ) y f x H x \"f þjè°ú̄ f \ °úH
0 = ( ) = ( ) .
f 00 < s
( ) y f x H x \"f þj/°ú̄ f \ °úH
0 = ( ) = ( ) .
M
¹ 6 m [þts 6£§«Ñº6 x ©:x` ëß[þt9 Ç F«Ñq © &h> [þt¸2¤ 9
250
3
.
Qb
# G>
K H r ú́K"f ©:x_Æ ÆV,s © t> 9 #QbG> K H
?
?
198 ℄j 5 © p
ìr_Æ 6£x x6
r
Solution x9Æ_Æ ìøÍt2£§` r Z}s\ h ÕªQ ©:x_Æ ÂÒx

, . 250 m3 sÙ¼
V = r2 h = 250; r 0; h0
` ëß7á¤Ç f" h

. =
250
r2
s ©:x_Æ ÆV,sH 6£§õ °ú s r _Æ <Êº èq º e

.
250
A = 2 r2 + 2rh = 2r2 + 2r
r2
500
= 2r2 +
r
2Πr
e>&h` ½¨
125 1=3
A0 = 4r ) p
500 5
= 0 r= = :
3 41
r 2 3
\f" e>&hÉr Ä»{9

.
A00 = 4 +
1000
>0
r3
sÙ¼ r = p
3
5
:
3 41 \"f ÆV,sH þjè )a sM: Z}sH . ,
h=
250
r2
6 84:
s .
V 6 *
×

ÁþÊÁÿ? \&P
V 1 â

É
ÙÇÆ
a &
\
P

Ê
< º f (x) = x _Æ ¸<ÊºH f 0(x) = 2x s. Ë̈ <Êº F _Æ ¸<Êº 2x F H #Q
2

"
Êºt ·ú º e`Æ? x ` p
< 2
ìr 2x ÷&H ¯ ` ·ú eÜ¼Ù¼
F (x) = x2
s
½+É º e. ÕªQ pìr_
Æ â
Äºü<H ²úo s $í
|9` °úH <ÊºH Áººy ú́§s e
. e
_Æ_Æ ©º C \ / #

(x + C )0 = 2x
2
Ù
s¼ 6£§õ °ú Ér +þAI_Æ <Êº
F (x) = x2 + C
H

¸¿º ¸<Êº 2x s.
℄¿ÁþÊÁ
{9ìøÍ&hÜ¼ ÅÒ#Q <Êº f \
/ #
F 0 (x) = f (x)
÷&H pìr0pxÇ <Êº F (x) \ f (x) _Æ ℄¿ÁþÊÁ(antiderivative) Ç. \V\ [þt#Q

2x
H x _Æ ¸<Êºs x Ér 2x _Æ %i¸<Êºs. F (x) f (x) _Æ %i¸<Êº F (x) + C
2 2
¸ f (x) _Æ %i¸<Êº )a. ¢̧Ç G(x) f (x) _Æ ǑÉr %i¸<Êº

(G(x) F (x))0 = f (x) f (x) = 0
Ù
s ¼ G(x) F (x) H ©º<Êº )a. "f ¸H f _Æ %i¸<ÊºH
F (x) + C
199
200 ℄j 6 ©
Êº<ü &hìr
<
_Æ g1J jþt º e.
Êº f (x) _Æ %i¸<Êº_Æ |9½+Ë` ÉÙÇaÆ\&P(indenite integral)s
<
Z
f (x) dx
·p. ÕªQ |9½+Ë l ñH 6 x t ·ú§Ü¼9 6£§õ °ú s sK l Ç.
1
F 0 (x) = f (x) , f (x) dx = F (x) + C (6.1)

#l"f <Êº f (x) \ q\&PÁþÊÁ(integrand), C \ \&P(×ÊÁ( onstant of integration)
Ç. &hìr©º C \ / # íß` Ç õH r C æ¼l Ç. \V\ [
t#Q
þ
Z
2 f (x) dx = 2F (x) + 2C = 2F (x) + C

H. {9ìøÍ&h í
\"f 0A_Æ d\"f C = 0 s )a. ÕªQ &hìr©º
ß H {9ìøÍ&h

´zº\ /?H ºe ` ©l Dhîr &hìr©º(C 0 s C 1px)` 6 x H / >5Åq

&hìr©º C ?/l Ç.
1
d (6.1) Ér 6£§õ °ú s Ë̈#Q jþt º e.
¿ÁþÊÁ?ÿ ℄¿ÁþÊ
Á
Z
d
= f (x) (y = f (x)
H 5Åq<Êº)

f (x) dx
dx Z
f 0 (x) dx = f (x) + C (y = f (x)

H pìr0pxÇ <Êº)
¹M 1 6£§ ds $

wn<Ê` SX #.
í
Z
se x dx = log j se x + tan xj + C
Solution Äº` pìrÇ ¯ s se x e` s )a. ½+Ë$í
<Êº_Æ pìrZO` 6 x
[log j se x + tan xj℄0 = (se x + tan x)0
se x + tan x
se
= se x tan x + se x 2
x + tan x
= se x(tan x + se x)
se x + tan x
= se x
)a.
1%
x
3 y
9 ú́

%

i¸<Êºü< ÂÒ&ñ
&hìr` ½¨ìr # tëß /ÂÒìr_Æ §FH ¿º 6 x#Q\ D¥ x6
#
6
x
Ç
.
j 1 ℄X ÂÒ&ñ
&hìr
℄ 201
#b
a ÁþÊÁ+ ÉÙÇaÆ\&P
n 6= 1{
9 M: (xn )0 = (n + 1)xn sÙ¼
+1

1 xn 0 = xn +1
n+1

s . "f 6£§ ÂÒ&ñ
&hìr` %3ZH.
xn dx =
1 xn + C +1
n+1
x 1
_Æ ÂÒ&ñ
&hìrÉr
(log jxj)0 = x1
"
\ f Z
1 dx = log jxj + C
x
`

e ·ú º e.

xn + ÉÙÇaÆ\&P
Z
xn dx =
1 xn+1 + C n 6= 1
n+1
Z
x 1
dx = log jxj + C
tº<Êº_Æ pìrZOgË:Ü¼ÒÂ' Z
(ex)0 = ex , ex dx = ex + C

s. ¢̧Ç
(ax)0 = ax log a
Ù
s¼
ax 0
log a = a
x

s . "f Z
ax
ax dx =
log a + C

s .
mÊÁÁþÊÁ+ ÉÙÇaÆ\&P
Z Z
ax
ex dx = + C;
ex ax dx =
log a +C
202 ℄j 6 ©
Êº<ü &hìr
<
y<Êº_Æ pìrZ
Ü¼ÂÒ'H 6£§ ÂÒ&ñ
&hìr` %3H.
O
ºÇÔḈÁþÊÁ+ ÉÙÇaÆ
&P
\
Z
(sin x)0 = os x ) os x dx = sin x + C

Z
( os x)0 = sin x ) sin x dx = os x + C

Z
(tan x)0 = se 2
x ) se 2
x dx = tan x + C
ÉÙÇaÆ\&P+ Å℄Æ
F (x); G(x) yy

5Åq<Êº f (x); g(x) _Æ %i¸<Êº . ÕªQ

F 0 (x) = f (x); G0 (x) = g (x)
sÙ¼ e_Æ_Æ ©º k \ / #

[kF (x)℄0 = kF 0(x) = kf (x)
[F (x) G(x)℄0 = F 0(x) G0(x)
= f (x) g(x) (4
¤ ñ1lxíH)
s. "f ÂÒ&ñ
h&ì
r\ /Ç 6£§ /BNds $í
wnÇ.

ÉÙÇaÆ\&P+ Å℄Æ
Z Z
kf (x) dx = k f (x) dx (k H ©º)

Z Z Z
[f (x) g(x)℄ dx = f (x) dx g (x) dx (4

¤ ñ1lxíH)
¹M 2 6£§ ÂÒ&ñ

&hìr` ½¨ #.
Z
(a) (x + x) dx
2
( )
Z
x2 2xpx + 1 dx
x
(b)
Z
3x dx (d)
Z
x2
Z
1
1 dx 1 dx
2
x x
j 1 ℄X ÂÒ&ñ
&hìr
℄ 203
Solution (a) Â Ò&ñ
&hìr_Æ $í
|9\
"f ½Ó Z> &hìr )a.
Z Z Z
(x + x) dx =
2
x dx +
2
x dx
= 31 x + 12 x + C
3 2
(b) Â
Ò&ñ
&hìr_Æ $í
|9\"f ©ºH &hìr l ñ µ1ÚÜ¼ Æèq º e.
Z Z
3x 2
dx = 3 x2 dx
= 3 13 x + C = x + C 3 3
( ) ì
rºd` çßéßy Ç Êê >í
Ç.
ß
Z 2
p
x 2x x + 1
Z
1 dx
dx = x 2x = + 1 2
x x
2 x dx + x1 dx
Z Z Z
= x dx 1=2
= 12 x 2 2 = + log jxj + C
1=2 + 1 x
1 2+1
= 21 x 2 4 x = + log jxj + C
3
3 2
(d) Â
Ò&ñ
&hìr_Æ ¿º P: $í
|9` s6 x
Z
x 2
dx
Z
1 dx = Z
1 dx x2
x 1 x 1 1 x
Z
= (x + 1) dx
= 12 x + x + C 2
%3H.

`
¹M
3 pìr0pxÇ <Êº f (x) 6£§ 'a>d` ëß7á¤Ç ½+É M: f (x) \ ½¨ #.
Z
f (x) dx = xf (x) + x3 2x + C;
2
f (0) = 3
Solution ª` x \ / # pìr

f (x) = f (x) + xf 0 (x) + 3x2 4x
)a. "f
xf 0 (x) = 4x 3x2
) f 0 (x) = 4 3x
Ù
s ¼ 3x + C
f (x) = 4x 2
2

s . f (0) = 3 Ü¼ÂÒ' C = 3 e`
·ú º e. r ú́K"f

f (x) = 3 + 4x
3x 2
2
204 ℄j 6 ©
Êº<ü &hìr
<
s.
TÒ¼Å℄ÆÁþÊÁ+ ÉÙÇaÆ
&P
\
<Êº F (x) f (x) _Æ %i¸<Êº . f (ax + b) _Æ ¸<ÊºH af 0(ax + b) s. ÕªXO
f (ax + b) _Æ ÂÒ&

&hìrÉr #QbG> |¨ Æ?
ñ
[F (ax + b)℄0 = aF 0(ax + b) = af (ax + b)
sÙ¼ f (ax + b) _Æ Â
Ò&ñ
&hìrÉr
Z
1
f (ax + b) dx = F (ax + b) + C
a
)a. 2
¹M 4 6£§ ÂÒ&ñ

&hìr` ½¨ #.
Z Z
(a) (2x + 3) 5
dx ( ) e x+1 dx
(b)
Z r
1 x + 2 dx (d)
Z
sin(5x 1) dx
2
Solution (a)
Z
1
x5 dx = x6 + C sÙ¼
6
Z
(2x + 3) 5
dx =
1 h 1 (2x + 3) i + C = 1 (2x + 3) + C
6 6
2 6 12
s.
(b) px dx = 23 x = + C s
Z
Ù¼ 3 2
Z r
1 x + 2 dx = 1 h 2 ( 1 x + 2) = i + C = 4 ( 1 x + 2) = + C
3 2 3 2
2 1=2 3 2 32
s.
Z
( ) ex dx = ex + C sÙ¼
Z
e x+1 dx =
1e x+1 +C = e x+1 + C
1
s.
2 ¸
Ê
<º\"
fH

© º a YLKt ÂÒ&ñ
h&ìr\f"H ©º a ¾º#Q.
j 1 ℄X ÂÒ&ñ
&hìr
℄ 205
Z
(d) sin x dx = os x + C sÙ¼

sin(5x 1) dx = 51 ( os(5x 1)) + C = 51 os(5x 1) + C
Z

s .
n».ÉßÓÏ
9{ìøÍ&h ½+Ë$í
<Êº_Æ ÂÒ&ñ
&hìr` ½¨ l 0AK"fH u8̈ZOgË:` ú́§s 6 xÇ. u8̈ZOgË:
rp
É
ìr\"f_Æ WZOgË:õ x9℄X Ç 'a> e. \V\ [þt#Q, 6£§ ÂÒ&ñ
&hìr` ½¨Ç .

Z
2x(x + 1)
2 2
dx
2x(x + 1) = 2x + 4x + 2x s
2 2 5
Ù¼ 3
Z Z
2x(x + 1) 2 2
dx = (2x + 4x + 2x) dx
5 3
= 1x + x + x + C
6 4 2
3
= 1 (x + 3x + 3x + 1) + C 0
6 4 2
3
= 1 (x + 1) + C 0
2 3
3
%

` H. #l"f C 0 = C
3 1
3
s. ÕªQ WZOgË:` s6 x # pìr` ½¨

1 (x + 1) 0 = 3 1 (x + 1) (x + 1)0 = 2x(x + 1)
2 3 2 2 2 2 2
3 3
Ù
s ¼
2x(x + 1) dx = 31 (x + 1) + C
Z
2 2 2 3
`

e ·ú º e. {9ìøÍ&hÜ¼ <Ê
º u = g(x) pìr0px <Êº f (u) _Æ Ç %i¸<Êº
F (u) {9 M:, WZOgË:\ _Æ #
[F (g(x))℄0 = F 0(g(x))g0 (x)
= f (g(x))g0 (x)
%

` H. 7£¤, F (g(x)) H f (g(x))g0 (x) _Æ %i¸<Êºs.
3
Z
f (g (x))g 0 (x) dx = F (g (x)) + C = F (u) + C

s . F (u) + C = f (u) du sÙ¼
R
6£§ /BNd` %3H.
Z Z
f (g (x))g 0 (x) dx = F (u) + C = f (u) du
X
s > ½+Ë$í
<Êº f (g(x)) \"f g(x) \ u u8̈ # &hìr H ~½ÓZO` n».É\&Pß(integration
O
by substitution)s Ç.
206 ℄j 6 ©
Êº<ü &hìr
<
n».É\&Pß
<Êº u = g(x) p
ìr0px½+É M: 6£§ ds $í
wnÇ.
Z Z
f (g (x))g 0 (x) dx = f (u) du
Note sáÔmÞÔ_Æ ³ðlZO` s6 x 0A dÉr 6£§õ °ú s jþt º e.
Z Z Z
du
f (g (x))g 0 (x) dx = f (u) dx = f (u) du
dx
"f u = g(x) {9 M

: du
dx
= g0(x) \

du = g 0 (x) dx ¢̧H dx = 0 du
1
g (x)
?/l Ç. 3
¹M 5 6£§ ÂÒ&ñ

&hìr` ½¨ #.
Z Z
(a) x (x
2 3
+ 1) 3
dx ( ) x3 os(x4 + 2) dx
Z
2
(b) xe x =2 dx
Solution
(a) u = x + 1 s

3
du = 3x 2
dx sÙ¼ x dx = 13 du s. "f
2
= 13 u du
Z Z
x2 (x3 + 1)3 dx 3
= 13 1 +1 3 u + C
h i
4
= 121 (x + 1) + C 3 4
` %3H.
(b) u = x2 =2 s
Z~Ü¼
x dx = du ¢̧H x dx = du
s. Z Z
2
xe x =2 dx = eu du
2
= eu + C = e x =2 + C
` %3H.
3
s H

WZ
g
O:\
Ë"f
H YL_Æ +þAI èß ¯ s u8̈&hìr\f"H º¾l_Æ +þAI z` #ï
r
.
j 1 ℄X ÂÒ&ñ
&hìr
℄ 207
( ) u = x + 2 4
u8̈ du = 4x dx s 3
x
3
os(x + 2) dx
4 1 Z
= 4 os u du
= 14 sin u + C = 41 sin(x + 2) + C 4
` %3H.
A l\"fH Áº%Á ` u8̈

0 ÂÒ&ñ
&hìr` ½¨½+É º eHt "î
ÑþK . 7£¤,

Z
f (axn + b)xn 1
dx
_g
Æ J_Æ ÂÒ&ñ
&hìrÉr u = axn + b u8̈ ÂÒ&ñ
&hìr` ½¨½+É º e. ÕªQ {9ìøÍ&hÜ¼
1
H u8̈&hìr\"f #Q" <Êº\ u8̈

# Ht "î
Ñþy st ·ú§H â
Äº 8 ú́§. s 4
â
ÄºH u8̈ H <Êº_Æ ¸<Êº Áº%Á t\ 9 # &hìrs /'0>tH u8̈` H ¯

×
s æ¹̄ .

¹M
6 6£§ ÂÒ&ñ
h&ìr` ½¨ #.
Z
p Z
log x dx
(a) x x 1 dx ( ) x
px
(b)
Z
1 sin 1 dx (d)
Z
e
px dx
x2 x
Solution
(a) u = x 1 s
du = dx s x = u + 1 s. "f
p
(u + 1)pu du
Z Z
x x 1 dx =
Z Z
= u3=2 du + u1=2 du
= 2 = 2 =
5u + 3u + C
5 2 3 2
= 2 (x 1) = + 2 (x 1) = + C
5 2 3 2
5 3
` %3H.
(b) u = x1 s du = x1 dx sÙ¼ 2
Z
1 sin 1 dx = Z sin u du
x 2 x
= os u + C
= os x1 + C
` %3H.
4 ´℄

z ju
8̈

H~
ÓZ
½
O rÄ
É »{

9 t
·§Ü¼9 #Qt ~½ÓZOs e` º eÜ¼9 Õª ×æ\"f © >íßs /'>0tH
ú
~½ÓZO`
×

þÇ
.
208 ℄j 6 ©
Êº<ü &hìr
<
Z~Ü¼ du = x1 dx s. "f
( ) u = log x
Z
log x dx = Z u du
x
= 1
2u + C
2
= 1 (log x) + C
2
2
s.
(d) u = px du = 2p1 x dx s. "f
Z~Ü¼

Z p Z
e x
px dx = 2 eu du
= 2eup + C
= 2e x + C
s.
f (x)=f (x)
0
+ \&

P
Êº ff ((xx)) _Æ ÂÒ&ñ
&hìr` ½¨ # .
0
f (x) 6= 0 ìrº
<
u = f (x)

du = f 0 (x)dx
sÙ¼
f 0 (x)
= u1 du
Z Z
dx
f (x)
= log juj + C
= log jf (x)j + C
\ %3H.
f 0 (x)=f (x) + \&P
f 0 (x)
Z
dx = log jf (x)j + C
f (x)
¹M 7 6£§ ÂÒ&ñ

&hìr` ½¨ #.
j 1 ℄X ÂÒ&ñ
&hìr
℄ 209
Z Z
(a) x e2t
x2 +2 dx ( ) 3 + e2t dt
Z
(b) tan x dx
Solution
(a) u = x + 2
du = 2x dx sÙ¼
2
Z
x
dx =
1 Z
2x
dx =
1 Z
1 du
x +2 2 2 x +2 2 2 u
1 1
= 2 log juj + C = 2 log(x + 2) + C2
s.
sin x s
(b) tan x = os Ù¼ u = os x u8̈ .
x
du = sin x dx
sÙ¼
Z Z
tan x dx = ossin x dx = Z 1 du
x u
= log juj + C = log j os xj + C
= log j se xj + C
s.
( ) u = 3 + e t
du = 2e t dt sÙ¼
2 2
Z
et 2
dt = 1 Z 1 du = 1 log juj + C
3+e t 2 2 u 2
1
= 2 log(3 + e t) + C
2
s.
210 ℄j 6 ©
Êº<ü &hìr
<
2â
V
Ç
Æ
a &P
\
º<Æ\f" © ¸A a ëH℄j ×æ_Æ H ¸+þA_Æ V,s\ ½¨ H ëH℄js. f1y
) +þA_Æ V,s

