Acta Archaeologica vol. 74, 2003, pp.
211–250
Printed in Denmark ¡ All rights reserved
AND ON THEY WENT ... PROCESSIONS IN SCANDINAVIAN
BRONZE AGE ROCK CARVINGS
by
J C
‘... the rock carvings on slabs 7 and 8 (at Kivik) are al-
most certainly depictions of processions and ceremon-
ies, or a prelude to them’ (Randsborg 1993, 132).
These words have prompted my effort here to explore
the evidence for processions within the rock carvings of
southern Scandinavia. The enormous cairn and great
burial cist at Kivik in Skåne have had a long series of
investigations and interpretations, which will not be ex-
plored here. Rather, two of its cist slabs provide a focus
and a beginning to the present study. The two slabs
(Fig. 1) bear carvings of some obscure ceremonial in-
volving humans both identifiably human and masked
by robes. These figures are mostly laid out in fours or
multiple of fours, as are the carvings of other images on
the cist walls, four horses, four discs, and, indeed, four
slabs on either side of the cist. A second reason for my
curiosity about numbers and lines of humans arose
from a project to record the large rock carving site of
Häljesta in Västmanland (Coles 2001). Among the sev-
eral hundred images on the site is a staggered row of
humans totalling 16, all facing in the same direction.
Other sites with lines of many humans are known, from
Östergötland (Ekenberg) and Trøndelag (Leirfall), and
here and there elsewhere are smaller rows. So there
exists a body of evidence and it seemed interesting
enough to assemble the records and to try to see if any
pattern or logic could be identified; several of the well-
known lines of human images have prompted remarks
about Near Eastern and Western Asian sources, and
this too seemed worthy of examination.
First, we should consider the idea of a procession –
Copyright C 2003
ACTA ARCHAEOLOGICA
ISSN 0065-001X
‘the action of a body of persons going or marching
along in orderly succession, especially as a religious
ceremony or on a festive occasion’ (Oxford 1983).
From the standpoint of identity within the body of
rock carvings, we should thus look for a gathering
of people, set out in an orderly fashion and in some
recognisable line or row. Clusters or scatters of people
are excluded. Such a row of participants may well
have a leader, to guide the followers, to indicate when
to start, to set the pace and structure of the line, to
decide when to stop. There should be some uniform-
ity of design, or orderly progression, particularly if the
event is to be recorded by some artistic represen-
tation. The idea of involvement, in a positive direc-
tion, might be expected to be indicated, and the route
should in all probability be a traditional one, marking
the place of assembly and direction of travel, or per-
haps the termination of the event. The procession is
not likely to have been conducted in silence, and we
could envisage some degrees of noise – clapping,
shouting, music to an orderly beat; this would aid the
smooth progression of the group and help maintain
discipline. The purpose of such processions will re-
main mostly shrouded in mystery for us today, al-
though some suggestions will be advanced, and of
course we may be dealing with a joyful celebratory
procession, or a solemn commemoration, or a combi-
nation, and the event may be driven by earthly needs
or presumed divine powers, or both. Finally, the com-
pletion of the walk (as no vehicles are indicated) may
be at some specified time, or place; the idea of place
212
Fig. 1. The Kivik cist slabs (8 and 7). Upper (Nilsson 1863–64);
centre (Burenhult 1973); lower as painted now (photo 1995 JMC).
is currently popular for a variety of archaeological
evidences, and for us, in the south Scandinavian land-
scapes of the Bronze Age, we may be dealing with
places of sacrifice, offering, burial or existing monu-
mental or natural feature that had particular reson-
ance for the people.
Acta Archaeologica
The literature on the south Scandinavian rock car-
vings is extensive yet many of the thousands of sites
remain unpublished other than for a simple listing of
the basic images. It is likely, however, that any site
with 10 or more human images in any sort of a pat-
tern would be singled out for special notice and illus-
tration. The literature search included most if not all
of the monographs of pioneers such as Baltzer, Nord-
én, Almgren, Fredsjö, Althin, Marstrander, Fett and
Fett, and more recent authorities such as Burenhult,
Malmer, Högberg, Bengtsson, Milstreu, Sognnes,
Mandt, Glob, Østmo, Sør-Reime, Bertilsson and
(even) Coles; these works appear in the list of refer-
ences. The work of Burenhult (1973) for southern-
most Sweden is still fundamental as a corpus of illus-
trations, and the most recent catalogues edited by
Milstreu and Bengtsson for Bohuslän have initiated
the modern documentation of rock carvings that con-
tinue to deteriorate through a number of polluting
factors.
Concurrent with this trawl of literature has been
site visits over the past years, to the Trøndelag, Hord-
aland, Rogaland, Telemark and Østfold in Norway,
and Bohuslän, Dalsland, Västergötland, Östergöt-
land, Västmanland, Uppland, Småland, Blekinge and
Skåne in Sweden. These visits, often aided by col-
leagues (see the Acknowledgements), have mostly
been concerned with other projects in mind, but all
have helped to build up a photographic record,
supplemented by rubbings made of particular images
and groups of images, and relatively extensive notes
on site location, outlook and proximity to landscape
features. Ideally, what is needed for all sites are com-
prehensive surveys, site catchments in effect, but also
the exploration of lines of sight, as well as site lines,
and areas of contact and influence in rock carving
images and character. Some of this has been done
over the years but of course any general approach
and attitude needs to be tailored to the particular. So
gaps exist here and there in areas explored; nonethe-
less the results of the current work have thrown up
some unexpected evidence and allow me to offer
some thoughts about the rock carvings that depict
processions.
