TOPIC: HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT (MY COPY)

Heritability
•
Definition: extent that observed differences on a trait or behavior are due to genes
•
Psychologists and behavior genetics researchers attempt to estimate heritability using the
heritability coefficient, h2

“Runs in families” = Heritable? (TRUE OR FALSE)

1. “Many traits, such as leadership, political skills, ideology, and moral strength, run in families.

2. Heritable = Unchangeable?- “Once a schizophrenic always a schizophrenic”

3. Heritable = Drug Treatment?- “If a condition is heritable, treat it with drugs” “If a condition
responds to drugs, it is probably heritable.”
4. Heritability is always Constant?- “IQ, personality traits, criminality, and psychological disorders
are all highly heritable,
5. Schizo-gene : According to News Media “A new study has finally found the gene for
schizophrenia!”

Heredity vs. Environment

 Heredity- characteristics obtained directly from the genes
 Environment- person’s surroundings (which influence a person’s characteristics)

HEREDITY

Genes- basic units of heredity - Ex eye color, hair color, body build, etc.
Chromosomes- structures containing genes - All human cells contain 46 chromosomes (23 pairs), except
for reproductive cells which contain 23 chromosomes (1/2 of a pair, so they can attach to the other half
to make a person)

Genetics and Prenatal Development

The Human Cell
• The human body is comprised of over 200 different kinds of cells which are the smallest self-
contained structures
The Nucleus
• Chromosomes, Genes, Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Chromosomes
• Rod shaped structures found in the center of the nucleus of every cell in the body.
• Each sperm and each ovum contains 23 chromosomes.
• The chromosomes contain the DNA and genes.
• The fertilized egg (zygote) and all the body cells that develop from it (except the sperm cells
and the ova) contain 46 chromosomes.
22 of the pairs are called autosomes and are numbered from largest to smallest.
The autosomes are not involved in determining sex.
The 23rd pair are the sex chromosomes:
• XX in females
• XY in males

Karyotype
A photograph of a cell’s chromosomes arranged in pairs according to size
DNA - Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Nucleotides are the building blocks of DNA
They contain 4 nitrogen-carbon-hydrogen basis that bond to form specific pairs:
adenine can only pair with thymine
cytosine can only pair with guanine
The combination of base pairs cannot vary
• They determine the nature of each cell in the body and how it will function.

Genes
• The basic unit of genetic information
• They determine the nature and the function of the cell.
• The human genes (about 120,000) are referred to as the human genome.
• A genome is the full set of genes in each cell of an organism.

Controversial Issues
 Will it be ethical for parents to have their children screened prior to birth and decide not to have
a child with a genome that is merely undesirable?
 What about employers not hiring people with bad genomes and insurance companies refusing
to insure them?
Gender
 X Chromosome
 In both men and women (men have 1, women have 2)
 X Chromosome from each parent produces a female child
 Y Chromosome
 Only in men (men have 1)
 Y Chromosome when paired with the X Chromosome from the mother produces a male
child
Gender Roles
 Gender Role- set of expected behaviors for men and women
 Gender Identity- one’s sense of being male or female
Research on the Effects of Genes
 Researchers have employed several methods (e.g., twin studies, adoption studies) to investigate
the relative influence and interaction of genes and environment in shaping human behavior and
traits.
Based on the Findings from Genetic Research, Genes affect every aspect of human behavior.

Psychopathology
Genes have been found to influence several disorders. However, the environment ALSO plays a key role
in these disorders.

GENES: Dominance or Recessive

if both members of a gene pair are dominant- the individual will manifest the trait determined by the
genes.
if one is dominant & the other is recessive- the individual will show the form of the trait determined
by the dominant gene but will also carry the recessive gene (which may be expressed in a different
way as a trait in the offspring.)

Recessive form
--will be expressed only if the genes contributed by both parents are recessive
Example: a gene determining eye color
ex. Blue eyes are recessive.
- for a child to be blue-eyed , both parents must be blue-eyed, or if one parent is brown eyed,
that parent must carry a recessive gene for blue eyes.
The brown-eyed parents can produce a blue-eyed child only if both carry a gene
for blue eyes.
Some dominant and recessive characteristics in the genes:

Dominant Gene
brown eyes, normal blood, dark or brunette hair, curly hair, normal hair, normal color vision, normal
hearing, normal coloring

Recessive Gene
blue eyes, light, blond, or red hair, straight hair, baldness, color blindness, congenital deafness,
night blindness

We may inherit many physical traits and mental traits.