H ü< [j_Æ YLÜ
¼ ½¨½+É º e y+þA_Æ V,sH x9Æõ Z}s_Æ YL_Æ 2 ½¨½+É º
e.
w
l
h
b
bh
Alw A
2
9{ìøÍ&hÜ¼ ¸+þA_
Æ â
> f â
ÄºH y+þA_Æ V,s\ s6 x ½Ó© Õª V,s\ ½¨
½+É º e. 5
ÕªQ â
> /BG â
Äº, V,s\ ½¨ H ëH℄jH Õªo éßíH t ·ú§. s ℄X\ f"H /BG
Ü¼ ÑütQ ¸+þA_ Æ V,s\ ½¨ H ~½ÓZO` è>h ¸2¤ Ç.
¯¤n> 8 ÉÙ&P+ Ûyl
<Êº y = x ; 0 x 1 _Æ A ÂÒìr S _Æ V,s A = jS j \ H&hÜ¼ ½¨ # l
2
.
y
x
1
ºÄ ÅÒ#Q %ò
%i_Æ V,sH Z}s 1 y+þA\ í<Ê÷&Ù¼ 0õ 1 se`
~1> ·ú º

e. s℄j ½¨çß [0,1℄ ` W1 >h ¾º y ½¨çß\"f_Æ %ò
%i` yy S ; S ; S ; S ?/
1 2 3 4
. ÕªQ %ò
%i Si H x9Æ_Æ U´s 1/4 s Z}s 4i fy+þA\ í<Ê)a.
2
5 y

+
A
þ r[
É j
_
ÆU´s
\ ·ú Õª V,s\ ½¨½+É º e.
j 2 ℄X &ñ
&hìr
℄ 211
y
9
16
1
4
1 1 3
x
4 2 4
1

"f Si _Æ V,s jSi j H 6£§ ÂÒ1
xd` ëß7á¤Ç.
p
jSi j 41 4i
2

"f 1 h 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 i = 15
2 2 2 2
A
4 4 4 4 4 32
`

e ·ú º e. s d_Æ ¸ǑÉrAá¤ °ú̄` ½¨çß_Æ >hº 4 ïÒR®X́ hï5ÑTÒ¼s R

·p. Si \ í<Ê H / Si \ í<Ê÷&H fy+þA` 6 x ìøÍ/ ~½Ó¾Ó_Æ H°ú̄`

4
¨½
½ É º e.
+
y
9
16
1
4
1 1 3
x
4 2 4
1
7£¤, %ò
%i Si H x9Æ_Æ U´s 1/4 s Z}s i 4 1 fy+þA` í<Ê Ù¼
2
jSi j 14 i 1
2
4

s . "f 1 h 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 i = 7
2 2 2 2
A
4 4 4 4 4 32
$
s
wnÇ. s d_Æ ¸ǑÉrAá¤ °ú̄`
í ½¨çß_Æ >hº 4 àÖS®X́ hï5ÑTÒ¼s L

p
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. ÕªQÙ¼
4
7 15
32 A 32
$
wnÇ. ½¨çß_Æ Ì º\ Zþt9"
í f >íß 7á§ 8 &ñ
SXÇ A _Æ #30A\ ½¨½+É º e. \V\
t#
þ
[ Q ½¨çß_Æ º\ 10 >h Zþt9 >íß 6£§õ °ú Ér A _Æ #30A\ %3H.
0:285 A 0:385
212 j℄ 6 © Êº<ü &hìr
<
6£§ ³ðH ½¨çß_Æ º n ` Zþt9"f ¢,aAá¤oëß½+Ëõ ¸ǑÉrAá¤oëß½+Ë` ½¨Ç ¯ s.
n Ln Rn
50 0.3234 0.3434
100 0.32835 0.33835
1000 0.3328335 0.3338335
0A_Æ ³ð\ _Æ ½Ó

©
¸ǑÉrAá¤oëß½+Ë ¢,aAá¤oëß½+Ë = n1
s.
¹M 1 1
3e
A= ` #.

Solution ½¨çß [0; 1℄ ` n1pxìr ½¨çß_Æ U´sH 1=n s )a. i P: ½¨çß_Æ %ò
%iÉr x9Æ
1
_Æ U´s n s Z}s ni fy+þA\ í<Ê)a. "f
2
A Rn =
n
X 1 i 2
i=1
n n
= n1 i
X n
2
3
i =1
= n1 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
3 6
s $í
wnÇ. s ÂÒ1pxdÉr ¸H n \ / # $í
wn Ù¼
A lim
R
n!1 n
= 31
s $í
wnÇ. ðøÍt ¢,aAá¤oëß½+Ë\ / #
A lim
L
n!1 n
= 31
»¡¤&ñ
o\ _Æ # ÅÒ#Q %ò
%i S _Æ V,sH A = 31 s.
s $í
wnÇ. "f ·
ú
Note l 1\"fü< °ú s î̈
¸+þA_Æ V,s\ ½¨ l 0A # î̈
¸+þA` Ér y+þAÜ¼
rì½+É , Õª V,s_Æ ½+Ë` ½¨ # Õª FGÇ°ú̄` 2[ H ~½ÓZO` Ä©&PÄ©\ßs
Ç. {9^
¸+þA_Æ ÂÒx\ ½¨ H X<\¸ ½¨ìr½¨&hZO` 6 x½+É º e. 6
ÇaÆ\&Pø Ûyl
s℄j 5Åq<Êº y = f (x) f (x) 0 {9 M:, /BG y = f (x) 0 ü< x »¡¤, Õªo ¿º ºf
x = a; x = b ÑütQ
%ò
%i_Æ V,s\ ½¨ # l . ½¨çß [a; b℄ \ n 1
xìr # ª
p
=åQ&hõ y ìr&h_Æ x ýa³ð\
x0 (= a); x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xn 1 ; xn (= b)
6
s
Ä
âºHf

y
+
As
þ m Ér lÑüæÜ¼ ìr½+É # >íßÇ.
℄ 2 ℄X &ñ
&hìr
j 213

s ÂÒìr½¨çß_Æ U´s\
x = xk xk 1 = b na

s . ½¨çß h
k 1 (b k i
[xk 1 ; xk ℄ = a +
n
a); a +
n
(b a)
"
\ f #QÖ¼ &h xk \ ú̧8¸ 6
§ fy+þA_Æ ½+Ë
£
n
f (x1 )x + + f (xn )x = f (xk )x
X
k=1
H{

&ñ
Ç °ú̄Ü¼ º§4<Ês ·ú94
9 R e.
x
a x0 x1 x2 x3 b xn
Z b
F
s GÇ°ú̄` ½¨çß [a; b℄ \f" <Êº f (x) _Æ &ñ
&hìrs a
f (x) dx ·p.
Z b n
f (xk )x
X
f (x) dx = lim (6.2)
a n!1
k=1
Z b

s
Äº
â a
f (x) dx ÅÒQ# %ò
i
%_Æ V,s Hd` &ñ
_ÆÂÒ' ~1> sK½+É º e.
¯¤n>U + b# ÇaÆ+ÛÖS ÆZ℄+ Ûyl

y = f (x)( 0) 5Åq<Êº{9 M
:, /BG y = f (x) ü< x »¡¤, Õªo ¿º ºf x = a; x = b
ÑütQ %ò
i%_Æ V,sH

n
f (xk )x; x = b n a
X
lim
n!1
k=1
Z b
¼
Ü &ñ
_Æ a
f (x) dx
·p. #l"f xk 1 xk xk s
.
Note 5Åq<Êº y = f (x) ½¨ç

[a; b℄ \"f f (x) 0 s . ÕªQ
ß
Z b
f (x) dx = 0
a
214 ℄j 6 ©
Êº<ü &hìr
<
s f (x) 0 s.
)ç (|¡è (2007Æ̧ &ñ
r ëH℄j 10)
!2
Z b Z b
a
f (x)dx (b a)
a
f (x)2 dx e` #.
)ç (|¡è (2007Æ̧ ºr ëH℄j 9)

f\ ½¨çß (0; 1) \"f ¿º pìr0px [0; 1℄ \"f 5Åqs9, f (0) = 0; f (1) = 3;
Z 1
f 00 0
<Êº . ëß xf (x)dx = 1 s ½¨çß [0; 1℄ \"f f (x) = 3x e` #.
0
¹M 2 6£§ FGÇ°ú̄` &ñ

&hìr` s6 x # ?/ Õª °ú̄` ½¨ #.
1X
r
n
k 2
lim
n!1 n
1 n
k=1
Solution H ½¨çß [0; 1℄ ` n 1pxìr %i` M: k P: ½¨çß_Æ ¸ǑÉrAá¤ =åQ&h xk = xk s,
k
n
s M: ÂÒìr½¨çß_Æ U´sH
x = n1
s. "f p
f (x) = 1 x2

1X 1 X f (xk )x
r
n n

k 2
lim
n!1 n
1 n
= lim
n!1 n
k=1 k=1
Z 1
s. s FGÇ°ú̄Ér &ñ

&hìr 1 x dx
p
èq º e ½¨çß [0,1℄ \"f y = f (x) =
2
p
1 x õ x »¡¤ s_ Æ %ò
%i, 7£¤, ìr"é¶_Æ V,ss.
0
2
y 1 - x2
x
1
℄ 2 ℄X &ñ
&hìr
j 215

"f ÅÒQ# FGÇ°ú̄Ér 4 s.
)

ç (|¡è (2006Æ̧ &ñ
r 5)
Êº f f (0) = 1; f (1) = 2; f 0(x) > 0;
<
R1
f (x)dx = 8
` ëß7á¤r~´ M:, f _Æ %i<Êº\
g
g(x)dx = .
s
0 5
R2
1
ÇaÆ\&P
9{ìøÍ&hÜ¼ 5Åq <Êº y = f (x) \ / # (6.2) \"f FGÇ°ú̄s >rF½+É M:, Õª FGÇ°ú̄`
Ê
<
º f _Æ [a; b℄ \"f_Æ hï5Ñ\&P (Riemann integral ), ¢̧H ÇaÆ\&P (denite integral)s
7

8
b Z
f (x) dx
a

·p.
¥o>¢4́ÁþÊÁ f + Ä©ë5Ñ [a; b℄ U "

+ ÇaÆ\&P
Z b n
f (xk )x
X
f (x) dx = lim (6.3)
a n!1
k=1
l
# "f x = b n a s xk 1 xk xk s
.
¹M
3 6£§ FGÇ°ú̄` &ñ
h&ìr` s6 x # ?/#Q.
(a) lim 1 n n + 1 + n + 2 + + n + n o
n!1 n n n n
(b) lim 1 n n + n + 2 + + n + 2n 2 o
2 2 2
n!1 n n n n
Solution (a) f (x) = 1 + x

½¨çß_Æ ß¼l x = 1=n s xk = k=n â
Äºs.
x0 = 0; xn = 1 s
Ù¼
lim 1 n n + 1 + n + 2 + + n + n o
n!1 n n n n
= lim
Xn
1
k
Z
1 + = (1 + x) dx
1
n!1 n n
k=1 0
q{
l
1_
9Æ º<Æ
7 Bernhard Riemann(1826-1866)
Z
&ì

h8r`

?/
Hl

ñ H½
Ë`
+

?/H ëH S \ U´> Zþt#Q¼äǑ2; ¸ªs. s lñ H 1lq{9_Æ º<Æ
sáÔmÞ
Ô\ _
Æ #
î
÷
ß &%

3.
216 ℄j 6 ©
Êº<ü &hìr
<
s.
(b) f (x) = (1 + x) s . ½¨çß_Æ ß¼l\ x = 2=n xk = 2(k 1)=n s
2
x = 0; xn = 2 s
0 Ù¼
lim 1 n n + n + 2 + + n + 2n 2 o
2 2 2
n!1 n n n n
1
= 2 nlim
Xn
2
2(k 1)
!1 k n 1 + n
2
=1
= 12 nlim
n
x 1 + xk
X

2
!1 k =1
= 12 (1 + x) dx
Z 2
2
s.
Note l 3(b) \" f ½¨çß_Æ ß¼l\ x = n1 Ü¼ ú̧Ü¼ xk = xk = k n 1 \ / # 1
6£§õ °ú s ³ð&³½+É º¸ e.

lim 1 n n + n + 2 + + n + 2n 2 o
2 2 2
n!1 n n n n
= lim
Xn
1
1+2 k 1 2
n!1 n n
k=1
n 2
x 1 + 2xk
X
= nlim
!1 k=1
Z 1
= (1 + 2x) 2
dx
0
q2¤ &ñ
&hìrÉr ǑÉr +
AI\ °útëß Õª °ú̄Ér °ú .
þ
ÇaÆ\&P+ Å℄Æ
Z b
ab {9 M:, a
f (x) dx H <Êº f (x) _Æ ½¨çß [a; b℄ \"f_Æ &ñ
&hìrÜ¼
n n
b a
f (xk )x = f (xk )
X X
k=1 k=1
n
Z a
_Æ FGÇ°ú̄Ü¼ &ñ
_ÆÇ. &ñ
&hìr b
f (x) dx ¸ °ú Ér ~½ÓZOÜ¼ &ñ
_ÆÇ. ÕªQ s M:
x = a n b = b
n
a
sÙ¼ oëß½+ËÉr 6£§õ °ú .

n n
b a
f (x )x f (xk )
X X
k = n
k=1 k=1
n
b a
f (xk )
X
= n
k=1
℄ 2 ℄X &ñ
&hìr
j 217

"f 6£§ 'a>ds $í
wnÇ.
Z a Z b
f (x) dx = f (x) dx
b a

ß
ë a = b s x = 0 sÙ¼
Z a
f (x) dx = 0
a

s. &ñ
&hìr_Æ &ñ
_Æ\ s6 x #
6£§õ °ú Ér &ñ
&hìr_Æ $í
|9[þts $í
wn<Ê` {9 º e.
aÆÇ\&P+ Å℄Æ
I
¨ç
½ [a; b℄ \f" 5Åq ¿º <Êº f (x); g(x) \ / # 6£§ 'a>ds $í
wnÇ.
ß
Z a Z b
f (x) dx = f (x) dx
b a
Z b
dx = (b a)
a
Z b Z b Z b
[f (x) g(x)℄ dx = f (x) dx g (x) dx (4
¤ ñ1lxíH)
a a a
Z b Z b

a
f (x) dx =
a
f (x) dx ( H ©º)
axb f (x) 0 \"f s &ñ

&hìr ab f (x) dx H /BG y = f (x) ü< x »¡¤, Õªo ¿º f
R

x=a x=bü< ÑütQ %ò
%i_Æ V,s )a. s℄j ½¨çß [a; b℄ \"f
f (x) 0
{M

9 : y = f (x) ü< x = a; x = b, Õªo y »¡¤Ü¼ ÑütQ %ò
%i_Æ V,s\ A .
f (x) 0 s
Ù¼ ÅÒQ# %ò
i%_Æ V
sH y = f (x) ü< x = a; x = b, Õªo x »¡¤Ü¼ ÑütQ
,

%ò
i%_Æ Õª¯ õ °ú .

y - f HxL
x
a b
y f HxL
218 ℄j 6 ©
Êº<ü &hìr
<
"f ÅÒQ# %ò
i%_
Æ V,s A H
Z b Z b
A= ( f (x)) dx = f (x) dx (6.4)
a a
)a. r ú́Kf" Z b
f (x) dx = A
a
s.
j 3 ℄X p&hìr_Æ l:r&ñ
o
℄ 219
V 3 â

i
&
\
P +e
ÔeµÇ
Æh
a
pì
rõ &hìrÉr "f %i6 xÜ¼ s
K½+É º e. 7£¤, #Q" <Êº\ &hìrÇ Êê r pìr
¶A
é
" _Æ <Êº ÷& ìøÍ/ #Q" Êº\ pìrÇ ¯ ` r &hìr "é¶A_Æ <Êº )a. s
<
Q
Ç "é¶o\ i\&P+ eÔeµÇaÆh(fundamental theorem of al ulus) Ç.

½¨çß [a; b℄ \f" 5Åq <Êº f (x) \ / #
Z x
F (x) = f (t) dt
a

. f (t) 0 s l <Æ&hÜ¼ F (x) H ½¨çß [a; x℄ \"f <Êº y = f (t) ü< x »¡¤ s
ÆV
_ s S \ _ÆpÇ.
,
y=f(x)
S=F(x)
a x
x x+h Æt o+É½ M:

h>0
s
F (x + h) F (x)
H ½¨çß [x; x + h℄ \"f_Æ V,ss
h<0 s
F (x + h) F (x) H ½¨ç

ß
[x + h; x℄ \"f_Æ V,s F (x) F (x + h) _Æ 6£§_Æ °ú̄` 2[
Ç°

ú̄s ½¨çß
. [x; x + h℄ ¢̧H
[x + h; x℄ \"f_Æ 5Åq<Êº f (t) _Æ þjè°ú̄` m, þj/°ú̄` M

s .
y=f(x) y=f(x)
M M
m m
F(x+h) - F(x) F(x) - F(x+h)
a x x+h b a x+h x b
h>0 h<0
h>0 s
mh F (x + h) F (x) Mh
220 ℄j 6 ©
Êº<ü &hìr
<
s h < 0 s
m( h) F (x) F (x + h) M ( h)
sÙ¼ ¿º â
Äº ¸¿º
F (x + h) F (x)
m M
h
e` ·ú º e. <Êº f H 5ÅqsÙ¼ h!0 s m; M ! f (x) s. "f
6£§ 1pxds
$í
wnÇ.
F 0 (x) = lim F (x + hh)
h!0
F (x)
= f (x)
s õ\ i\&P+ e
ÔeµÇaÆh(Fundamental Theorem of Cal ulus) Ç
.
i\&P+ eÔeµÇaÆh

5Åq<Êº f (x) \
/ # 6£§ 1pxds $í
wnÇ.
d x
Z
f (t) dt = f (x)
dx a
Z x
Note 1. F (x) =
a
f (t) dt
Z a Z x
f (t) dt = f (t) dt = F (x)
x a
s. "f d a
Z
f (t) dt = f (x)
dx x
$í
wnÇ.
Z g(x)
Note 2. G(x) =
a
f (t) dt
G(x) = F (g (x))
s. "f ½+Ë$í

½+Ë
º_Æ pìrZO` 6 x
G0 (x) = F 0 (g (x))g 0 (x) = f (g (x))g 0 (x)
$í
wnÇ. r ú́K
"f 6£§ ds $í
wnÇ.
Z
d g(x)
f (t) dt = f (g (x))g 0 (x)
dx a
¹M 1 6£§` ½¨ #.

o
℄ 221
d
Z x Z
(a) sin d 2 2 t
dx 0
3
t dt ( ) dx x
2t e dt
px
d x 1
Z Z
d 2
(b) dx a 1 + t2
dt (d) dx
t2 e t dt
2
Solution
(a) f (t) = sin 3
t H ¸H t \ / # 5ÅqsÙ¼
d
Z x
dx
sin 3
t dt = sin3 x
0
s.
(b) f (t) = 1 +1 t 2
H ¸H t \
/ # 5ÅqsÙ¼
d x 1 1
Z
dt =
dx a 1 + t2 1+x 2
s.
Z 2 Z x
( ) 2t et dt =
2
2t et dt s
2
f (t) = 2t et H 5ÅqsÙ¼ 2
x 2
Z
d 2 2 t
dx x
2t e dt = 2x ex
2
s.
(d) f (t) = t e 2 t2 H ¸H t \
/ # 5ÅqsÙ¼
px
= (px) e x 2 (px)0
d
Z
2 p
t2 e t dt 2 ( )
dx 2
= xe x 2p1 x
p
= 2x e x

s .
)

ç (|¡è (2006Æ̧ &ñ
r 7)
6£§` ëß7á¤ H ½Ó<Êº f (x) \ ½¨ .

Z x
x f (x) = 4x
3 7
+ 2x + 3 5
t2 f (t) dt:
1
222 ℄j 6 ©
Êº<ü &hìr
<
Z x
5Åq<Êº y = f (x) \ / # F (x) = a f (t) dt H pìr0pxÇ <Êºs. p&
ìr_Æ l:r
h
&ñ
oH 6£§õ °ú Ér +þAI èq º¸ e.
lim 1 lim 1
Z x Z a+h
f (t) dt = f (t) dt = f (a)
x!a x a a h! h
0 a
¹M 2 6£§ FGÇ°ú̄` ½¨ #.

(a) xlim 1 Z x 2
e t dt ( ) xlim 1 Z x t2
! x 1
1 1 ! x 0 3
0 t4 + 1 dt
(b) xlim 1 Z xe t2 dt (d) hlim 1 Z 2+h
t2
dt
! x 1
1 2
1
! h 0 2 h t4 + 1
Solution
Z x
(a) F (x) =
1
2
e t dt
2
F 0 (x) = e x = f (x)
s
lim 1 Z x
e t2 dt = F 0(1) = e 1
x! x 1 1 1
s.
(b) (a) _
Æ <Êº F ü
< f \ / # >íß
lim 1 Z x
t2 dt = xlim
h
1 Z x 2
e t dt
1 i
x! x
1 21 e 1 ! 11 x 1 1+x
= f (1) 2 = 21e
1
` %3H.
( ) s â
ÄºH p&hì
r_Æ l:r&ñ
o\"f õ\ %3` º \O.

lim 1 1 1i
Z h Z x x t t2 2
lim dt dt =
t +1
x! x 0 3 x! x 0 t +1
4 x 0 0
4 2
\f" FGÇ°ú̄s 0 1 g1J_Æ ÂÒ&ñ

+þAs ÷&l M:ëHs. "f
Z x t2
G(x) = dt
0 1+t 4
G(x) H pìr0px

x2
G0 (x) = = g(x)
1 + x4
o
℄ 223
s. G(0) = 0 sÙ¼ 0=0 g1J_Æ x»1Ï_Æ ZOgË:` &h6 x
lim 1 G(x) G (x)
Z x t2 0
x! x 0 3 t4 + 1
dt = xlim
! x = xlim
0 ! 3x
3 0 2
0
= xlim
h
x 1 i = lim h 1 i
2
! 1 + x 3x
0 x! 3(1 + x )
4 2 0 4
= 13
` %3H.
(d) ( ) _ Æ <Êº G ü< g \ / #

lim 1 Z 2+h
t2
dt = lim G(2 + h) G(2 h)
h! h 0 2 h t 4 +1 h!0 h
jþt º e. ìr, ìr¸_Æ FGÇ°ú̄s ¸¿º 0sÙ¼ x»1Ï_Æ ZOgË:` s6 x ÅÒ#Q
FGÇ°ú̄Ér
lim G(2 + h) h G(2
h!0
h)
= hlim
!
g (2 + h) + g (2
0 1
h)
= 2g(2) = 178
s )a.

ç
) (|¡è (2007Æ̧ &ñ
r 2)
lim x
Z x sin t dt = s.
x! x 3
3 3 t

ç
) (|¡è (2007Æ̧ ºr 1)
f (0) = 1; f (1) = 2; f 0 (0) = 0; f 0 (1) = 3 {9 M:,
Z 1
[f (x)f 0 (x) + f 0(x) f 00(x)℄dx =

2

s.

ç
) (|¡è (2007Æ̧ ºr 2)
x Z
p dt _
f (x) =
1+t Æ %
2
i<Êº\ g ½+É M: g0(0) =
4
s.

ç
) (|¡è (2009Æ̧ ºr 10)
224 ℄j 6 ©
Êº<ü &hìr
<
<Êº f (x); f (x); f (x); : : : 6£§õ °ú s ) ±ú&hÜ¼ &ñ
_Æ÷&%3.
1 2 3
Z x
f1 (x) = sin x + os4x; fn+1 = x fn (t) dt + fn (x)2 :

º\P ffn0 ()g _Æ {9ìøÍ½Ó fn0 () \ ½¨ r¸.
)ç (|¡è (2006Æ̧

&ñ
r 4)
" +1 p #
lim 1 Z 2x
1+t 2006 dt = s.
x! x0 2
ÇaÆ\&P Ä© e
s℄j p&hìr_Æ l:r&ñ
o\ s6 x # &ñ
&hìr_Æ °ú̄` #QbG> ½¨ Ht ¶ú(Rl Ç.
f (x) _
Æ %i¸<Êº\
¹1Ô¤ . r ú́K"f, #Q" <Êº F (x)
d
F (x) = f (x)
dx
\ ëß7á¤Ç . ÕªQ p&hìr_Æ l:r&ñ
o\"f
Z
d x
f (t) dt = f (x)
dx a
sÙ¼ ¸H x \ / #
dh x
Z i
f (t) dt F (x) = f (x) f (x) = 0
dx a
s. ¸<Êº 0 <ÊºH ©º<ÊºsÙ¼
Z x
f (t) dt F (x) = C
a
s. x = a s F (a) = C sÙ¼

Z x
f (t) dt = F (x) F (a)
a
aÆÇ\&P+ Nñ5Ñ
<Êº f (x) ½¨çß [a; b℄ \"f 5Åqs . <Êº F (x) f (x) _Æ %i¸<Ê
ºs
Z b
f (x) dx = F (b) F (a)
a
s.
o
℄ 225
Note 0 AÆ_ õ\"f F (b) F (a) \
¢̧H F (x) ba

[F (x)℄ba

?/l¸ Ç. s lñ \ _Æ

Z b
F 0 (x) = f (x) ) f (x) dx = [F (x)℄ba
a
j
t º e.
þ
¹M
3 6£§ &ñ
&hìr` ½¨ #.
(a)
Z 4
px p1 dx (b)
Z 2
(3x 2
x + x1=3 ) dx
1 x 2
Solution
(a)
Z 4
px p1 dx =
1 x 21 1 x 12
1+ 1
4
1 x 1+ 1 1
2
1
2
1

p p
= 23 x x 2 x
4
p p p
1
= 23 (4 4 1 1) 2( 4 1)
= 83
(b)
Z 2
(3x
2
x + x1=3 ) dx =

x3
1 x + 1 x =
2 1 3+1
2
2 2 1=3 + 1 2
= (2 3
( 2) ) 12 (2 ( 2) ) 34 (2 =
3 2 2 4 3
( 2) = )
4 3
= 16
Z (x 1)2
¹M
4 <Êº F (x) = (t t) dt _
0
Æ FG°ú̄` ½¨ #.
2
Solution p&hìr_Æ l:r&ñ

o\ _Æ #
F 0 (x) = [(x 1) ℄0[(x 1) (x 1)℄
2 2
= 2(x 1)(x 1)(x 2) = 2(x 1) (x 2) 2

s . ½¨çßZ> <Êº_Æ 7£xy` ¸

x 1 2
F 0 (x) 0 0 +
F (x) & & FGè°ú̄ %
226 ℄j 6 ©
Êº<ü &hìr
<
sÙ¼ x = 2 {9 M: F (x) H FGè°ú̄
F (2) =
Z 1
(t2
t) dt =
h
1t 3 1t i = 1
2
1
0 3 2 6 0
\ °úH. FG/&hÉr >rF t ·ú§H.

Ä©ë5Ñß~
\&P
<Êº f (x) [j &
a; b; \ í<Ê H ½¨çß\"f 5Åqs . f (x) _Æ Ç ÂÒ&ñ
&hìr`
h
F (x)
Z Z b
f (x) dx + f (x) dx = F ( ) F (a) + F (b) F ( )
a
= F (b) F (a)
Z b
= f (x) dx
a
s $í
wnÇ. s 'a>d
Ér a; b; _Æ /è'a>\ ©'a\Os ½Ó© $í
wnÇ.

ÇaÆ\&P+ Å℄Æ
II
Z b Z Z b
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx
a a
6£§ ÕªaË>Ér a b â

Äº f (x) 0 {9 M:_Æ ©S!` ÕªAáÔ ·p ¯ s.
y=f(x)
a c b
Note &ñ
&hìr_Æ $í
|9 II H 6£§õ °ú s _Æ +þAI¸ èq º e.
Z b Z b Z
f (x) dx = f (x) dx f (x) dx
a a
ÇaÆ\&Pø Ûyl
o
℄ 227
5Åq<Êº y = f (x)
f (x) 0; axb
f (x) 0; bx

. ÕªQ ½¨çß [a; b℄ \f" /BGõ x »¡¤ s_Æ V,s\ A , ½¨çß [b; ℄ \"f /BGõ x
¤
¡
» s_Æ V,s\ A
1
Z b Z
f (x) dx = A1 ; f (x) dx = A2
a b
`

e ·ú e. "f
Z
f (x) dx = A1 A2
a
a. r ú́Kf" ½¨çß [a; ℄ \
) "f 5Åq<Êº y = f (x) _Æ &ñ
&hìrÉr <Êº ªº ÂÒìr_Æ
s
,
V\"f <Êº 6£§º ÂÒìr_Æ V,s\ É ¯ õ °ú .
Æ\&Pø Ûyl
a
Ç
Z b
5

q<Êº y = f (x) \ / #
Å f (x) dx H f (x) 0 ÂÒìr_Æ V,s<ü f (x) 0 ÂÒìr
Æ V,s_Æ s.
_ a
¹M
5 6£§ 1pxds $í
wn<Ê` [
"î
#.
O
Z b Z b+
f (x) dx = f (x ) dx
a a+
Solution y = f (x ) _
Æ ÕªAá
ÔH y = f (x) _Æ ÕªAáÔ\ x »¡¤Ü¼ ëßpu î̈
's1lx #
#
3
% Q. s:M ½¨çß [a; b℄ H ½¨çß [a + ; b + ℄ s1lxÇ. "f ½¨çß [a + ; b + ℄ \"f

y = f (x ) _
Æ ÕªAáÔH ½¨çß [a; b℄ \"f y = f (x) _Æ ÕªAáÔü< {9uÇ. "f
Z b Z b+
f (x) dx = f (x ) dx
a a+
$í
wnÇ.
s
¿Ḉ\ã× ÇaÆ+ÛÖS ÁþÊÁ
5Åq<Êº ½¨çß ØÔ> &ñ
_Æ÷&#Q eÜ¼ ^ ½¨çß\"f %i¸<Êº\ ½¨ H ¯ s #Q
90
>. s â
Äº ½¨çßZ> &ñ
h
&ìr` ½¨ # 8 ^ &ñ
&hìr_Æ °ú̄` ½¨½+É º e.
Z 2
¹M
6 &ñ
&hìr 0
jx 1j dx _
Æ °ú̄` ½¨ #.
228 ℄j 6 ©
Êº<ü &hìr
<
(
Solution jx 1j = x1 x;1; x1

x1
sÙ¼
Z 2 Z 1 Z 2
jx 1j dx = (1 x) dx + (x 1) dx
0 0 1
= x 12 x + 12 x
h i h 1 i2
2 2
x
0 1
= 1 12 + 12 2 2 1 1i
h
2
2
= 21 + 21 = 1

¸y&hÜ¼ 5Åq <Êº_Æ &ñ
&hìrÉr ½¨çßZ> &hìr_Æ ½+ËÜ¼ &ñ
_ÆÇ. \V\ [þt#Q, ½¨çß
[a; ) \
"f 5Åq <Êº g(x) ü< ½¨çß ( ; b℄ \"f 5Åq <Êº h(x) \ / #
8
>
< g (x); x 2 [a; )
f (x) = h(x); x 2 ( ; b℄
f ( ); x=
>
:
. ÕªQ ½¨çß [a; b℄ \"f f (x) _Æ &ñ

&hìrÉr 6£§õ °ú s &ñ
_ÆÇ.
Z b Z Z b
f (x) dx = g (x) dx + h(x) dx
a a
sQÇ &ñ
_ÆH "î
ÑþÇ ~½ÓZOÜ¼ ¸y&hÜ¼ 5Åq <Êº\ / # SX©)a.
Z 1:5
¹M 7 <Êº g(x) = x [x℄ \ / # g (x) dx \ ½¨ #. #l"f [x℄
H x \ Åt

·ú§H þj/&ñ
º\ ·p. 1
Solution
Z 1:5 Z 0 Z 1 Z 1:5
g (x) dx = g (x) dx + g (x) dx + g (x) dx

1 1 0 1
= 2 12 + 18 = 98
s.
℄ 3 ℄X p&hìr_Æ l:r&ñ
o
j 229

ç
) (|¡è (2008Æ̧ ºr 5)
6£§_Æ FGÇ°ú̄Ér
s.
2
lim 1 XN
1:
N !1 ln N n
n
=1
230 ℄j 6 ©
Êº<ü &hìr
<
4â
V
Û
l
y ÿ? £
£
2℄
X\"f ª_Æ <Êº y = f (x) \ / #
Z b
f (x) dx
a
H ½¨çß [a; b℄ \f" /BG
_Æ ÕªAáÔü< x »¡¤ s %ò
%i_Æ V,se` ¤. s℄j ½¨çß [a; b℄ \f"

¿º /BG y = f (x) ü< y = g(x) s_Æ %ò
%i_Æ V,sH #QbG> ½¨½+É º eHt ·úl Ç
.
y
y f HxL
x
a b
y gHxL
¿º <ÊºH ¸¿º 5Åqs f (x) g(x) &ñ

Ç. 2 ℄X\"f Ç ¯ õ ðøÍt ½¨çß
[a; b℄ \
n 1pxìr # =åQ&hõ y ìr&h_Æ x ýa³ð\
ª
x (= a); x ; x ; : : : ; xn ; xn (= b)
0 1 2 1
s ÂÒìr½¨çßÆ_ U´s\

x = b n a
s . ½¨çß [xk 1 ; xk ℄ _Æ e_Æ_Æ &h xk \ / # oëß½+Ë
n
[f (xk ) g (xk )℄x
X
k=1
Ér ÅÒ#Q %ò
%i S _Æ V,s A _Æ H°ú̄s ÷&9 n s &t 8 a%~Ér H°ú̄` ½¨ # ïr.
y y
y f HxL
y f HxL
f Ixsk M - f Ixsk-1M
x x
a xk-1 xk b a b
y gHxL
Dx y gHxL
℄ 4 ℄X V,sü< 6£x x6
j 231

"f n ! 1 {9 M:, f; g 5Åq<Êºs s FGÇ°ú̄s >rF 9 Õª FGÇ°ú̄` ÅÒ#Q %ò
%i
ÆV
_ s &ñ
_ÆÇ.
,
n
lim [f (xk ) g (xk )℄x
X
A=
n!1
k=1
F
s GÇ°ú̄Ér &ñ
&hìrÜ¼ &ñ
_Æ÷&Ù¼ 6£§õ °ú Ér d` %3H.
ÆÁ ¯¤n> l+ Ûyl

f (x) g (x)
¿º 5Åq<Êº y = f (x); y = g(x) ü< ¿º ºf x = a; x = b ÑütQ

%
ò
% S _Æ V,sH
i bZ
A= (f (x) g (x)) dx
a

s .
¹M
1 ½¨çß [ 1; 1℄ \f" ¿º /BG
y = x 2 ü< y = x s_Æ V,s\ ½¨ #.
2
2
yx
x
-1 2
-1
y x2 - 2
Solution ÅÒ#Q ½¨çß\"f x x 2 sÙ¼ ½¨ H V,sH

2
Z 1 Z 1
(x (x2
2)) dx = (x x2 + 2) dx
1 1
= 1 x 1 x + 2x

2 3
1
2 3 1
= 2 (1 1) 13 (1 + 1) + 2(1 + 1) = 103
1
.
s
¿ /BGÜ¼ ÑütQ %ò
%i_Æ V
º s\ ½¨ l 0AK"fH Äº ¿º /BG_Æ §&h` ½¨ #
,
Ç

.
232 ℄j 6 ©
Êº<ü &hìr
<
¹M 2 6£§ ¿º /BG
Ü¼ ÑütQ ÂÒìr_Æ V,s\ ½¨ #.

f (x) = x2 ; g (x) = 4x x2
4 y 4 x - x2
y x2
x
-1 2
Solution ¿º /BGs ëßH x ýa³ð\ ½¨

x2 = 4x x2 ) 2x 2
4x = 0 ) x = 0; 2
s. s ½¨çß\"f
x2 4x x2
sÙ¼ ½¨ H V,sH

Z 2 Z 2
(4x x 2
x ) dx
2
= (4x 2x ) dx 2
0 0
= 2x 2x3
h i 3 2
2
0
= 8 163 = 38
s.
¿º <Êº_Æ /è'a>
½¨çß\ H â
ÄºH ½¨çß\ V,s\ ½¨ # ¸º¿ 8Ç
.
¹M 3 ¿º <Êº_Æ ÕªAáÔ f (x) = 2x 3
x+1 õ g(x) = x + 3x + 1 Ü¼ ÑütQ
3
ÂÒìr_Æ
V,s\ ½¨ #.
Solution ¿º /BGs ëßH &h_Æ x ýa³ð\ ½¨ .
f (x) g (x) = x3 4x = x(x 2)(x + 2) = 0
sÙ¼ x = 2; 0; 2 \ "f ¿º /BGÉr ëß, ¿º /BGÜ¼ ÑütQ %ò
%iÉr 6£§õ
°ú s ¿º >h
_Æ %ò
%i S ; S ìro
1 2 )a.
j 4 ℄X V,sü< 6£x x6
℄ 233
y
15
y 2 x3 - x + 1
S2
x
-2 S1 2
y x3 + 3 x + 1
-13
½ç
¨ [ 2; 0℄ \"fH f (x) g(x) s
ß ½¨çß [0; 2℄ \"fH f (x) g(x) sÙ¼ Si _Æ V,s Ai H
y

y 6£§õ °ú s ½¨½+É º e.