Some of the physical traits known to be hereditary:
color and shape of the eyes, color and texture of the hair, color or shade of the skin, size and shape
of the nose, quality of teeth , shape of the lips, size of the ear, height, body built, shape
of the face, and some physical defects like polydactyly (extra fused digit fingers, two-jointed
fingers, and clubbed feet)

Inheritance of intelligence
--- psychologist who studied differences in heredity and environment within families reported how
intelligence varies with these differences:
a. Heredity has an important influence in determining intelligence
b. environment has substantial effects on intelligence; and
c. both heredity and environment play a profound rule in a person’s score on an intelligence test.
Inheritance of emotionality
studies also clearly demonstrate the inheritability of emotional reactions. Thus,
temperament, and aspect of emotionality, is also determined partly by genetic constitution.

Twins
--is one of the two offspring produced in the same pregnancy
--it can either be monozygotic (MZ colloquially “identical”) meaning that they develop
from one zygote that splits and form two embryo’s

MZ Twins

--have nearly identical DNA, but differing environmental influences throughout their lives
affect
MZ twins are almost always the same sex and their traits and physical appearances are
very similar but not exactly the same

Dizygotic (DZ colloquially “fraternal”) because they develop from two separate eggs that
are fertilized by two separate sperm

Chromosomes of the Father determine the sex of the child

Inherited Disorders
• Sex-Linked Disorders
– Genetic Disorders
– Chromosomal Disorders
• Autosomal Disorders
– Genetic Disorders
– Chromosomal Disorders

Chromosomal Abnormalities
 Chromosomal abnormalities when the zygote’s cells have fewer or more chromosomes than 46.
 Maternal age is the most common correlate of chromosomal abnormalities.
 Many zygotes with chromosomal abnormalities are spontaneously aborted.

(A genetic disorder is an illness caused by abnormalities in genes or chromosomes, especially a condition

that is present from before birth. Most genetic disorders are quite rare and affect one person in every
several thousands or millions.
A genetic disorder may or may not be a heritable disorder. Some genetic disorders are passed down
from the parents' genes, but others are always or almost always caused by new mutations or changes to
the DNA. In other cases, the same disease, such as some forms of cancer, may be caused by an inherited
genetic condition in some people, by new mutations in other people, and by non-genetic causes in still
other people.)
Genetic Sex-Linked Disorders
1- Color Blindness
Genetic X-linked recessive disorder. Occurs in 1 of 10 males
2- Hemophilia A and B
Recessive disorders that affect 1 of 5,000 males. These interfere with normal blood clotting

Chromosomal Sex-Linked Disorders

1- Fragile X Syndrome
Occurs in about 1 of 1,200 males and 1 of 2,500 females. Results from a breakage of the tip of an X
chromosome.
Fragile X syndrome is caused by a single gene that has 200 repetitions of a triplet.
The effects of Fragile X include cognitive deficits and poor social skills.
Males are at greater risk of developing this syndrome.
2- Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY, XXXY, XXXXY)
Occurs in about 1 of 1,000 males. It is caused by an extra X chromosome
3- Superfemale Syndrome (XXX, XXXX, XXXXX)
Occurs in about 1 of 1,000 females. Women appear normal, but tend to score slightly below average
in intelligence.
4- Supermale Syndrome (XYY, XYYY, XYYYY)
Occurs in about 1 0f 1,000 males. The men tend to be taller than average, with a greater incidence of
acne and minor skeletal abnormalities.
5- Turner’s Syndrome (XO)
Occurs in about 1 of 10,000 females. One of the X chromosomes is either missing or inactive. These
women have immature female appearance, do not develop secondary sex characteristics, and lack
internal reproductive organs.

Autosomal Disorders
• Disorders involving the other 22 pairs of chromosomes.
• Can result from an extra chromosome or defective genes

Genetic Autosomal Disorders

1- Angelman’s syndrome
Occurs in about 1 of 10,000 to 15,000 people. It is determined by a set of mutated genes on
chromosome 15.
2- Cystic Fibrosis
A recessive disorder that occurs in about 1 of 2,5000 people of white European ancestry. Related to a
mutated gene on chromosome 17. Characterized by excessive secretion of the mucus in the body.
3- Huntington Disease
A dominant disorder that occurs in about 1 of 10,000 people. A dominant gene on chromosome 4 is
responsible.
Huntington’s disease is a fatal CNS disorder caused by a genetic miscode. It is inactive until middle
adulthood.
It causes degeneration of neurons producing dementia, and random jerking movements.
4- Phenylketonuria (PKU)
A recessive disorder that occurs in about 1 of 10,000 people. A defective gene on chromosome 12 is
responsible
5- Prader Willi Syndrome
A recessive disorder that occurs in 1 of 10,000 to 15,000 people.
6- Sickle-Cell Anemia
Occurs in about 1 of 12 U.S. blacks. The defective gene on chromosome 11 is responsible.
7- Tay-sachs Disease
A recessive disorder that occurs in about 1 of 5,000 people of European Ashkenazi Jewish ancestry.
Defective gene on chromosome 15 is responsible.