Z 0 Z 0
A1 = (f (x) g (x)) dx = (x
3
4x) dx
2 2
= ( 14 x 2x ) = 0 (4 8) = 4
0
4 2
2
Z 2 Z 2
A2 = (g(x) f (x)) dx = (4x x ) dx 3
0 0
= (2x 14 x ) = (8 4) 0 = 4
2
2 4
0

"f ¿º /BGÜ¼ ÑütQ %ò
i%_Æ V,sH
A1 + A2 = 8

s .
Note ½¨çßZ> ¿º <Êº_Æ /è'a> ²útH â
Äº, f (x) g(x) ½¨çß\"fH f (x)
\, f (x) g(x) ½¨çß\f"H g(x) f (x) = (f (x) g(x)) \ &hìrÇ. "f x&h
g (x)
r

ì ÊºH 6£§õ °ú s ℄X/°ú̄` s6 x # _Æ <Êº èq º e.
< (
f (x) g (x); f (x) g (x)
jf (x) g (x)j =
(f (x) g(x)); f (x) g (x)
ª
Õ QÙ¼ ½¨çß [a; b℄ \"f ¿º /BG
s_Æ V,sH 6£§õ °ú s ½¨½+É º e.
ÁÆ ¯¤n> l+ ÆZ℄+ Ûyl

º /BG y = f (x) ü< y = g(x) ü
¿ < x = a; x = b ÑütQ %ò
i%_Æ V,sH
Z b
jf (x) g (x)j dx
a

s .
234 j℄ 6 © Êº<ü &hìr
<
¹M 4 f (x) = x sin x _Æ %i<Êº\ y = g(x) . ½¨çß [0; ℄ \f" ¿º /BG y = f (x)
ü< y = g(x) ÑütQ %ò
%i_Æ V,s\ ½¨ #.
Solution ¿º /BGÉr y = x \ / # /gAs.
y
yx
y gHxL
y x - sinHxL
x
Π
ÕªQÙ¼ ½¨ H %ò
%
_Æ V,sH
i
Z Z
2 (x (x sin x)) dx = 2 sin x dx = 2( os x) = 4
0
0 0
s.
¹M 5 6£§ ÕªaË>%!3 1 ìr\"f /BG y = px A, x »¡¤õ y = x 2 0A\ eH %ò

%i
_Æ V,s\ ½¨ #.
y
2 y x
y x-2
x
2 4
-2
Solution ÒÅQ# %ò
%iÉr ½¨çß [0; 2℄ \"f_Æ %ò
%i S õp½¨çß [2; 4℄ \"f_Æ %ò
%i S ½¨ìr
½+É º e. %ò
%i S _Æ V,s A Ér ½¨çß [0; 2℄ \"f y = x ü< x »¡¤ s_Æ V,ssÙ¼
1 2
1 1
A1 =
Z 2
px dx =
1 x = 3 2
2
1 + 1=2 0
p 4p
0
2
= 3 2 2= 3 2
℄ 4 ℄X V,sü< 6£x x6
j 235

s . %ò
%i S _Æ V,s A H ½¨çß [2; 4℄ \"f y = px A, y = x 2 0A_Æ %ò
%i_Æ V,ssÙ¼

2 2
(px (x 2)) dx = ( 32 x = 12 x + 2x)

Z 4
=
4
A2 3 2 2
2
p
2
= 163 8 + 8 4 2 2 + 4

3
10 4 p
= 3 3 2

s . "f ½¨ H V,s A H
A = A1 + A2 =
4 p2 + 10 4 p2 = 10
3 3 3 3
.
s
y U 7ø5 \&P
<Êº\ èq M: ÄºoH {9ìøÍ& Ü¼ y = f (x) ³ðrÇ. sM:, x \ 1lqwnº
h

ºî̈
»¡¤\, y \ 7áxÅq5º ºf»¡¤\ ·p. ÕªQ x \ ½Ó© 1lqwnº çßÅÒ

K ½+É 9¹̄H \O. x \ y _Æ <Ê
º ÀÒH ¯ s 8 ¼#½+É M:\H y \ 1lqwnº çßÅÒK
¸
a. \V\ [þt#Q, l 5 _Æ â
Äº ÅÒ#Q %ò
%iÉr ¿º /BG x = y , x = y + 2 ü< y = 0; y = 2
) 2
Ñ
tQ %ò
%iÜ¼ èq º e
ü .

x
4
x y+2
2
x y2
y
-1 2
"f ÅÒ#Q %ò
%i_Æ V,sH
6£§õ °ú s ½¨½+É º¸ e.
[(y + 2) y ℄ dy = [ 21 y + 2y 13 y ℄
Z 2
=
2
A 2 2 3
0 0
= 2 + 4 83 = 103
¹M
6 [j /BG y = x4 ; y = x; y = 2 ÑütQ %ò
%i_Æ V,s\ ½¨ #.
2
236 ℄j 6 ©
Êº<ü &hìr
<
y x
4 4
x2 y
yx
2 x2 2
y x y
4
x y
-1 2 4 2 4
Solution
p ÒÅQ# V,s\ x \ /Ç &hìrÜ¼ ½¨ 9 ¿º %ò
%iÜ¼(0 x 2 õ 2 x
2 2)
¾º#Qf" ½¨K Ç. ÕªQ y \ /Ç &hìrÉr _Æ %ò
%iÜ¼ >íßs 0px . s
M:, ÅÒQ# %ò
%iÉr y _Æ ½¨çß [0; 2℄ \"f ¿º /BG
x= 4y; x=y
p
Ü¼ ÑütQ %ò
i%Ü
¼ èq º eÜ¼Ù¼ ½¨ H V,sH
= 23 14 (4y) = 1y i
Z 2 h
( 4y y ) dy
p 2
3 2 2
0
p 2 0
= 32 2
8
s.
ÒÏ¤n>(Pâø (Pâ
h
ºf 0A\ ¹¡§fs
H Óüt^ e` M: ry t \"f s Óüt^_Æ 5Åq¸ v(t), 0
Au\ s(t)
.
v (t) = s0 (t)
sÙ¼ Z
s(t) = v (t) dt
s. "f ry t \
"f ry t Æt 0Au_Æ oH
1 2
Z t2
s(t2 ) s(t1 ) = v (t) dt
t1
èq º e. ¢̧Ç s Óüt^ ¹¡§f oH
Z
d(t) = jv(t)j dt
Hd` ·ú º e.
¹M 7 ¿º 1lx °ú Ér t&h` Øµ1Ï # °ú Ér 3lq&ht\ ¾ÓK ²úo e.
6£§ ÕªAÔá
H ¿º 1lx _Æ 5Åq¸\
·p.

j 4 ℄X V,sü< 6£x x6
℄ 237
v
y v2HtL
6a
5a
y v1HtL
t
1 2 3 4 5 6
(a) 3 ì
r Êê #Q" ·ú¡"fH?
(b) ¿
º _Æ 0Au °ú tH ¯ r Y> ìr Êê? ¢̧, Õª sÊêH #Q" ·ú¡"fH?
É
Solution 5 Åq¸<Êº<ü t »¡¤ s_Æ V,s ¹¡§f os.
(a) 3ì
r1lxîß 'Í P: |¾ÓÆ_ s1lxoH
2:5a + 2 (5a) = 12:5a
s ¿º P: |¾Ó_Æ s1lxoH
1 3 (6a) = 9a
2
s. "f 3ìr Êê\H 'Í
P: |¾Ós ·ú¡"f e.

(b) t ì
r Êê i P: _Æ 0Au\ si (t)
( (
s (t) =
2:5at; 0t1 s (t) =
3at; 0t3
1
2:5a + 5a(t 1); t 1 2
3a + 6a(t 3); t 3
s $í
wnÇ. t ìr Êê °ú Ér 0
Au\ e
s (t) = s (t); )
5a + (5a)(t 1) = 9a + (6a)(t 3)
1 2
2
s $í
wnÇ. 3 ìrÆtH 'Í P: ·ú¡"fÙ¼ t 3 {9 M: t \ / # Û

t=
13
2
s. r ú́K"f 6ìr 30í Êê\ 0Au °ú t Õª sÊêH ¿º P: |¾Ós ·ú¡"fçß.

¹M
8 1lx Øµ1ÏÇt t í Êê_Æ 5Åq¸
f (t) = 20 p 20
1 + t (m=se )
Å
Ò#Q Ç. %6£§ 2 ìr 1lxîß s 1lx ¹¡§f o\ ½¨ #.
238 j℄ 6 ©
Êº<ü &hìr
<
Solution ¸H t 0 \ / # f (t) 0 sÙ¼ s â
Äº 2 ìr1lxîß ¹¡§f o
H

20 p120+ t dt = (20t 40p1 + t)
Z 120 120
0 0
= (2400 440) (0 40) = 2000

s. 7£¤, ½¨ H oH 2000m = 2km s.
ÁþÊÁ+ Ë^Æ!C
Ä»Ç >h_Æ º y ; y ; : : : ; yn _Æ î̈
çH y H 6£§õ °ú s &ñ
_ÆÇ.
1 2
y1 + y2 + + yn
y=
n
ªÕXO 5Åq ½¨çß\"f <Êº_Æ î̈
çHÉr #QbG> &ñ
_Æ½+ÉÆ? l 8 \"f %6£§ 2 ìr 1lxîß_Æ
î̈
çH5Åq¸(s â
ÄºH î̈

çH5Åq§4õ {9uÇ)H ¹¡§f o\ rçßÜ¼ èH ¯ s
. "f
1 Z 20 p120+ x dx = 2000
120
50
120 0 120 = 3 (m=se )
s.
ëß a x b \"f y = f (x) 0 s ÕªAáÔü< x »¡¤ s_Æ %ò
%i_Æ V,sH
Z b
A= f (x) dx
a
s. A H ¢̧Ç x9Æs (b a) s Z}s b A a fy+þA_Æ V,ssl¸ . #lf"
A
b a
` ½¨çß [a; b℄ \"f <Êº y = f (x) _Æ Ë^Æ!C(average)Ü¼ &ñ
_ÆÇ.
y f HxL
A
b-a
x
a b
{9ìøÍ&h 5Åq<Ê
º y = f (x) _Æ î̈
çH¸ °ú Ér ~½ÓZOÜ¼ &ñ
_ÆÇ.
j 4 ℄X V,sü< 6£x x6
℄ 239
þÁÊÁ+ Ë^Æ!C
5

q<Êº y = f (x) _Æ ½¨çß [a; b℄ \"f_Æ î̈
çHÉr
Å
=b1a
Z b
f f (x) dx
a

s .
¹M
9 ÀÒ 1lxîßÆ_ :r¸ 6
§õ °ú Ér <Êº ÅÒ#Q Ç.
£
8
t
20 6 sin 12
>
>
> ; 0t6
(t 6)
>
<
f (t) = 20 6 os
>
>
(t
9 15); 6 t 15
: 20 + 6 os
18 ; 15 t 24
>
>
±
s _Æ î̈
çH:r¸H \O?
ú
Solution :r¸_Æ ÕªAáÔ\ Õª9 6£§õ °ú .
C
26
t
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
14
½

y ¨çß\f" &ñ
_Æ)a <Êº\ &hìr # . ½¨çß [0; 6℄ \"fH
Z 6
t
sin 12 dt =
12 h os t i 6
0
2 12 0
= ( os 2 + os0) = 12
12
½¨çß [6; 15℄ \"fH

s
os t 9 6
Z 15 Z 9
os 9t

dt = dt
6 0
= 9 sin 9t
9
0
= 0
240 ℄j 6 ©
Êº<ü &hìr
<
s. t}Ü¼ ½¨ç
[15; 24℄ \"f
ß
Z 24
os

t 15 dt = Z os t dt 9
15 18 18
0
= 18 sin 18t

9
= 18 (sin 2 sin0) = 18

` %3H. s õ\ s6 x î̈
çHl:rÉr
1Z 24
f (t) dt = 20 + 241 ( 6 12 + 6 18 )
24 0
= 20 + 23 20:5
sÙ¼ s ±ú_Æ î̈
çHl:rÉr 20.5 ÆC s.
ÇaÆ\&P+ Ë^Æ!CG±êÇ
Æh
a
Z x
F (x) = f (t) dt y = F (x) H pìr0pxÇ <Êºs. "f î̈
çH°ú̄&ñ
o\ _Æ
a
F (b) F (a)
b a
= F 0( )
a ürFÇ. ÕªX< F 0 ( ) = f ( ) sÙ¼ s õH 6£§õ °ú s jþt º e
.
aÆÇ\&P+ Ë^Æ!CG±êÇ
Æh
a
5Åq<Êº y = f (x) \ / #
1 Z b
f (x) dx = f ( )
b a a
a ürFÇ.
Note s õ\ 5

q<Êº y = f (x) _Æ î̈
çH f ü<
Å
= f ( ) f
a ürF H ¯ ` ·ú º e.

V 7 *
×

\&P+ eßø ££
V 1 â

n
»É
. &
\
P
&
p ìr_Æ l:r&ñ
o\f" ^ º e1
h ws &ñ
&hìr` ½¨ l 0AK"fH ÂÒ&ñ
&hìr` ½¨ H ¯ s 9
p
&
º s. pìrõ &hìrÉr %i6 xÜ¼ sK½+É º eÜ¼Ù¼ ¸H pìrZOgË:\H /6£x÷&H &hìr
h
g
O
Z :s e. \V\ [þt#Q, n».É\&Pß(
Ë integration by substitution)
Ér pìr_Æ WZOgË:\
/6
x H ~½ÓZOs. YL_Æ pìr\
£ /6£x H &hìrZOÉr ÉÙ&P\&Pß( )s

integration by parts

ÔǑ2;.
ÇaÆ\&P+ n».É\&Pß
Z b
s℄j &ñ
&hìr a f (g(x))g0 (x) dx \ ½¨ H ~½ÓZO` ·úl . F (u) f (u) _Æ Ç
Ò&
Â
&hìrs ÂÒ&ñ
h&ìr_Æ u8̈&
ñ ìrZO\ _Æ u = g(x) {9 M:,
h
Z Z
f g x g 0 x dx
( ( )) ( ) = ( ) = F (u) = F (g(x))
f u du

s. f"
Z b
f g x g 0 x dx
( ( )) ( ) = ( ( ))
F g b ( ( ))
F g a
a
Z g(b)
= ()
f u du
g(a)
%

` H.
3
241
242 ℄j 7 © &hìr_Æ l
ZOõ 6£x x6
aÆÇ\&P+ n».É\&
ß
P
½¨çß (a; b) \"f g0 s 5Åqs f u = g(x) _Æ u%i\"f 5Åqs 6£§ ds $í
wnÇ.
Z b Z g(b)
f g x g 0 x dx
( ( )) ( ) = ()
f u du
a g(a)
¹M 1 (6© 1℄X)

l 6 _Æ õ\ s6 x # 6£§ &ñ
&hìr` ½¨ #.
(a)
Z 2
p
x x 1 dx ( )
Z e log x dx
1 1 x
px
(b)
Z 2=
1 sin 1 dx (d)
Z 4
e
px dx
1= x 2 x 1
Solution
(a) u = g(x) = x 1 s
g(1) = 0; g(2) = 1 s. "f
p
(u + 1)pu du
Z 2 Z 1
x x 1 dx =
1 0
Z 1
= + u = du u3=2 1 2
= 25 u = + 23 u =
1
5 2 3 2
0
= 25 + 32 = 16
15
` %3H.
(b) u = g(x) = x1 s
g( 1 ) = ; g( 2 ) = 2 sÙ¼
Z 2=
1 sin 1 dx = Z =2
sin u du
1= x2 x
=2
= os u = os 2 os = 1
` %3H.
( ) u = g(x) = log x
Z~Ü¼ g(1) = 0; g(e) = 1 s. "f
Z e
log x dx = Z u du 1
1 x 0
= 12 u = 21
1
2
0
s.
j 1 ℄X u8̈&hìr
℄ 243
(d) u = g(x) = px
Z~Ü¼ g(1) = 1; g(4) = 2 s. "f
p
Z 4
e x
p dx
1 Z
= 2 eu du
2
1 x 1
= 12 eu = 12 (e

)
2
2
e
1
s.
7bÆÁþÊÁ+ \&P
h&ìr½¨çßs "é¶&h\ / # /gA â
Äº 7£¤, &hìr½¨çßs [ a; a℄ â
Äº x&hìr<Êº_Æ /
A$
g
` s6 x &ñ
&hìr` çßßéy ½¨½+É º e. 5Åq<Êº f \ / # &ñ
&hìr_Æ $í
|9`
í
x

6
Z a Z 0 Z a
()
f x dx = () +
f x dx ()
f x dx
a a 0
Z a Z a
= () +
f x dx ()
f x dx
0 0

s. t} d_Æ 'Í P: &ñ
h&ìr\"f u = x u8̈ du = dx s x = a {9 M:
u=a )a. "f
Z a Z a
()
f x dx = f ( u)( du )
0 0
Z a
= f ( u) du
0
$

wnÇ. y = f (x) Äº<Êºs 7£¤,
í
f ( u) = f (u)

s
R
0
a
f ( u) du = R a f (u) du s
0
Ù¼
Z a Z a
( ) =2
f x dx ()
f x dx
a 0

s. ìøÍ\ y = f (x) l<Êºs 7£¤,
f ( x) = f x ()

s
R
0
a
f ( u) du = Ra
0
()
f u du Ù¼
s
Z a Z a Z a
() =
f x dx () +
f u du ( ) =0
f x dx
a 0 0

s.
244 ℄j 7 © &hìr_Æ l
ZOõ 6£x x6
y y
A
x
-A
A A
7bÆÁþÊÁ+ ÇaÆ\&

P
½¨çß [ a; a℄ \"f 5Åq <Êº f \ / #
a Z Z a
f Ä º<Êºs(f ( x) = f (x)), a f (x) dx = 2 ()
f x dx
0
Z a
f l<Êºs
(f ( x) = f (x)), a
( ) =0
f x dx
¹M 2 6£§ &ñ

&hìr` ½¨ #.
(a)
Z 2
(x + x + x + x + x + 1) dx
5 4 3 2
(b)
Z 1
sin x
2 1 1+x 2
dx
Solution (a) y = xn
Ér n s f.Ëºs l<Êº, ºs Äº<ÊºsÙ¼
Z 2 Z 2
(x + x + x + x + x + 1) dx = 2 (x + x + 1) dx
5 4 3 2 4 2
2 0
= 25 2 + 32 2 + 2 2 5 3
= 332
15
` %3H.
(b) f (x) = 1sin
+x
x
2
f H ¸H z´º\ / # 5Åqs
f ( x) = 1sin( x)
+ ( x) = sin x
1+x 2 2
sÙ¼ f H l<Êºs

. "f Z 1
sin x =0
1 1+x 2
dx
℄ 1 ℄X u8̈&hìr
j 245

s .
ºÇÔḈ
ÁþÊÁÿ? \&P
y<Êº_Æ ìøÍy/BNdÉr Cy/BNdÜ¼ÂÒ' ~1> %3` º e.
sin x = 1 os2
2 x 1 + os2x
2 ; os x = 2
2
s/
NdÉr y<Êº_Æ &hìr\"f ×
B æ¹̄Ç %i½+É` Ù¼ l%3K ¿ºH ¯ s a%~.

¹M
3 6£§ °ú̄` ½¨ #. Z =4 p
1 os2x dx
Ù¼ p1 os2x = p2j sin xj s. "f
0
Solution 1 os2x = 2 sin 2

x s
Z =4 p p Z =4
1 os2x dx = 2 sin x dx
0 0
p h i=4
= os x2
p p p
0
= 2( 22 + 1) = 2 1
.
s

ç
) (|¡è (2007Æ̧ ºr 3)
Z
1 + sin x .
s
1 + os x dx =
2
os 3
sin x os x ü< °ú Ér
x 2 2
y<Êº_Æ d_Æ ÂÒ&ñ
&hìrÉr y<Êº_Æ ½Ó1pxd` &h

y
X
℄ s6 x # ½¨Ç. © ÅÒ æ¼sH ½Ó1pxdÉr
os x + sin x = 1
2 2

s . s d` s6 x ï<Ê
º\ <Êº Ë̈#Q jþt º e. ¢̧Ç
( os x)0 = sin x; (sin x)0 = os x
e\

Ä»_Æ # &h℄XÇ u8̈ZOgË:s
Áº%Á t ¹1Ô·p.
¹M
4 6£§ ÂÒ&ñ
h&ìr` ½¨ #.
Z Z
(a) os 3
x dx (b) sin x os
3 2
x dx
Solution
246 ℄j 7 © &hìr_Æ l
ZOõ 6£x x6
(a) os x = (1 sin x) os x s
3
Ù¼ sin x = t u8̈ . os xdx = dt sÙ¼
2
) = t 13 t + C
Z Z
os 3
x dx = (1 t2 dt 3
= sin x 1 sin x + C
3
3
s.
(b) os x = t
u8̈ sin xdx = dt s. "f
Z Z
sin x os
3 2
x dx = ( sin x) os x( sin x)dx
2 2
= (t 2
1)t 2
dt
= 1t 1t + C
5 3
5 3
= 1 os x 1 os x + C
5 3
5 3
s.
l 4 _Æ â
Äº%! s ï_Æ º ¸ f.Ëº â
Äº u8̈ZOgË:\ _Æ #
3
ÂÒ&ñ
&hìr` ½Ó© ½¨½+É º e. ÕªQ º ¸¿º º â
Äº\H u8̈\ _Æ # ÂÒ&ñ
&hìr` ½¨ H ¯ s #Q90>. s â