Chromosomal Autosomal Disorders

Down Syndrome (trisomy 21)

Occurs in about 1 in 1,000 live births. An extra chromosome is attached to the 21 st pair. Risk increases
with maternal age. Pregnancies of women over age 35 accounts for 20% of Down syndrome birth
 Down syndrome occurs when a zygote has 3 copies of chromosome 21.
 Sufferers experience mental slowness, faster aging, and physical problems.
 Social support and a positive attitude help.
Abnormalities of the 23rd pair

 About 1 in 500 infants have either one too many or too few chromosomes on the 23 rd pair.
 This can lead to underdeveloped sexual organs (girls), breast development (boys), or other
anomalies.
Principal Effects FOR klinefelter| Development of small testicle and reduced fertility
Genetic Counseling
 Genetic counseling provides facts. It is recommended for:
 Couples from the same ethnic group
 Individuals with a close relative with a genetic condition
 Couples with a history of infertility or miscarriage
 Women 35 or older, men 40 or older
 Can help couples obtain valuable information about the parents’ genetic makeup .
 It can help potential parents to evaluate genetic risk factors in childbearing and enable them to
make intelligent decisions.
 It includes analysis of parental medical records and family histories to construct a family
pedigree.

 Genetic counseling raises a number of ethical and complicated issues.

 Results are an estimate of risk, not a guarantee that a disorder will or won’t occur.

Family History Parental Conditions

Neonatal deaths genetic or chromosomal abnormality
Malformations infertility
Mental retardation mothers/father’s age
Congenital anomalies (e.g. club feet) stillbirths
Diseases that run in families ethnic background
Inability to thrive exposure to toxic agents
cancer

Genetic Counseling Decision Tree for High-Risk Couples

Detecting Birth Defects
Amniocentesis
Chronic Villus Sampling
Ultrasound Sonography
Maternal Blood Test

Amniocentesis
Amniocentesis (also referred to as amniotic fluid test or AFT), is a medical procedure used in prenatal
diagnosis of chromosomal abnormalities and fetal infections,[1] in which a small amount of amniotic fluid,
which contains fetal tissues, is extracted from the amnion or amniotic sac surrounding a developing
fetus, and the fetal DNA is examined for genetic abnormalities.
Results
Amniocentesis detects or rules out Down's syndrome, which causes mental retardation,
congenital heart defects, and physical characteristics such as skin folds near the eyes.
The ultrasound can be used during pregnancy to show images of the baby, amniotic sac,
placenta, and ovaries. Major anatomical abnormalities or birth defects may be visible on
an ultrasound. ... However, a transvaginal ultrasound is an alternativeprocedure in which a
tubular probe is inserted into the vaginal canal.

Chorionic villus sampling, sometimes called "chorionic villous sampling", is a form of prenatal
diagnosis to determine chromosomal or genetic disorders in the fetus. It entails sampling of the
chorionic villus and testing it for chromosomal abnormalities

The maternal serum screening (MSS) test is a blood test available to pregnant women to help
determine the risk of Down syndrome (trisomy 21), Edward syndrome (trisomy 18) or neural
tube defects in their unborn child. Serum is the watery part of the blood.

EXPERIMENTS ON THE HUMAN LIFE

Artificial insemination, or AI, is the process by which sperm is placed into the reproductive tract of a
female for the purpose of impregnating the female by using means other than sexual intercourse or
natural insemination. In humans, it is used as assisted reproductive technology, using either sperm from
the woman's male partner or sperm from a sperm donor (donor sperm) in cases where the male partner
produces no sperm or the woman has no male partner (i.e., single women, lesbians). In cases where
donor sperm is used the woman is the gestational and genetic mother of the child produced, and the
sperm donor is the genetic or biological father of the child.
In vitro fertilization (IVF) is a process by which egg cells are fertilised by sperm outside the body: in vitro.
IVF is a major treatment in infertility when other methods of assisted reproductive technology have
failed. The process involves hormonally controlling the ovulatory process, removing ova (eggs) from the
woman's ovaries and letting sperm fertilise them in a fluid medium. The fertilised egg (zygote) is then
transferred to the patient's uterus with the intent to establish a successful pregnancy.

References:

Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 3

Hoerger, M. (2007, January 17). Heredity and Environment. Presented at a PSY 220 lecture at
Central Michigan University.

Prepared for: General Psychology Class

Prepared by: Prof. A. Bustamante-Paster