ÄºH y<Êº_Æ ìøÍy/BNd` s6 x # º\ ±úðr
Êê ½¨Ç.
¹M 5 6£§ ÂÒ&ñ
&hìr` ½¨ #.
Z Z
(a) os 2
x dx (b) sin x os
2 2
x dx
Solution
(a) os x = 1 + os2
2
2 s
x
Ù¼
Z
os 2
x dx = 1 + os2x dx
Z
2
1 1
= 2 x + 4 sin 2x + C
` %3H.
(b) ì øÍy/BNd` ìøÍ4¤K"f s6 x
Z
sin x os
2 2
x dx = 1 os2x 1 + os2x dx
Z
2 2
= 1 os 2x dx
Z 2
4
= 14 14 1 + os4
Z
x
2 dx
= 18 x 321 sin 4x + C
j 1 ℄X u8̈&hìr
℄ 247
ÈÁh
ÁþÊÁ+ \&P
y<Êº u8̈` s6 x

p p p
a2 x2 ; +x x2 a2 ; a2 2
x_
p
1 Æ Áºo<Êº\ í<Ê H ÂÒ&ñ
&
ìr` ½¨ H ¯ s 0px . sQÇ <Êº[þt_Æ ÂÒ&ñ
&hìr`
h
¨
½ l 0AK"fH ℄jYLH A_Æ d

a2 x2 ; x2 a2 ; a2 +x 2
℄

` jYLdÜ¼ ëß[þt#Q HX< s
H y<Êº_Æ ½Ó1pxd
sin x + os x = 1
2 2

õ ` os x ¾º#Q %3H d
ª 2

tan x + 1 = se
2 2
x
s

` 6 x 0px . 7£¤,
x = a sin
u8̈
a2 x2 =a 2
a2 sin = a (1 sin ) = a os
2 2 2 2 2

x = a se
u8̈
x2 a2 = a se
2 2
a2 = a (se 2 2
1) = a tan
2 2

x = a tan
u8̈
a2 + x = a + a tan = a (1 + tan ) = a se
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

s÷
&Ù¼ ℄jYLH` ℄j½+É º e.
¹M
6 6£§ ds $í
wn<Ê` #
.
p 1 1
Z Z
(a) 1 x2
dx = ar sin x + C (b) 1+x 2
dx = ar tan x + C
Solution
(a) ℄
jYLH A ℄jYLs ÷&¸2
¤

x = sin ( 2 < < 2 )
u8̈ dx = os d s
p p
1 x2 = 1 sin = os 2
248 ℄j 7 © &hìr_Æ l
ZOõ 6£x x6
s. "f
p 1 1 os d
Z Z
1 x2
dx = os
Z
= 1 d
= + C = ar sin x + C
\ %3H.
(b) x = tan ( 2 < < 2 )
u8̈ dx = se d s 2
1 + x = 1 + tan = se 2 2 2
sÙ¼
Z
1 =
Z
1 se d 2
1+x 2
dx
Z
se 2
= 1 d
= + C = ar tan x + C
\ %3H.
0A l_Æ õH pìr` s6 x # ?/ 6£§õ °ú .
℄ºÇÔḈÁ
þÊÁ+ ¿Á
ÊÁ
þ
p 1 1
Z
= ar sin
dx x + C , (ar sin x)0 = p
1 x2 1 x 2
Z
1 dx = ar tan x + C , (ar tan x)0 = 1
1+x 2 1+x 2
¹M 7 6£§ ÂÒ&ñ

&hìr` ½¨ #.
p 1
Z Z
(a) p x2
dx (b) 4+x dx
4 x2 2
Solution
(a) x = 2 sin ; 2 < < 2

u8̈ dx = 2 os d s
4 x = 4 4 sin = 4 os 2 2 2
j 1 ℄X u8̈&hìr
℄ 249
s. f"
Z
px
2
dx =
Z
8 sin os d
2
4 x2
Z
2 os
= 4 sin d 2
4 1 os2
Z
= 2 d

= 2 sin 2 + C
= 2 2 sin os + C
s. sinp = x=2 sÙ¼ ± s 2s Z}s x fyy+þA` ÒqtyK x9Æ_Æ
U´sH 4 x s )a.
2
θ
1
_
O
(4 _ x2) 2
ÕªQÙ¼ p p
os = 1 sin = 4 2
x2 = 2
` %3H. = ar sin x sÙ¼
2
p
Z
p x2
dx = 2 ar sin 2x x 4 x2
+C
4 x2 2
s.
(b) x = 2 tan ( 2 < < 2 )
u8̈ dx = 2 se d s 2
4 + x = 4 + 4 tan = 4 se
2 2 2
s. "f
Z
p 1 dx =
Z
2 se d 2
4+x Z
2 se
2
= se d
= log j se + tan j + C
s. tanp = x s¼Ù x9Æs 2 s Z}s x fyy+þA` ÒqtyK ± _Æ

U´sH 4 + x s.
2
2
250 ℄j 7 © &hìr_Æ l
ZOõ 6£x x6
1
_
(4 + x2) 2
θ
O 2
f" p
se = 4 2+ x
2
s
p
p 1 = log 4 2+ x + x2 + C
Z 2

dx
4+x 2
p

= log( 4 + x + x) + C 2
s.
¹M 8 6£§ dÜ¼ ÅÒ#Q "é¶_Æ V,s\ ½¨ #. éß, a > 0; b > 0 s.
x2 2
a2
+ yb = 1
2
Solution ÅÒ#Q " ¶Ér x »¡¤õ y »¡¤\ / # /gAsÙ¼ "é¶_Æ V,sH 1ìr\ eH
é
%ò
%i_Æ V,s\ 4 C Ç ¯ õ °ú .
b
y 0{
9 M: 1 ì
r\"f "é¶_Æ ~½Ó&ñ
d` y \ / # Û#Q æ¼

p
y = ab a2 x2 ; 0xa
s. "f "é¶_Æ V,sH Z a bp
A =4 a2 x2 dx
0 a
℄ 1 ℄X u8̈&hìr
j 251
j
t º e. x = a sin u8̈
þ x = 0 {9 M: = 0; x = a {9 M: = 2 s. ¢̧Ç,
dx = a os d
¼Ù
s
Z =2
A = 4 ab a os a os d
0
Z =2
= 4ab os d 2
= 4ab
Z =
1 + os2 d
2
0 2
h
= 2ab + 2sin 2 i= 2
0
= ab
%

` H. :£¤y a = b = r s ìøÍt2£§s r "é¶_Æ V,sH r e` ·ú º e.
3 2

252 ℄j 7 © &hìr_Æ l
ZOõ 6£x x6
2â
V
É
Ù&\&
P ß
P

pìr0pxÇ ¿º <Êº f (x); g(x) \ / # ¿º <Êº_Æ YL\ /Ç pìrÉr
[f (x)g(x)℄0 = f 0(x)g(x) + f (x)g0(x)
Ü¼ ÅÒ#Q.
ÉÙ&P\&Pß
ª` ÂÒ&ñ
&hìr`
s6 x # ?/

Z
( ) ( ) = [f 0(x)g(x) + f (x)g0(x)℄ dx
f x g x
s )a. "f 6£§õ

°ú Ér 'a>d` %3H.
Z Z
f x g 0 x dx
( ) ( ) = f (x)g(x) f 0 x g x dx
()()
s /BNd\ _ÆÇ &hìrZ
` ÉÙ&P\&Pß(
O integration by parts )s
Ç.
ÉÙ&P\&Pß Z Z
f (x)g 0 (x) dx = f (x)g (x) f 0 x g x dx

()()
Note ÂÒìr&hìrZOÉr 6£§ +þAI Ë̈#Q æ¼ l%3 l 8 a%~.

u = f (x); v = g(x)
Z~Ü¼
du = f 0(x) dx; dv = g0(x) dx
s. "f u8̈&hìrZO\ _Æ ÂÒìr&hìrZOÉr 6£§õ °ú s jþt º e.
Z Z
u dv = uv v du
¹M 1 6£§ ÂÒ&ñ

&hìr` ½¨ #.
Z Z Z
(a) x sin x dx (b) xex dx ( ) x log x dx

Solution
(a) u = x; dv = sin x dx

du = dx; v = os x
j 2 ℄X ÂÒìr&hìrZO
℄ 253
s. f" ÂÒìr&hìrZO\ _
Æ
Z Z
x sin x dx = x ( os x) ( os x) dx
Z
= x os x + os x dx
= x os x + sin x + C
(b) u = x; dv = ex dx
du = dx; v = ex s. "f ÂÒìr&hìrZO\ _Æ
Z Z
xex dx =
x ex ex dx
= xex ex +C
du = x1 dx; v = 12 x
( ) u = log x; dv = xdx 2
s. "f ÂÒìr&hìrZO\ _Æ
Z
x log x dx 1
= 2 x (log x)
2
Z
1 x 1 dx 2
2 x
1
= 2 x log x
2
Z
1
2 x dx
= 12 x log x 14 x + C
2 2

ç
) (|¡è (2007Æ̧ &ñ
r 4)
n
lim lim m
m!1 n!1 n 2
X m
ke n k = s.
k=1

ç
) (|¡è (2006Æ̧ ºr 2)
os px dx =
Z 1
0
s.
Note ÂÒìr&hìrZOÉr ¿º <Êº_Æ Y
L` &hìr½+É M: Ä»6 xÇ ~½ÓZOs. ÕªQ _Æ <Êº¸ ¿º

Ê
<
º_Æ YLÜ¼ Òqty+É½ º e. 7£¤,
( ) = 1 f (x) = (x)0 f (x)
f x
Z~Ü¼ _Æ <Êº_Æ ÂÒ&ñ

&hì
r¸ ÂÒìr&hìrZO` s6 x # ½¨½+É º e.

¹M
2 6£§ &hìr` ½¨ #.
Z Z
(a) log x dx (b) ar tan x dx
Solution
254 j℄ 7 © &hìr_Æ l
ZOõ 6£x x6
(a) log x = (x)0 log x
Òqty u = log x; dv = dx Z~Ü¼
Z Z
log x dx = u dv
x1 dx
Z Z
= uv v du = x log x x
= x log x x +C
\ %3H.
(b) (ar tan x)0 = 1 +1 x 2
e` l%3 . u = ar tan x; dv = dx Z~Ü¼
Z Z
ar tan x dx = u dv
= x ar tan x x 1 +1 x
Z Z
= uv v du 2
dx
= ar tan x 1
2 log(1 + x ) + C
2
x
\ %3H.
ç) (|¡è (2008Æ̧

&ñ
r 5)
FGÇ°ú̄ h i
lim ln fn(n + 1) (n + n)g n1 ln n
n!1
Ér s.
ç) (|¡è (2006Æ̧ &ñ

r 8)
¿º /BG y = xp ; y = ln x ℄X ¸2¤ H ©º \ ½¨ , sM: ℄X&h_Æ ý
a³ð x9 ¿º /BG
õ x »¡¤Ü¼ ÑütQ %ò
%i_Æ V,s\ ½¨ . (éß, p > 0)

)ç (|¡è (2009Æ̧

ºr 4)
Z A
lim
A!1
x2 e x dx = .
0
º¿ <Êº_Æ YL` &hìr HX< Ç <Êº x _Æ ½Óds ÂÒìr&hìrZO\ _Æ # º

m ?/9çß. "f ÂÒìr&hìr` ìøÍ4¤ ²DG Ç <Êº_Æ &hìr g1J` >íß ÷&H +þAI

\ %3> )a. ÕªQ ¿º <Êº ¸¿º ½Óds m ÂÒìr&hìrZO` 6 x #¸ x&hìr<Êº
8 éßíHÇ +þAI 7 t ·ú§H. ÕªQ x&hìr<Êº tº<Êº y<Êº_ Æ +þAIs
ÂÒìr&hìr` ìøÍ4¤ °ú Ér +þAI_Æ x&hìr<Êº\ %3> ÷&#Q ÂÒ&ñ
&hìr` ½¨½+É º e.
j 2 ℄X ÂÒìr&hìrZO
℄ 255
Z
¹M
3 ex sin x dx \
½¨ #
.
Solution ex sin x H ¸¿º pìr\ _Æ # 8 çßéßÇ +þAI 7 t ·ú§H. ÕªQ Äº
= ex; dv = sin x dx u
u8̈ . ÕªQ du = ex dx; v = os x s ÂÒìr&hìrZO\ _Æ #

Z Z
ex sin x dx = ex ( os x) ex ( os x) dx (7.1)
%3H. ¸ǑÉrAá¤ ÂÒ&ñ
&hìr` ½¨

\ l 0A # r
= ex; dv = os x dx
u
u8̈ . ÕªQ du = ex dx; v = sin x s

Z Z
ex os x dx = sin x ex ex sin x dx
%3H. s d` d (7.1) \ /{9

\
Z Z
ex sin x dx = ex os x + sin x ex ex sin x dx

s . s d` &ñ
o
sin x dx = 12 ex(sin x os x) + C
Z
ex

s .
Note 0A l\"f u = sin x; dv = ex dx Z~ Û#Q¸ °ú Ér õ\ %3H.
¹M
4 6£§ &hìr` ½¨ #. Z
se 3
x dx
Solution u = se x; dv = se 2
xdx s
du = tan x se xdx; v = tan x
Ù
s ¼
Z Z
I = se 3
x dx = se x se 2
x dx
Z
= se x tan x (tan x se x) tan x dx

Z
= se x tan x tan x se x dx
2

s . t} d_Æ x&hìr<ÊºH
tan x = se
2 2
x 1
256 ℄j 7 © &hìr_Æ l
ZOõ 6£x x6
\"f
Z Z
tan x se x dx =
2
(se 2
x 1) se x dx
Z Z
= se x dx se x dx
3
= I log j se x + tan xj + C
÷&H ¯ ` ·ú º e. "f
I = 12 [tan x se x + log j se x + tan xj℄ + C
` %3H.
0A_Æ l\ ¸ H &hìrÉr ÅÒ 4¤ú̧Ç +þAI\ °ú etëß _Æü /BG_Æ U´s 1px` ½¨

½+É M: ÅÒ 1px© H <Êºs.
¹M 5 ©/BG
x2 y2 =1
õ f x = 2 ÑütQ ÂÒìr_Æ V,s\ ½¨ #.
Solution ÅÒQ# %ò
i%Ér 1 x 2 {9 M: ¿º /BG
p p
y = x2 1; y = x2 1
s_Æ V,ss.
"f
Z 2 Z 2
p p p
[ x2 1 ( x2 1)℄ dx = 2 x2 1 dx
1 1
` ½¨ )a. x = se u8̈

x = 1 ) = 0; x = 2 ) = 3
s
x2 1 = se 2
1 = tan 2
; dx = se tan d
s. ÕªQÙ¼
Z 2
p
Z
1 dx = tan se tan d
3
x2
1 0
Z
= (se se )d
3
3

0
= 1 [tan x se x + log j se x + tan xj℄ log j se x + tan xj=

3
2 0

1
= 2 [tan x se x log j se x + tan xj℄
= 3
p p
0
= 3 12 log(2 + 3)
℄ 2 ℄X ÂÒìr&hìrZO
j 257
%

` H. "f ÅÒQ# %ò
i%_Æ V
3 sH
,
p p
2( 3 21 log(2 + 3)) 2:15

s .
)

ç (|¡è (2009Æ̧ &ñ
r 10)
a³ðî̈

ý \"f ×æd_Æ ýa³ð (0; t) "é¶s ©/BG
x2 y2 =1
℄X½+É M:, "é¶_Æ ìøÍt2£§ r(t) \ ½
\ ¨ &hìr
Z p2
()
r t dt
0
Æ°
_ ú̄` ½¨ r¸.
ÇaÆ\&P+ ÉÙ&P\&Pß
Z
( ) ( ) = [f 0(x)g(x) + f (x)g0 (x)℄ dx s

f x g x Ù¼ p&hìr_Æ l:r&ñ
o\ &h6 x
b Z b
[f 0(x)g(x) + f (x)g0(x)℄ dx
( ) ( )a =
f x g x
a

s. f" &ñ
&hìr_Æ ÂÒìr&hìrZ
Ér 6£§õ °ú s jþt º e.
O
ÇaÆ\&P+ ÉÙ&P\&Pß
Z b b Z b
f x g 0 x dx
( ) ( ) = f (x)g(x)a f 0 x g x dx
()()
a a
¹M
6 6£§ &ñ
&hìr_Æ °ú̄` ½¨
#.
Z Z =2
(a) x sin x dx (b) e2x sin x dx
0 0
Solution
(a)
l 1 _Æ õ\ s6 x
Z Z
x sin x dx = x os x + os x dx
0 0 0

= ( )( 1) + sin x = 0

258 ℄j 7 © &hìr_Æ l
ZOõ 6£x x6
\ %3H.
(b) u = e x; dv = sin x dx
2
Z~Ü¼
du = 2e x dx; 2
v = os x
s. "f ÂÒìr&hìrZO\ _Æ #

Z =2 =2 Z =2
e2x sin x dx = e2x ( os x) 0
2e x( os x) dx
2
0 0
Z =2
= 1+2 e2x os x dx
0
` %3H. t}

&ñ
&hìr\ r ÂÒìr&hìrZO` &h6 x

Z =2 =2 Z =2
e2x
os x dx = e2x
(sin x)

0
2e x(sin x) dx
2
0 0
Z =2
= e 2 e2x sin x dx
0
Z =2
\ %3H. A = 0
e2x sin x dx
0A_Æ ¿º dÜ¼ÂÒ'
Z =2
A = 1+2 e x os x dx 2
0
= 1 + 2e 4A
s $í
wn<Ê` ·ú
º e. "f
sin x dx = 15 (1 + 2e )
Z =2
A = e2x
0
s.
ç) (|¡è (2009Æ̧ &ñ

r ëH℄j 5)
z´º ^ |9½+Ë\"f &ñ
_Æ)a <Êº f (x) ¿º pìr 0px ¢̧Ç f 00(x)
5Åqs

&ñ
. f (0) = f 0(0) = 1 s $í
wn , ¸H x\ /K"f f (x) + f (1 x) = 0 s $í
wn , &h
ìr (1 x) f 00(x) dx _Æ °ú̄Ér
R1
0
2
s.
Note 0A l (b) _ Æ ~½ÓZO` s6 x 6£§õ °ú s {9ìøÍo)a ÂÒ&ñ
&hìr` ½¨½+É º e. Õª
7£x"î
Ér _þvëH℄j z|.
Z
eax
eax sin bx dx = a2 b2 + ( sin bx b os bx) + C
a (7.2)
Z
eax
eax os bx dx = a2 b2+ ( os bx + b sin bx) + C
a (7.3)
j 3 ℄X :£¤s&hìr
℄ 259
V 3 â

§
´l

&
\
P
bF
t
Z
KÆt ÄºoH ËÂø5ø5 ¶ÇÒð> Ä©ë5Ñ [a; b℄ \"f &ñ
_Æ)a ¥o>¢4́ê> ÁþÊÁ f \ / # &ñ
&hìr
f (x)dx `
&ñ
_Æ %i. s ℄X\"fH ¿º t ¸| ×æ\"f &h#Q¸ $í
wn t ·ú§
H â
Äº_Æ &ñ
&hìr` &ñ
_ÆÇ. sQÇ â
Äº_Æ &ñ
&hìr` §´l\&P(

a
)s
improper integral
ÒǑ
Â r.
É
ÈÁø
Ä©ë5ÑU " ÇaÆ+ÛÖS §´l
5 &P
\
1
ìr\"f /BG y = e x A eH %ò
%i` ÒqtyK .
1.5
0.5
–0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

x
s %ò
%i_Æ V,sH ½¨çß [0; 1) \f" &ñ
_Æ)a &ñ
&hìr_Æ °ú̄Ü¼ sK½+É º e. e_Æ_Æ ªº t

\ / # ½¨çß [0; t℄ \f"_Æ V,s\ A(t) . ÕªQ &ñ
&hìr_Æ &ñ
_Æ\ _Æ #
Z t t
()=
A t e x dx = e x

0
=1 e t
0

s . t ! 1 {9 M:, A(t) _Æ °ú̄Ér 1 º§4Ç. "f ± FK2; ÂÒìr_Æ V,sH 1 s ½+É
e
º .

Z t
{ìøÍ&hÜ¼ ÁºÇ ½¨çß [a; 1) \"f &ñ
_Æ)a 5Åq<Êº f \ / # tlim

9 !1 a
()
f x dx >rF
Z1

a f (x) dx ` 6£§õ °ú s &ñ
_ÆÇ.

Z 1 Z t
( ) = tlim
f x dx
!1 ()
f x dx
a a
Z 1
s FGÇ°ú̄s >rF½+É M: :£¤s&hìr a
()
f x dx H ÊÁ℄ø5( )
ú́Ç. FGÇ°ú̄
onverge
a Z
>rF t ·ú§` M:H L±Óñ5Ñ5ø(

s diverge )
Ç. :£¤s&hìr 1 f (x) dx ¸ q5pwÇ ~½ÓZOÜ¼
&

_ÆÇ.
ñ
260 ℄j 7 © &hìr_Æ l
ZOõ 6£x x6
ÈÁø5Ä©ë5ÑU "+ § ´l\&P

Z 1
Á ºÇ½¨çß [a; 1) \"f &ñ
_Æ)a 5Åq<Êº f \ / # :£¤s&hìr ()
f x dx H 6£§
õ °ú s &ñ
_ÆÇ. 1 Z t Z
a
( ) = tlim
f x dx
!1 ()
f x dx
a a
Z b
ºÁÇ½¨çß ( 1; b℄ \"f &ñ
_Æ)a 5Åq<Êº f \ / # :£¤s&hìr 1
()
f x dx H
6£§õ °ú s &ñ
_ÆÇ. b Z b Z
( ) = t!lim1
f x dx ()
f x dx
1 t
Z 1 Z b
A0_Æ ¿º FGÇ°ú̄s >rF½+É M:, :£¤s&hìr a f (x) dx õ 1 f (x) dx H Ê
Á℄ø5
Ç. º§4 t ·ú§H â
ÄºH L±Óñ5Ñø5 Ç.
a 1 Z Z
e _Æ_Æ &h a \ / # :£¤s&hìr 1 f (x) dx ü< a f (x) dx º§4½+É M:,

Z 1
f (x) dx \
6£§õ °ú s &ñ
_ÆÇ.
1
Z 1 Z a Z 1
() =
f x dx () +
f x dx ()
f x dx
1 1 a
Z 1 log x
¹M 1 :£¤s&hìr 1
º§4 Ht óøÍéß º§4Ç &hìr°ú̄` ½
x2
dx ¨ #.
Solution u = log x
u8̈ du = dxx s. ¢̧Ç x = eu sÙ¼
Z t log x dx = Z log t
u
du =
Z log t
ue u du
1 x2
0 eu 0
` %3H. ÂÒìr&hìr`

Z
s6 x
Z Z
ue u du = ue u ( ) =
e u du ue u + e u du
= ue u e u +C
s. "f
Z log t h ilog t
ue u du = ue u e u
0
0
= (log t)e t log

e log t
+1
= log t 1 + 1
t t
s s °ú̄Ér t ! 1 {9 M: 1 º§4Ç. "f 6£§ õ\ %3H.
Z 1 log x Z t log x dx = 1
x2
dx = tlim
!1 x2

1 1
j 3 ℄X :£¤s&hìr
℄ 261
¹M
2 6£§ :£¤s&hìr_Æ °ú̄` ½
¨ #.
Z 0 Z 1
(a) xex dx (b) 2
xe x dx
1 1
Solution (a) u = x; v0 = ex s
. ÕªQ u0 = 1; v = ex sÙ¼ ÂÒìr&hìrZO` 6 x

Z 0 0 Z 0
xex dx = xext ex dx = tet 1 + et

t t
%3H. t!lim1 et = 0 s x»1Ï_Æ &ñ
o\ _Æ #

\
t!
lim1 tet = t!lim1 e t t = t!lim1 e1 t = 0
%

` H. ÕªQÙ¼ :£¤s&hìr_Æ &ñ
_Æ\ _Æ #
3
Z 0
xex dx = t!lim1( tet 1 + et) = 1

1
%

` H.
3
Z 1
(b) f (x) = xe x
2
s f H l<Êºs. ÕªQÙ¼ f (x) dx º§4Ç ÅÒ#Q
1 Z 0
:

¤s&hìr_Æ °ú̄Ér 0 s. s℄j f (x) dx s º§4 Ht ¶ú(R. x = u u8̈
£ 2
2xdx = du s Ù¼ 0
Z t 2
xe x dx =
Z t2 1 u du
0 0 2e
1e = u
t2
= 12 1

e t
2

2 0

s s °ú̄Ér t ! 1 {9 M: 12 º§4Ç. 7£¤,
1
( ) = 12
Z
f x dx
0

s ½¨ H :£¤s&hìr_Æ °ú̄Ér 0 s )a.
¹M
3 6£§ :£¤s&hìrs º§4 H p _Æ #30A\ ½¨ #.
Z 1 1
dx
1 xp
Solution p =1{
9 M: Z t 1 dx = h log xit = log t ! 1
1 x 1
262 ℄j 7 © &hìr_Æ l
ZOõ 6£x x6
sÙ¼ :£¤s&hìrÉr µ1ÏíßÇ. p 6= 1 s
Z t 1 dx = Z
= 1 1 px
t
x p dx
h
1 p
it
1 xp 1 1
= 1 1 p (t p 1) 1
s. p > 1 s 1 p< 0sÙ¼ t ! 1 {9 M: t p ! 0 s. ÕªQÙ¼ 1
Z 1
1 dx = lim Z t 1 dx = 1 ; p > 1
1xp t!1 xp p 1 1
s. ìøÍ p < 1 s t ! 1 {9 M: t ! 1 sÙ¼ :£¤s&hìrÉr µ1ÏíßÇ. "f ÅÒ#Q
1 p
:£¤s&hìrs º§4 H p _Æ #30AH p > 1 s.
·¥o>¢4́ÁþÊÁ+ §´l
\&P
£¤:s&hìr_Æ ǑÉr +þAIH x&hìr<Êº Ä»ÇÇ ½¨çß\"f &ñ
_Æ÷&tëß ½¨çß_Æ
Ç&h\f" Ô

5Åq â
Äº\ &ñ
_Æ)a. \V\ [þt#Q, 1 ìr\"f /BG y = x ü< f x = 1 \ _Æ # ëß 1
2
[þt#QtH %ò
%i` Òqty
K .

Äº 0 < t < 1 {9 M:, ½¨çß [t; 1℄ \"f %ò

%i_Æ V,s\ ½¨ 6£§õ °ú .
Z 1
x
1 x 12 = 2(p1 pt)
1
dx =
1
+1 t
2
1
t 2
ÅÒQ# %ò
%i_Æ V,sH t ! 0+ {9 M:_Æ FGÇ°ú̄Ü¼ ÅÒ#Q. 7£¤,
Z 1
p p
x
1
2 dx = t!lim 2( 1 0+
t )=2
0
sb . {9ìøÍ&hÜ¼ <Ê

Z
º f (x) ½¨çß (a; b℄ \"f 5Åqs x = a \"f Ô5Åqs
:£¤s&hìr
1
f (x)dx H 6£§õ °ú s &ñ

_ÆÇ.
a
Z b Z b
( ) = t!lima f (x) dx
f x dx
+
a t
1 x
3
% y
9 ú́

x=
a\
"f Ô5Åqs &ñ
_Æ÷&t ·ú§Ü¼
℄ 3 ℄X :£¤s&hìr
j 263
Ê
<
º f (x) ½¨çß [a; b) \"f 5
qs x = b \"f Ô5Åq â
Äº¸ °ú Ér ~½ÓZOÜ¼ &ñ
_ÆÇ
Å
.

·¥o>¢4́ÁþÊÁ+ §´l\&P
Z b
<Êº f (x) ½¨çß (a; b℄ \
"f 5Åqs x = a \"f Ô5Åqs :£¤s&hìr ()
f x dx
H 6£§õ °ú s &ñ
_ÆÇ. a
Z b Z b
()
f x dx = t!lima +
()
f x dx
a t
Z b
<Êº f (x) ½¨çß [a; b) \
"f 5Åqs x = b \"f Ô5Åqs :£¤s&hìr ()
f x dx
H 6£§õ °ú s &ñ
_ÆÇ. a
Z b Z t
( ) = t!limb
f x dx ()
f x dx
a a
Z b
A0_Æ ¿º FGÇ°ú̄s >rF½+É M:, :£¤s&hìr a f (x)dx Ér ÊÁ℄ø5( onverge )
Ç.
º§4 t ·ú§H â
ÄºH L±Óñ5Ñø5( )
Ç. diverge
Z Z b
f x = (a < < b) \ " f Ô5Åqs :£¤s&hìr a f (x)dx ü< ()
f x dx º§4

bZ
a f (x)dx H 6£§õ °ú s &ñ

_ÆÇ.
Z b Z Z b
()
f x dx = (x) dx + ()
f x dx
a a
¹M
4 6£§ :£¤s&hìrs º§4 Ht ¶ú(R.
(a)
Z 1
1 dx (b)
Z 1
1 dx
0 x 1 x
Solution (a) x =0\

"f Ô5
qsÙ¼
Å
Z
1 dx = lim
1
1 dx = lim log x
Z 1
1
0 x t! t x 0+ t! t 0+
= t!lim ( log t) = 1
0+

s . "f ÅÒ#Q :£¤s&hìrÉr µ
ÏíßÇ.
1
(b) :£¤s&hìr
Z 1
1 dx s
µ1Ïßí Ù¼ ÅÒ#Q :£¤s&hìr 1 dx ¸ µ1ÏíßÇ.
Z 1

0 x 1 x
264 ℄j 7 © &hìr_Æ l
ZOõ 6£x x6
Note 0A l_Æ (b) \"f f (x) = x1 H l<ÊºsÙ¼
Z 1
1 dx = 0
1 x
Z
s Ǒ:r` ?/9"fH îß)a. Ô5Åq&h x = ½¨çß îß\ eH â
Äº, :£¤s&hì
r a f (x)dx

Z b b Z
ü< f (x)dx ¸¿ º º§4 H â

Äº\ëß :£¤s&hìr a f (x) dx H º§4Ç &ñ
_ÆÇ.
Z 1
¹M 5 0
log x dx `
½¨ #.
Solution f x ( ) = log x
H x = 0 \"f &ñ
_Æ÷&t ·ú§Ü¼9 limx! log x = 1 s
. "f 0+
Z 1 Z 1
log x dx = t!lim log x dx

0 0+ t
s. u = log x; dv = dx ÂÒìr&hìr` s6 x u0 = x ; v = x sÙ¼ 1
Z 1
log x dx = x log
1

x
Z 1
x
1 dx
t t t x
1
= (x log x x)t = t 1 t log t
` %3H. t ! 0+ {9 M: FGÇ°ú̄` %3l 0A # x»1Ï_Æ &ñ

o\ s6 x
lim t log t = t!lim log
t!0+
t
0+
1=t
1=t = t!lim 1=t = 0 0+ 2
e` ·ú º e. "f 6£§ õ\ %3H.

Z 1
log x dx = t!lim (t 10+

t log t) = 1
0
Z 2
¹M 6 1
x ` ½¨ #.
2=3
dx
Solution <Êº f (x) = x = H x = 0 \"f &ñ

_Æ÷&t ·ú§Ü¼9 ºf&hH` °ú
2 3
H. f"

Z 2 Z 0 Z 2
x 2=3
dx = x 2=3
dx + x 2=3
dx
1 1 0
℄ 3 ℄X :£¤s&hìr
j 265
>

` íß # Ç.
Z 0 Z t
x 2=3
dx = t!lim 0
x 2=3
dx
1 1
= t!lim 1 12=3 x =
t
1 3
0 1
= t!lim 3(t = ( 1) = ) = 3
0
1 3 1 3
Z 2 Z 2
x 2=3
dx = t!lim 0+
x 2=3
dx
0 t
= t!lim 1 12=3 x = t
2
1 3
0+
= t!lim 3(2 = (t) = ) = 3(2 = )

0+
1 3 1 3 1 3
Ù
s ¼ 6£§ °ú̄` %3H.
Z 2
x 2=3
dx = 3 + 3(2 = ) = 3(1 + 2 = )
1 3 1 3

1
§´l\&P+ j¬¨÷5ÇaÆß
£¤:s&hìr_Æ &ñ
SXÇ °ú̄` ½¨
H ¯ Ér /ÂÒìr_Æ â
Äº ÅÒ #Q§> Ô0px . s â

º :£¤s&hìr_Æ º§4#ÒÂH ǑÉr
Ä Êº_Æ :£¤s&hìrõ q§ # óøÍ&ñ
½+É º e. sQÇ óøÍ&ñ
<
`
O
Z :£¤s&hìr\ /Ç j¬¨÷5ÇaÆß(
)s
Ç.
omparison test
j¬¨÷5aÆÇß
º 5Åq<Êº f; g x a {9 M: f (x) g(x) 0 s . ÕªQ
¿
1
Z 1 Z
f (x) dx
º
4
§

g (x) dx
¸ º§4Ç.
a a
Z 1 Z 1

a
()
g x dx µ1Ïíß a
()
g x dx ¸ µ1ÏíßÇ.
ª_Æ °ú̄` °úH <Êº_Æ &hìrÉr <Êº_Æ ÕªAáÔü< x »¡¤ s_Æ V,s sK½+É º eÜ¼Ù¼
q
§óøÍ&ñ
ZOÉr Ér <Êº_Æ V,s H <Êº_Æ V,s H z´ÂÒ' Ä»ÆÒ½+É º e.
¹M
7 6£§ :£¤s&hìr_Æ º§4#ÂÒ\ óøÍ&ñ
#.
(a)
Z 1
1 (b)
Z 1
p1
0 sin x dx 0 sin x dx
266 ℄j 7 © &hìr_Æ l
ZOõ 6£x x6
Solution (a) 0 < x < 1 s
0 sin x x sÙ¼
0 x1 sin1 x (7.4)
s.
lim
Z 1
1 dx = lim log x = lim ( log(t)) = 1
1
t! 0+ t x 0+t! t 0+t!
sÙ¼ q§óøÍ&ñ
ZO\ _Æ # ÅÒ#Q :£¤s&hìrÉr µ1ÏíßÇ.
(b) p1x dx
Z
H º§4 tëß s â
Äº ÂÒ1pxd (7.4) H q§óøÍ&ñ
ZO\"fH ºÁ %
½+É` t
i
1
3lwÇ. Ér <Êº

0
º§4Ç K"f H <Êº º§4ÇH ½+É º \Ol M:ëHs. f"
ǑÉr ~½Ó¾Ó_Æ ÂÒ1pxds 9¹̄ . y = sin x H ½¨çß [0; =2℄ \"f
(sin x)00 = sin x 0
sÙ¼ 0A ^2 2¤ . "f y = sin x _Æ ÕªAáÔH [0; 0℄ õ [=2; sin(=2)℄ = [=2; 1℄ \ e±
H f y = x 0A\ e. 7£¤, 6£§ ÂÒ1pxds $í
wnÇ.
sin x 2 x; x 2 [0; 2 ℄
"f psin x 2 p1x s

1 r
p1x dx = 2 < 1
Z 1
sÙ¼ ÅÒ#Q :£¤s&

ìrÉr q§óøÍ&ñ
ZO\ _Æ # º§4Ç.
h
j 4 ℄X ÂÒx
℄ 267
V 4 â

É
Ùq

, [j, Z}s yy w; l; h f¹¢¤^_Æ ÂÒxH
V = wlh

s. ¢̧Ç ìøÍt2£§s r, Z}s h
"é¶lÑüæ_Æ ÂÒxH

V = r h 2

s.
f¹¢¤^ "é¶lÑüæõ °ú s À»õ x9Æs ½+Ë1lxs ¿º ` ºfÜ¼ Ç {9^¸+þA
eä»¢>(

` ylinder )s Ç. lÑüæ_Æ ÂÒxH x9Æ_Æ V,s A ü< Z}s h _Æ YLÜ¼ ÅÒ#Q

.
V =Ah
ÉÙq

s z´` s6 x # {9ìøÍ&h {^¸+þA_Æ ÂÒx\ ½¨ # l Ç. x = a ü< x = b
9
s\
eH {9^¸+þA S _Æ x »¡¤\ ºf éß_Æ V,s 5Åq<Êº A(x) ÅÒ#Q& .
¨ç
½ [a; b℄ ` n 1pxìr # ª =åQ&hõ y ìr&h_Æ x ýa³ð\
ß
x0 (= a); x ; x ; : : : ; xn
1 2 1 ; xn (= b)

x = b n a
s
. ÕªQ k P: ½¨çß_Æ {9^ Sk _Æ ÂÒxH éß&hs A(xk ) (xk 2 [xk 1 ; xk ℄) s

}s

Z H x lÑüæ_Æ ÂÒx Hr~´ º e.
( ) A(xk )x
V Sk
268 ℄j 7 © &hìr_Æ l
ZOõ 6£x x6
y
AHHxk L*L
x
xk-1 xk
"f {9^_Æ ÂÒxH s ÂÒìrlÑüæ[þt_Æ ÂÒx_Æ ½+ËÜ¼ Hr~´ º e.

n
A xk
X
V Vn = ( )x
k=1
ns
&|9º2¤ H°ú̄
r a%~t9 Õª FGÇ°ú̄s >rF HX< Õª FGÇ°ú̄Ü¼ {9^_Æ ÂÒx\ &ñ
É
Æ_Ç.
W+ ÉÙq
x=aü < x = b s \ eH {9^¸+þA S _Æ x »¡¤\ ºf éß_Æ V,s\ A(x) .
A(x) 5Åq<Êºs
S _Æ ÂÒxH 6£§õ °ú .
n Z b
A(x )x =
X
V = nlim
!1 k ()
A x dx
k=1 a
¹M 1 9Æx_Æ Ç s r &ñ

y+þAs Z}s h Ḉ·(
pyramid )_
ÆÂÒx\ ½¨
#.
Solution yÞ`
6£§õ °ú s Õªo.
y y
s r
x x
x h
x
h
j 4 ℄X ÂÒx
℄ 269
x\ f" éß_Æ Ç _Æ U´s\ s y+þA_Æ ²úª6£§q\"f
h r : =x:s ) s = rxh

s . "f éß_Æ V,sH 2 2
A x ( ) = rhx 2

s yÞ_Æ ÂÒxH
Z h Z h r2 x2
()
A x dx = h2
dx
0 0
= 13 r h
Z
r2 h 2
= h2 0
x dx 2

s . 2

¹M
2 øÍìt2£§s r ½¨_Æ ÂÒx\ ½¨ #.
Solution ½¨_Æ ×æd` "é¶&hÜ¼ ú̧. x \"f_Æ éßÉr "é¶s s "é¶_Æ ìøÍt2£§Ér pr 2 x2
.
s
y y
r
r2 - x2
s
x x
x r x
éß_Æ V,sH p
A x ( ) = ( r2 x2 ) = (r
2 2
x2 )

s . "f ½¨_Æ ÂÒxH
Z r Z r
V = ( ) =
A x dx (r 2
)
x2 dx
r r
= 2 (r
Z r
2
)
x2 dx = 2
h
r2 x
1 x ir
3
0 3 0
= 43 r 3
)a.
s
2 ì
9
{ Í&
øÜ
h ¼
lÑ
æ
ü õ
°
ú r
É ¸
_
ªÆxÆ` °úH Þ_Æ ÂÒxH lÑüæ ÂÒx_Æ 13 s.
9
270 ℄j 7 © &hìr_Æ l
ZOõ 6£x x6
m¬>W+ ÉÙq I
½¨H "é¶` r
%3#Q. sXO> /BG` r # %3#QtH r^_Æ Â
ÒxH éß
s ½Ó© "é¶sÙ¼ éß_Æ V,s\ ~1> ½¨½+É º e. r ú́K"f, /BG y = f (x); a x b
\ x »¡¤Ü¼ r %i` M: ÒqtlH r^_Æ x \"f_Æ éß&hÉr
A x ( ) = [f (x)℄ 2
s s r^_Æ ÂÒx

H
Z b Z b
V = ( ) = [f (x)℄
A x dx 2
dx
a a
)a.
ç) (|¡è (2007Æ̧ &ñ

r 12)
ýa³ð/BNçß\"f x + z 1, y + z 1 Ü¼ &ñ
÷&H {9^ ¸+þA_Æ ÂÒx\ ½¨ #.
2 2 2 2
m¬>W+ ÉÙq I
y = f (x); a x b \
x »¡¤Ü¼ r %i` M: ÒqtlH r^_Æ ÂÒxH 6£§õ °ú .
Z b Z b
V = 2
y dx = [f (x)℄ 2
dx
a a
Note ðøÍt /

G x = g(y); y d \ y »¡¤ ÑütYU rÇ r^_Æ Â
B ÒxH 6£§
õ °ú s ÅÒQ#. d Z d Z
V = x2 dy = [g(y)℄ 2
dy

¹M 3 6£§ /BG` yy x »¡¤õ y »¡¤ ÑütYU r # ÒqtlH r^_Æ ÂÒx\ ½¨ #.
= px; 0 x 4
y
Solution ¡¤ ÑütYU r éßÉr ìøÍt2£§s y = px "é¶s.

x»
2
y x
x
x 4
j 4 ℄X ÂÒx
℄ 271
y
2
y x
x
x 4
Òx
ÂH
(px)
Z 4 Z 4
V = 2
dx = x dx = 8
0 0

s . ìøÍ y »¡¤ ÑütYU r ÒqtlH éß_Æ ìøÍt2£§Ér x = y s sM: 0 y 2 s.
2
y
y
2
x y2 2
y
x y2
x
4
y2 x 4
x
ª
ÕQÙ¼ ÂÒxH
= 25 = 325
Z 2 Z 2 5
V = 2
x dy = (y ) 2 2
dy
0 0

a.
)
)

ç (|¡è (2009Æ̧ &ñ
r 8)
Ò#Q ÂÒ1pxdÜ¼ ?/#Q %ò
%i` y-»¡¤_Æ ÑütYU r # %3Ér {9^_Æ ÂÒx\ ½¨
Å

r ¸.
0 5 x 5 3; (
y x2 3x + 2 y )=0
)

ç (|¡è (2006Æ̧ ºr 13)
´s yy 30 m; 40 m; 50 m }/l y+þA` ëß[þt#Q ºî̈
s ÷&> Z~, Õª 0A\

U
Ít
ø
ì 2
§s 20 m /BN` y+þA_Æ [
£ j \ ℄X ¸2¤ `9 Z~¤` M:, y+þA x9Æ\ eH /BN_Æ
Òì
Â r_
Æ ÂÒx\ ½¨ .
272 j℄ 7 © &hìr_Æ l
ZOõ 6£x x6
¿º /BGÜ¼ ÑütQ
%ò
%i` r # Òqt| r^_Æ ÂÒxH üÂÒ/BGÜ¼
Òqt| r
^_Æ ÂÒx\"f ?/ÒÂ/ G\ _Æ # Òqt| r^_Æ ÂÒx\ NS )a.
B
¹M 4 ¿º /BG y = 2x; y = x ; 0 x 2 Ü¼ ÑütQ %ò
%i` 6£§õ °ú s rþ¡Ù`
2
M: ÒqtlH r^_Æ ÂÒx\ ½¨ #.

(a) x »
¡¤ ÑütYU (b) y »¡¤ ÑütYU
y y
4
4
y x2
2 x
x x y
x
2 x
Solution
(a) x »
¡¤ ÑütYU r
y = 2x üÂÒ/BGs ÷& y = x
2
s ?/ÂÒ/BGs )a.
y y
4 4
y2x
y x2
x x
2 2
f" 'Í P: {9^_Æ ÂÒx\"f ¿º P: {9^_Æ ÂÒx\ NS

Z 2 Z 2
V = (2x) dx (x )
2 2 2
dx
0 0
= 323 325 = 64
h i
15
)a.
j 4 ℄X ÒÂx
℄ 273
¡¤ ÑütYU r x = py üÂÒ/BGs ÷& x = y2 ?/ÂÒ/BGs )a.
(b) y »
y y
4 4
y
x y x
2
x x
2 x 2
y H 0 ÂÒ' 4 Æt Ù¼

(py)
Z 4 Z 4
V = 2
dy ( y2 )
2
dy
0 0
Z 4 Z 4 2
= y dy
y
4 dy
0 0
=
1y 1 1y i
h
2 3
4
2 4 3 0
=

8
16 = 8
3 3
s.
)

ç (|¡è (2008Æ̧ &ñ
r 10)
Æ_Æ ìøÍt2£§_Æ U´s a, Z}s
9
x h f"é¶lÑüæ`, Õª x9Æ_Æ Ç t2£§` »¡¤Ü¼ # r
r

~
´ M: ÒqtlH {9^_Æ ÂÒx\ ½¨ .

ç
) (|¡è (2006Æ̧ &ñ
r 9)
5x5 _ Æ #30A\"f /BG y = os x x9 [j f y = , x = , x = ÑütQ
i
ò
% %` f y = ÑütYU rr(Ǒ` M: ÒqtlH r^_Æ ÂÒx þjè ÷&¸2¤ ©º _Æ
2 2 2 2
ú̄`
° ½¨ .

)

ç (|¡è (2008Æ̧ &ñ
r 10)

0A_Æ [j &h A = (1; 0); B = (0; ); C = ( 1; 0) \ / #, ¿º &h P; Q 6£§ ¿º ¸
î̈ 3
2
274 ℄j 7 © &hìr_Æ l
ZOõ 6£x x6
| ` ëß7á¤r.
=1 PB (é
ß, P = (x; y) \"f y = ) 3
2
QA + QC = 4 (é
ß, Q = (x; y)\"f jxj = 1; y = 0)
() &
h P; Q _Æ 2[ü< x-»¡¤Ü¼ ÑütQ ¸+þA_Æ >h+þA` Õªo.
(
) ()_Æ ¸+þA` x-»¡¤_Æ ÑütYU rr& %3Ér r^_Æ ÂÒx\ ½¨ .
m¬>W+ ÉÙq II
fy+þA R ` r # ÒqtlH r^_Æ ÂÒxH îrX< ½¨"í

s èß "é¶lÑüæ
¸ªs.
"f Õª ÂÒxH ¾ú "é¶lÑüæ_Æ ÂÒx\"f îßAá¤ "é¶lÑüæ_Æ ÂÒx\ NS )a.
y
r2 r1
îß Aá¤ "é¶_Æ ìøÍt2£§s r , ¾ú "é¶_Æ ìøÍt2£§s r s r^_Æ ÂÒxH
1 2
V = r h 2
2 r12 h
= (r 2 )( + r )h = 2rrh
r1 r2 1
)a. #l"f
r = r 2 r1 ; r = r +2 r 1 2
s. s z´` s6 x

# ÂÒx\ ½¨ H Dhîr ~½ÓZO` ÒqtyK . /BG
y = f (x); a xb
` y »¡¤ ÑütYU r Ç r^_Æ ÂÒx\ ½¨ # l .

f { 9/{9 <Êºs
#Q"f %i<Êº g >rF x = g(y); y d jþt º e
Z d
V = (g(y)) 2
dy

ÂÒx\ ½¨½+É º e. ÕªQ f 6£§õ °ú s {9/{9 <Êº â
ÄºH s ~½ÓZO` jþt
º \O ëH℄j s̀ 4¤ú̧K. 3
3 ¢̧
Ç{

9 /{

9Ê
<º\
/ # %i<Êº\ ½Ó© ½¨½+É º eH ¯ ¸ m.
j 4 ℄X ÂÒx
℄ 275
y y
y f HxL y f HxL
x x
a b a b
s℄j r^\ 6£§õ °ú s ú̧

"f ÒqtyK . ½¨çß [a; b℄ ` n 1pxìr # ª =åQ&hõ y
r&

ì_Æ x ýa³ð\
h
x0 (= a); x ; x ; : : : ; xn
1 2 1 ; xn (= b)

x = b n a

s . k P: %ò
%i` Z}s f (xk ) y+þAÜ¼ Hr~´ º e. #l"f
xk = xk 2+ xk 1
s
. s y+þA` y »¡¤ ÑütYU r # Òqt| r^H ¾ú "é¶_Æ ìøÍt2£§s xk , îßAá¤ "é¶_Æ ìøÍ
2
t §Ér xk s Z}sH f (xk )
£ 1 ½¨"í
s èß "é¶lÑüæs.

y
Dx
f Hx k L
x
a xk-1 xk b

"f Õª ÂÒxH
Vk = 2xk f (xk )x

Hr~´ º e. "f r^_Æ ÂÒxH

n
X n
X
V Vk = 2 ( )x
xk f xk
k=1 k=1

Hr~´ º e n s &t s
°ú̄Ér
Z b
2 ()
xf x dx
a
¼
Ü º§4Ç. "f 6£§ õ\
%3H.

276 ℄j 7 © &hìr_Æ l
ZOõ 6£x x6
¬m>W+ ÉÙq II
/BG y = f (x) 0; a x b \ y »¡¤Ü¼ r # Òqt| r^_Æ ÂÒxH 6
§õ °ú .
£
Z b
V = 2 ()
xf x dx
a
¹M 5 6£§ /BGÜ¼ ÑütQ %ò

%i` y »¡¤ ÑütYU rÇ r^_Æ ÂÒx\ ½¨ #.
y = sin x; x = 2 ; y =0
y
1 y sinHxL
Π x
2
Solution ¿º P: /
Nd` s6 x r^_Æ ÂÒxH
B
Z
2 sin x dx
2
x
0
s. ÂÒìr&hìrZO` s6 x

Z
x sin x dx = x os x + sin x + C
sÙ¼ ½¨ H ÂÒxH
Z
2 sin x dx = 2( x os x + sin x) 2 = 2
2
x
0 0
s.
Note 0A_Æ l\ '
P: ~½ÓZOÜ¼ ½¨
Í
x = ar sin y
s¼Ù ½¨ H ÂÒxH y _Æ ½¨çß [0; 1℄ \ / # x = 2 ` rÇ {9^_Æ ÂÒx
4 \f"
3
x = ar sin y \
rÇ {9^_Æ ÂÒx\ NS Ç. r ú́K"f
Z 1
3
V = 4 (ar sin y) 2
dy
0
℄ 5 ℄X ÂÒx
j 277
½

` ¨ # Ç. sXO> °ú Ér ÂÒx\ ½¨ 8¸ >íß ~½ÓZO\ >íßs çßéß #|9 º
¸4
¤ú̧K|9 º¸ e.

¹M
6 6£§ /BGõ x »¡¤Ü¼ ÑütQ %ò
%i` y »¡¤ ÑütYU r # ÒqtlH r^_Æ ÂÒ
\
x ¿º t ~½ÓZOÜ¼ ½¨ #.

y = 2x x2
Solution
x
1 2
×ß

' üÂÒ/BGÉr x _Æ ½¨çß [1; 2℄ \"f
1.
=1+ 1 0y1
p
x y;

s s /BG` y »¡¤Ü¼ rÇ
r^_Æ ÂÒxH
Z 1
= (1 + 1 )
p
2
V1 y dy
0

s . ?/ÂÒ/BGÉr x _Æ ½¨çß [0; 1℄ \
"f
=1 1 0y1
p
x y;

s s /BG` y »¡¤Ü¼ rÇ
r^_Æ ÂÒxH
Z 1
= (1 1 )
p
2
V2 y dy
0

s . "f ½¨ H ÂÒxH
V =V V2 =
Z 1
4 1
p
y dy = 4
Z 1
pu du = 8
1
0 0 3
s.

×ß

' /BGÉr x »¡¤õ x = 0; 2 \"f ëßÙ¼ ½¨ H ÂÒxH
2.
Z 2 Z 2
V = 2 x x (2 x 2
) dx = 2 (2x 2
)
x3 dx
0 0
= 2 23 x 14
2
3
x4
0
= 2( 163 4) = 83

s .
278 ℄j 7 © &hìr_Æ l
ZOõ 6£x x6
5â
V

¤
¯ >+
n
l
ÿ?
¢
¯ >
+Û
l
y
<Êº_Æ ÕªAáÔ ëß[ t#QtH %ò
%i_Æ V,sH fy+þA` s6 x # ½¨ %i. <Ê
þ º_Æ ÕªAáÔ
_Æ U´sH f` s6 x # H&hÜ¼ ½¨Ç.

½¨çß [a; b℄ \ n 1px
rì #
x0 = a; x = a + x; xn = a + (n 1)x; xn = b
1 1
. #l"f x = b n a s. x = xi \ /6£x H /BG 0A_Æ &h` Pi = (xi ; f (xi ))
.
Pi-1
Pi
f(x i-1) f(x i)
a x i-1 xi b
`
P0 ; P1 ; : : : ; Pn # %3#Q /BG_Æ U´sH y = f (x); a x b _Æ U´s_
Æ H°ú̄Ü¼
6 x½+É º eÜ¼9 Õª FGÇ°ú̄` /BG_Æ U´s &ñ
_ÆÇ.
n
X
L = nlim
!1 jPi 1 Pi j
i=1
#lf" i P: ½¨çßÆ_ ìr Pi 1 Pi _Æ U´sH

j = (xi ) + (f (xi ) ( ))
p
jPi 1 Pi xi 1
2 f xi 1
2
s. f pìr0pxÇ <Êº î̈

çH°ú̄ &ñ
o\ _Æ #
( )
f xi f xi( 1 ) = f 0(xi )(xi xi 1 ) = f 0(xi )x
` ëß7á¤ H °ú̄ xi 2 [xi 1 ; xi ℄
>rFÇ. "f
q
jPi 1 Pi j = 1 + [f 0 (xi )℄ x 2
sÙ¼ f 0 s 5Åqs

n
X
Z bp
L = nlim
!1 jPi 1 Pi j= 1 + (f 0(x)) 2 dx
i=1 a
` %3H.
j 5 ℄X /BG_Æ U´sü< /BG_Æ V,s
℄ 279
¯¤n>+
l
¨ç
½ [a; b℄ \"f f 0 s 5Åqs
ß . ÕªQ /BG y = f (x); a x b _Æ U´sH 6£§
°ú .
õ b Z
= 1 + (f 0(x))
p
L 2 dx
a
Note °ú Ér ~½ÓZOÜ¼ /BG x = g(y); y d _Æ U´sH 6£§õ °ú s ½¨½+É º e.
Z dp
L = 1 + (g0(y)) 2 dy

¹M
1 íÓüt y = x ; 0 x 1 _Æ U´s\ ½¨ #.
2
Solution y 0 = 2x s
¼Ù ½¨ H U´sH

Z 1
p
L = 1 + 4x2 dx
0

s . 2x = tan t u8̈
p p
2dx = se 2
t dt; 1 + 4x = 1 + tan t = se t
2 2
Ù
s ¼
= 21
Z ar tan 2
L se t dt 3
= 14 (tan t se t + log(tan t + se t))t

ar tan 2
p p
=0
= 41 (2 5 + log(2 + 5))
1:48

s .
xjS·7+ ÚuÛyl
øÍìt2£§s r s Z}s h "é¶lÑüæ_Æ \PV,sH >h¸\"f ½¨½+É º e. 7£¤, \PV,sH

2r, Z}s h fy+þA_Æ V
ssÙ¼
,
A = 2rh
s
. "é¶Þ_Æ \PV,s¸ >h¸\"f ½¨½+É º e. ìøÍt2£§s r s ¸_Æ U´s l "é¶Þ
Æ
_ >h¸H ìøÍt2£§s l s ñ_Æ U´s 2r ÂÒGg1Js.

280 ℄j 7 © &hìr_Æ l
ZOõ 6£x x6
2Πr
l
r
l
"f \P,VsH
A = rl
s. ÕªXO 7á§ 8 {
ìøÍ&h r^_Æ ÆV,sH #QbG> ½¨½+ÉÆ? Äº f_Æ {
9 ÂÒ\ x »¡¤
9
ÒÅ0A rÇ r^ _Æ ÆV,s\ ½¨ # .
"é¶&h` tH f
` x »¡¤ ÅÒ0A r "é¶Þs ÷&tëß "é¶&h` tt ·
§H f_Æ
ú
â
ÄºH xjS·7 )a. ìøÍt2£§s r ; r (r < r ) "é¶Þ/_Æ \PV,s A H 6£§õ °ú s "é¶Þ
_Æ \PV,s\"f ½¨½+É º e.
1 2 1 2
A = r (l + l)
2 r1 l = [(r 2 ) + r l℄
r1 l 2 (7.5)
2πr 2
l
r1
∆l 2πr 1
∆l
r2
l
"é¶Þ/\ ÕªǑ2; ¿º fyy+þAÉr ²ú©Ér g1JsÙ¼

l
r1
= l +r l
2
s. "f
r2 l = r (l + l)
1 ¢̧H (r 2 ) = r l
r1 l 1
s s d` d (7.5) \ /{9

A = (r + r )l
1 2 (7.6)
` %3H.
m¬>W+ ÚuÛyl
j 5 ℄X /BG_Æ U´sü< /BG_Æ V,s
℄ 281
"é¶lÑüæs "é¶Þ_Æ â
Äº%!3 >h¸\ Õªwn= º e {9^¸+þA_Æ ÆV,s\ ½¨ H ëH℄j
H î̈
¸+þA_Æ V,s\ ½¨ H ëH℄

j )a. ÕªQ {9ìøÍ&h {9^¸+þA_Æ â
Äº >h¸\ Õª

o H ¯ Ér Ô0px . ÕªXO r^_Æ ÆV,sH #QbG> &ñ
_Æ #QbG> ½¨½+ÉÆ? /BG

rr& %3#QtH r^_Æ

` ÆV,sH /BG_Æ U´s\ ½¨½+É M:ü< ðøÍt /BG` f

¼
Ü Hr&"f Õª r^_Æ Æ,Vs_Æ FGÇ°ú̄Ü¼ &ñ
_ÆÇ.
pìr0pxÇ <Êº y = f (x) \ ½¨çß [a; b℄ \"f x »¡¤ ÅÒ0A rÇ r^_Æ ÆV,sH
§õ
£
6 °ú s &ñ
_ÆÇ. /BG_Æ U´s\ ½¨½+É M:ü< ðøÍt ½¨çß [a; b℄ \ n 1pxìr #

= a; x = a + x; xn = a + (n 1)x; xn = b
x0 1 1

x = xi \ /6£x H /BG 0A_Æ &h` Pi = (xi ; f (xi )) . #l"f P ; P ; : : : ; Pn
` # %3#QtH /BG` r # %3#QtH /BG_Æ V,s\ Sn s r^_Æ

0 1
ÆV

sH nlim
, !1 Sn Ü ¼ &ñ
_ÆÇ. ìr Pi Pi \ x »¡¤ ÅÒ0A rÇ r^H ìøÍt2£§s y
1
f (xi ); f (xi ) s \P_Æ U´s

y 1
q
jPi 1 Pi j = 1 + [f 0 (xi )℄ x; 2 xi 2 [xi 1 ; xi ℄
"

¶Þ/s.
é
Pi-1
Pi
f(x i-1) f(x i)
a x i-1 xi b
"f i P: ÂÒìrBG/_Æ V,sH d (7.6) Ü¼ÂÒ'

q
( ( ) + f (xi ))jPi Pi j = (f (xi ) + f (xi )) 1 + [f 0(xi )℄ x
f xi 1 1 1
2
`

e ·ú º e. "f r^_Æ ÆV,sH 6£§õ °ú s ½¨½+É º e.

n
X q
S = nlim
!1 Sn = nlim
!1 ((
f xi 1 ) + f (xi )) 1 + [f 0(xi )℄ x 2
i=1
Z b
= 2f (x) 1 + [f 0(x)℄
p
2 dx
a
Z tp
d
s ` U´s<Êº s(t) =
a
1 + [f 0(x)℄ 2 dx \ s6 x , 7£¤,
= 1 + (f 0 (x)) dx
p
ds 2
282 ℄j 7 © &hìr_Æ l
ZOõ 6£x x6
` s6 x 6£§õ °
s èq º e.
ú
Z b
S = 2f (x) ds
a
x ´ ÌÁD× m¬>ø
m¬>W+ ÚuÛyl
5
pìr0pxÇ <Êº y = f (x); a x b ` x »¡¤ ÅÒ0A r # Òqt| r^_Æ ÆV,sH
Z b Z b
= 2f (x) 1 + [f 0(x)℄ = 2y ds
p
S 2 dx
a a
s.
¹M 2 ìøÍt2£§s a ½¨_Æ ÆV,s\ ½¨ #.

Solution ìøÍt2£§s a ½¨H ìøÍ"é¶ y = pa 2 x2 ; a xa`
x »¡¤ ÑütYU r %3
#Q.
)0 = 12 (a
p
( a2 x2 2
x2 ) 21 ( 2x) = pa 2
x
x2
s¼Ù ½¨_Æ ÆV,s

H

r
Z a p
S = 2 a2 x2 1+ a 2
x2
x2
dx
a
Z a
= 2a dx
a
= 4a 2
)a.
°ú Ér ~½ÓZOÜ¼ y »¡¤ ÅÒ0A rÇ r^_Æ ÆV,sH 6£§õ °ú s ½¨½+É º e.
y ´ ÌÁD× m¬>ø
m¬>W+ ÚuÛyl
5
pìr0pxÇ <Êº x = g(y); x d ` y »¡¤ ÅÒ0A r # Òqt| r^_Æ Æ,VsH
Z d
= 2g(y) 1 + [g0(y)℄
p
S 2 dy

s.
℄ 5 ℄X BG/_Æ U´sü< /BG_Æ V,s
j 283
¹M
3 íütÓ y = x ; 0 x 2 \ y »¡¤ ÅÒ0A rÙþ¡` M: ÆV,s\ ½¨ #.
2
Solution x = py; 0 y 4 s
Ù¼
dx
dy
= 2p1 y

s . "f ÅÒ#Q íÓüt` y »
¤ ÅÒ0A rÇ r^_Æ ÆV,sH
¡
s
Z 4
dx 2
S = 2x 1 + dy
dy
0
py 1 + 1 dy
Z 4 r
= 2 4y
0
Z 4
= 4y + 1 dy
p

0
= 4 pu du
Z 17
p 1
= 6 (17 17 1)

a.
)
¿ÌfC+
ä»Ï
a xb\ / # 0 g(x) f (x) . ¿º /BG y = f (x); y = g(x) ü< ¿º f
x = a; x = b Ü
¼ ÑütQ %ò
%i`
R s . s %ò
%i_Æ
ä»Ï, ¢̧H ¿Ï( entroid)`

(x; y)
/? 6£§õ °ú s &ñ
_ÆÇ.
= A1 x(f (x) g(x)) dx (= A1

Z b Z bZ f x ( )
x x dy dx)
a a gx ( )
= A1 12 (f (x) g (x)) dx (= A1
Z b Z bZ f x ( )
y 2 2
y dy dx)
a a gx ( )
Z b
l
# "f A = a [f (x) g(x)℄ dx H %ò
%i R _Æ V,ss.
M
¹ 4 ¿º /BG y = sin x; y = os x; 0 x 4 ü< y »¡¤Ü¼ ÑütQ %ò
%i R _Æ ×æd`
¨
½ #.
284 ℄j 7 © &hìr_Æ l
ZOõ 6£x x6
y=cos x
y=sin x
R
π/4
Solution %ò
i% R _
Æ V,sH
Z
p
= ( os x sin x) dx = 2 1
4
A
0
s. "f &ñ

_Æ\ _Æ #
= 1 Z
p
2 1 x( os x sin x) dxZ
4
x
0
p 1 x(sin x + os x) 4
h i
= (sin x + os x) dx
4
2 1 p 0 0
p1 2 1

= 2 1 p4
p
( 2 + 1) 42 1

=
p1
4 1
Z
y = 2 1 Z 2 ( os x sin x) dx
2 2
p1
4 1
= 2 1 2 os2x dx
1 (p2 + 1)
0
= 4
` %3H.
ÉÙqU 7ø5 Ùâ«+ ÇaÆh
/BG y = f (x); a x b (a > 0) ` y »¡¤ ÅÒ0A rÇ r^_Æ ÂÒxH

Z b
V = 2xf (x) dx
a
s. r ¿º /BG y = f (x); y = g(x) ü< x = a; x = b ÑütQ %ò
%i` R s .
#l"f g(x) f (x) &ñ
Ç. %ò
%i R ` y »¡¤ ÑütYU rr r^_Æ ÂÒx V H
Z b
V = 2 x(f (x) ( )) dx
g x
a
= 2x A
℄ 5 ℄X /BG_Æ U´sü< /BG_Æ V,s
j 285
)a. r ú́Kf", r^_Æ ÂÒx V H %ò
%i_Æ ×æd_Æ x ýa³ð x ìøÍt2£§ "é¶_Æ ÑütYU
2x \ %ò
%i R _Æ V,s A \ YL Ç ¯ s. ðøÍt f (x) g(x) 0 {9 M: %ò
%i R ` x

¤ ÑütYU rÇ r^_Æ ÂÒxH
¡
»
Z b
V = [f (x) 2
( )℄
g 2 x dx
a
= 2y A
s
. 7£¤, x »¡¤ ÑütYU rÇ r
^_Æ ÂÒx V H %ò
%i R _Æ ×æd_Æ y ýa³ð y \ ìøÍt2£§Ü¼

H "é¶_Æ U´s 2y \ %ò
%i R _Æ V,s A \ YLÇ ¯ s. s õH 3 [jlâ
Õªo¼Û_Æ
º
Æ ÉÒÛ¼_Æ s2£§` Ùâ«+ ÇaÆh(
< Pappus's Theorem for Volume )
ÂÒǑÉr.
Ùâ«+ ÇaÆh I
0 g(x) f (x) {9 M:, ¿º /BG y = f (x); y = g(x); a x b ÑütQ %ò

i% R _Æ ×æ
`

d (x; y) . %ò
%i R ` y »¡¤ ÑütYU rr r^_Æ ÂÒxH

V = 2x A

s , x »¡¤ ÑütYU rr r^_Æ ÂÒxH
V = 2y A

s . #l"f A = (R _Æ V,s)s.
¹M
5 ×æds (b; 0) s ìøÍt2
§s a; (a < b) "é¶` y »¡¤ ÑütYU rr&"f %3#QtH
£

r ^
_Æ ÂÒx\ ½¨ #. 4
4 X
s >
O¸Ä
º
µ ¸
Ü
ª ¼
Òt|
q r
^
\ xjS».ÉW(torus) ÂÒǑÉr.
286 ℄j 7 © &hìr_Æ l
ZOõ 6£x x6
Solution "é¶_Æ ×ædÉr (x; y) = (b; 0) s. "é¶_Æ V,sH a sÙ¼ ÉÒÛ¼_Æ &

o\ _Æ
ñ 2

V = 2b a = 2 a b
2 2 2
s.
¯¤n>+
ä»Ï
/BG y = f (x); a x b \ / # 6£§ d` ëß7á¤ H &h (x; y) ` /BG_Æ
ä»
Ï( entroid )s
Ç.
Z b Z b
(x ) 1 + [f 0(x)℄2 dx = 0; (f (x) ) 1 + [f 0(x)℄ =0
p p
x y 2 dx
a a
/BG_Æ U´s\ Z bp
L =
1 + [f 0(x)℄ dx 2
a
s /BG_Æ ×ædÉr 6£§õ °ú s ½¨½+É º e.
x =
1 Z b
x 1 + [f 0 (x)℄ dx
p
2
L a
= L1 f (x) 1 + [f 0(x)℄
Z b
p
y 2 dx
a
/BG_Æ ×ædÉr {9ìøÍ&hÜ¼ /BG 0A_Æ &hs m.
¹M 6 øÍì"é¶ y = p1 x ; y 0 _Æ ×æd` ½¨ #.

2
Solution /BGs y »
¤ /gAsÙ¼ x = 0 s. /BG_Æ U´sH L = s
¡
f0 x ( ) = p1 x
x2
℄ 5 ℄X /BG_Æ U´sü< /BG_Æ V,s
j 287
Ù
s ¼
= L1
Z 1
( ) 1 + [f 0(x)℄
p
y f x 2 dx
1
1 Z r
1 p
= 1 1+ 1 x x
2
x2 dx
1
2
= 1 = 2
Z 1
dx
1

s . "f ×ædÉr 0; 2 s.

ÚuÛ
lU 7ø5 Ùâ«+ ÇaÆh
y
/BG y = f (x); a x b ` x »¡¤ ÑütYU rÇ r^_Æ ÆV,s S H

Z b
= 2 ( ) 1 + [f 0(x)℄
p
S f x 2 dx
a
Ù
s ¼
S = 2y L
s
. r ú́K"f, r^_Æ ÆV,s S H /BG_Æ ×æd_Æ y ýa³ð y ` ìøÍt2£§Ü¼ H "é¶_Æ
´s

U 2y \ /BG_Æ U´s L ` YLÇ ¯ s. ðøÍt y = f (x) {9/{9<Êº{9 M:, s /BG
`

y »¡¤ ÑütYU rÇ r^_Æ ÆV,s S H

Z b
= 2 1 + [f 0(x)℄
p
S x 2 dx
a
H
d` {9 º e.(_þvëH℄j)
"f
S = 2x L
s
. r ú́K"f, r^_Æ ÆV,s
S H /BG_Æ ×æd_Æ x ýa³ð x ` ìøÍt2£§Ü¼ H "é¶_Æ
´s

U 2x \ /BG_Æ U´s L ` YLÇ ¯ s. s õ¸ ÉÒÛ¼_Æ &ñ
o ÂÒǑÉr.

288 ℄j 7 © &hìr_Æ l
ZOõ 6£x x6
Ùâ«+ ÇaÆhII
/BG y = f (x); a x b ÅÒ#Q /BG_Æ ×æd` (x; y), U´s\ L s . s /BG
` y »¡¤ ÑütYU r
r r^_Æ ÆV,sH

S = 2x L
s, x »¡¤ ÑütYU
rr r^_Æ ÆV,sH
S = 2y L
s.
¹M 7 ×æds (b; 0) s ìøÍt2£§s a (a < b) "é¶` y »¡¤ ÑütYU rr&"
f %3#QtH
é¶"8̈^_Æ ÆV,s\ ½¨ #.
Solution "é¶_Æ U´s
H L = 2a sÙ¼ ÉÒÛ¼_Æ &ñ
o\ _Æ #

S = 2x L = 2b (2a) = 4 ab
2
s.

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서울대기초수학학습교재

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V 1 *

1lx1pxÇ ¿º 7' v; w H

ß¼l 0  7'\

¿º 7'_Æ (di eren e) H

)ç (|¡­è (2007 &ñ

0A_Æ ¸+þA\"f DA! + EB! + CE! = CA! + s.

)ç (|¡­è (2005 &ñ

s. ß¼l 1  7'H í5Dú̀ 'a(unit ve tor) ÂÒǑÉr. %ò

¿º 7' v = (v1 ; v2 ; v3); w = (w1 ; w2; w3 ) H y $í

¢̧Ç 7'_Æ s

(a1; a2; a3 ) = (a1 ; 0; 0) + (0; a2; 0) + (0; 0; a3)

ýa³ð/BNçß`  ·p. sM: n  4 s

sQÇ 7'_Æ í` s6 x  Rn _Æ 7'[þt` $í

s6 x #  ?/ 6£§õ °ú .

¹M 6 n >h_Æ º a ; a ; : : : ; an \ / # î̈

(a1 + a2 + + an)2  n(a21 + a22 + + a2n)

(a b)2 = (a1 + a2 + + an)2

Ü¼ ìrK )a. ª

Note 0A dÜ¼ÒÂ' &ñ

s. P1(x1 ; y1) Ér f

D = jaxp0 +a2 by+0b+2 j

Ü¼  è­q º e. sM: fÉr x »¡¤õ ºf î̈

Ü¼  è­q º e. #l"f

s  d (1.7) Ér 6£§õ °ú s jþt º e.

(x x0 ; y y0 ; z z0 ) = (ta1 + sa2; tb1 + sb2; t 1 + s 2)

^ÆË¢>+ ú̀ 'a'×ÇaÆÏø 95£o>ÊÁ'×ÇaÆÏ

Note ¢̧Ç (a; b; ) 6= 0 s ~½Ó&ñ

)ç (|¡­è (2007Æ̧ &ñ

 )a. x = t   6£§õ °ú Ér B>h º~½Ó&ñ

= ax0 + by0 + z0 (ax1 + by1 + z1)

n1 = (5; 3; 1); n2 = ( 10; 6; 2) = 2n1

ç) (|¡­è (2007Æ̧ ºr 6)

ç) (|¡­è (2008Æ̧ ºr 2)

ç) (|¡­è (2008Æ̧ ºr 8)

ç) (|¡­è (2008Æ̧ &ñ

A Æ i P: 'Ér ri (A)   ?/

f" '>=§ A H 6£§õ °ú s  è­q º¸ e.

'§>= A \"f m = n s A \ ÇaÆ'×ßjÝ~

s ¿º '>=§Ér °ú 

'§>=_Æ ¸H ½Ós 0  '§>=` ÆZßjÝ~

ü< °ú s  è­q º e

Solution \P7'_Æ {9 ½+ËÜ¼  ?/

íßs 0pxÇ '§= A; B; C \ / # 6£§ 'a>ds $í

Note 0 A_Æ õ\ _

(a) A (a + d)A + (ad b )I = O e

'§>=_Æ YL!lr\ /Ç 

¹M 1 6£§ ¿º '>

Solution AB = BA = I3 e ` s )a.

nn ' >=§ A \ / # 6£§ $

Note 1. B; C  A _Æ %i'>=§s . 7£¤,

s. A  %i{9 M: B = A 1 s . ÕªQ

s Int = In sÙ¼

sÙ¼ AB H %is. %i'§>=Ér Ä»{9 Ù¼

 A  %i'§>=s A ü< At ¸ %is Õª %i'§>=Ér 6£§õ °ú .

Note A1 ; : : : Ak  %i{9 M:, ¿

1 x1 + 2x2 + + nxn = d (1.11)

°ú Ér  º[þt_Æ +þA~½Ó&ñ

#l"f >º [þt sÀ

¹M 5 6£§ +þA~½Ó&ñ

nn ' >=§ A \ / # A  %is +þA> Ax = b H Ä»{9Ç K x = A 1 b`

Solution VOD y ©ýa ¢̧H º\O  ¸

\"f í½ÓÉr ÑütP: ½ÓÉr

¹M 1 6£§Ér º\P`  ?/H #Q ~½ÓZO`  ·p .

º\PÉr 6£§õ °ú s ÕªAáÔ\ s6 x #  è­q º¸ e

V 1 *

1lx1pxÇ ¿º 7' v; w H

ß¼l 0 7'\

¿º 7'_Æ (dieren e) H

)ç (|¡è (2007 &ñ

0A_Æ ¸+þA\"f DA! + EB! + CE! = CA! + s.

)ç (|¡è (2005 &ñ

s. ß¼l 1 7'H í5Dú̀ 'a(unit ve tor) ÂÒǑÉr. %ò

¿º 7' v = (v1 ; v2 ; v3); w = (w1 ; w2; w3 ) H y $í

¢̧Ç 7'_Æ s

ýa³ð/BNçß` ·p. sM: n 4 s

sQÇ 7'_Æ í` s6 x Rn _Æ 7'[þt` $í

s6 x # ?/ 6£§õ °ú .

¹M 6 n >h_Æ º a ; a ; : : : ; an \ / # î̈

(a1 + a2 + + an)2 n(a21 + a22 + + a2n)

Ü¼ ìrK )a. ª

Note 0A dÜ¼ÒÂ' &ñ

s. P1(x1 ; y1) Ér f

Ü¼ èq º e. sM: fÉr x »¡¤õ ºf î̈

Ü¼ èq º e. #l"f

s d (1.7) Ér 6£§õ °ú s jþt º e.

^ÆË¢>+ ú̀ 'a'×ÇaÆÏø 95£o>ÊÁ'×ÇaÆÏ

Note ¢̧Ç (a; b; ) 6= 0 s ~½Ó&ñ

)ç (|¡è (2007Æ̧ &ñ

)a. x = t 6£§õ °ú Ér B>hº~½Ó&ñ

ç) (|¡è (2007Æ̧ ºr 6)

ç) (|¡è (2008Æ̧ ºr 2)

ç) (|¡è (2008Æ̧ ºr 8)

ç) (|¡è (2008Æ̧ &ñ

A Æ i P: 'Ér ri (A) ?/

f" '>=§ A H 6£§õ °ú s èq º¸ e.

'§>= A \"f m = n s A \ ÇaÆ'×ßjÝ~

s ¿º '>=§Ér °ú

'§>=_Æ ¸H ½Ós 0 '§>=` ÆZßjÝ~

ü< °ú s èq º e

Solution \P7'_Æ {9 ½+ËÜ¼ ?/

íßs 0pxÇ '§= A; B; C \ / # 6£§ 'a>ds $í

Note 0 A_Æ õ\ _

'§>=_Æ YL!lr\ /Ç

¹M 1 6£§ ¿º '>

Solution AB = BA = I3 e ` s )a.

nn ' >=§ A \ / # 6£§ $

Note 1. B; C A _Æ %i'>=§s . 7£¤,

s. A %i{9 M: B = A 1 s . ÕªQ

s Int = In sÙ¼

sÙ¼ AB H %is. %i'§>=Ér Ä»{9 Ù¼

A %i'§>=s A ü< At ¸ %is Õª %i'§>=Ér 6£§õ °ú .

Note A1 ; : : : Ak %i{9 M:, ¿

°ú Ér º[þt_Æ +þA~½Ó&ñ

#l"f >º[þt sÀ

¹M 5 6£§ +þA~½Ó&ñ

nn ' >=§ A \ / # A %is +þA> Ax = b H Ä»{9Ç K x = A 1 b`

Solution VOD y ©ýa ¢̧H º\O ¸

\"f í½ÓÉr ÑütP: ½ÓÉr

¹M 1 6£§Ér º\P` ?/H #Q ~½ÓZO` ·p .

º\PÉr 6£§õ °ú s ÕªAáÔ\ s6 x # èq º¸ e

s ÕªAáÔ\f" an =n Ér n s &|9º2¤ \ Æ0>f` ·ú º e sM: s ÊÁá~

º§4 t ·ú§H º\P an \ / # n s &f\ an s &|9 M: º\P

¹M 2 1pxqº\P r

ÊÁ℄ M ÊÁá~

º\P_Æ FGÇ°ú̄` ½¨ l 0AK"fH 6£§õ °ú Ér z´[þt` 6 x½+É º e .

an bn n s n!1 an n!1 n L s n!1 bn L s

¢̧Ç º\P_Æ FGÇ\ / # 6

ÁÊ℄ M ÊÁá~

¸H n \ / #1

¹M 5 {9ìøÍ½Ós 6£§õ °ú s ÅÒ#Q º\PÉr éß¸7£x<Ê` # .

6£§õ °ú s <Êº f {9 d â

¹M 8 ¿l+ R Õ tower of Hanoi Ér óøÍ\ [j0> [j >h_Æ }/<ü î

Ç\ _Æ "é¶ìøÍëß ¹¡§f

H "é¶ìøÍÉr ½Ó© Ér "é¶ìøÍ A\ e#Q Ç .

ÕªQ %6£§ }/\"f

ÕªXO ÁºÇy ú́§

¹M 1 6£§ ÁºÇ/åLºH º§4<Ê` s Õª ½+Ë` ½¨ # .

Solution ÂÒìrìrº\ s6 x

Solution 2 _Æ [þv℄jYL½Ó\ /Ç ÂÒìr½+Ë 7£¤ , , s2 ; s4 ; s8 ; ` ¶ú(Rl .

H jrj < s º§

¹M 3 6£§ /åLº_Æ º§4 µ1Ïíß` óøÍ&ñ

(b) í½ÓÉr s /BNqH

0:1 p = 1=p; 0:01 p = 1=p ; 0:001 p = 1=p ; : : :

ÊÁ℄ M ;³¹ÊÁ+ e