The questions asked of the evidence for processions
of humans included the fundamentals of numbers of
participants, the representation of humans, direction
 And on They went ... Processions in Scandinavian Bronze Age rock carvings 213

of travel, location of the carvings within sites and site

proximity to other monuments or landscape features.
Patterns and coherence were searched for, and some
fundamentals could be identified. From the work
done, about 30 sites were identified as having what
could, rather loosely, be termed processions of
humans. This small number is surprising, when we
consider the thousands of sites now known to exist;
many of these are small in terms of numbers of im-
ages, but certain areas of south Scandinavia have
many sites, hundreds if not thousands, and within
these the known number of processions on the many
large sites is slight. For areas where the number of
known sites is relatively small, processions are rarely
seen (Fig. 2). The figures are: Bohuslän, Østfold and
Dalsland 19 sites, Uppland and Västmanland 3,
Östergötland 3, Skåne 1 (Kivik), Hordaland and
Trøndelag 3; these figures can surely be supple-
mented by sites unpublished or not recognised by me.
However, I think that the sample to be described will
give a flavour and some of the substance of the evi-
Fig. 2. The location of rock carvings with processional images in
dence, and allow some measure of conjecture about
Sweden and Norway. The numbers refer to the illustrations.
the significance of the procession as a rarely-presented
concept and as an ideal, in a wider appreciation of
Bronze Age imagery.
Before turning to these themes, it may be worth vings, e.g. Kalleby in Bohuslän (Baltzer 1881, pl. 57–
setting out the exclusions. Many sites carry numbers 58); the task of assembling the data for these travellers
of human images, scattered about or clustered, and is too daunting, as well as numbing. The number of
all without doubt placed with a purpose. Here and carvings of boats in which identifiable human beings,
there are groups of human images, a sort of corporate as opposed to mere strokes, are being carried is in the
corpora, but most do not form orderly lines such as hundreds; it has not been the intention to include
we can see on particular sites such as Häljesta. So I these here, but their relevance to the direction of
eliminate from this study a number of clustered hu- travel and the precise number of humans on board
man images such as can be seen at Finntorp and As- are, I think, now worth some research amidst the
kum 2 in Bohuslän (Baltzer 1881, pl. 55–56; Bengts- thousands of sites that await the dogged student.
son 1997), Fiskeby in Östergötland (Nordén 1925;
Hertz 1999) and Boglösa 94 in Uppland (Coles 2001).
Occasionally, carvings of human images are pre- A CATALOGUE OF PROCESSIONS
sented in an oblique line, nearing the vertical e.g. As- In presenting the Catalogue of processions, descrip-
kum 433 and Boglösa 123.2 (Bengtsson 1998; Coles tions have been kept short and paired illustrations will
2001). And various groups of celebrants, including provide most of the detail. One figure, taken or
dancers?, also cannot really be addressed as pro- adapted from published reports, or a site photograph,
cessional, e.g. on the Sledasteinen in Hordaland will present some impression of the site itself, or a
(Mandt 1972, pl. 63) and Store Dal in Østfold (Mar- major part of the site (often called a panel) with the
strander 1963, pl. 4). Furthermore, I do not include procession thus put into a context. The other figure
boat crews, the lines of strokes or identifiably human is either a photo or drawing, or a tracing taken di-
images above the gunwales of numerous boat car- rectly from a rubbing made in 2002. From this work
214 Acta Archaeologica
it has become apparent that there is a very substantial
difference between the expectations of a rubbing on
the granites of Bohuslän (and quartzites of Skåne),
and a rubbing on the gneiss or other rough-grained
or softer rocks of Uppland, Dalsland, Östergötland
and other regions. Variations exist, of course, and
some surfaces in Östergötland present excellent
opportunities for clearly-delineated rubbings. The re-
sults of rubbings of images are wholly different in
these areas; the Bohuslän rubbings are often clear and
precise, and occasionally reveal hitherto unknown im-
ages (or amend known carving shapes), whereas rub-
bings made elsewhere have rarely failed to reveal
new, unknown, carvings. The differences between the
published or archive plans and the processions (as de-
termined by rubbings made in 2002) can be quite
substantial. In several cases the detail revealed by rub-
bing can transform the whole panel, in other cases
the detail only helps to refine the processions them-
selves, but this can also be significant. In all this work,
it is evident that many rock carving sites carry a var-
iety of images, created over time, augmented, altered,
defaced even, and it is often difficult to distinguish
particular faded or shallow carvings, and to clarify the
associations as well as the intimate details of individ-
ual images. If nothing else is made of this paper, the
words ‘newly-discovered’ in the site descriptions will
have added a little to the documentation of sites that
are gradually diminishing in clarity. It has been revel-
atory, to me at least, to see hitherto-unknown carvings
emerge on the paper, and yet the rock surfaces them-
selves remain as inscrutable as ever when viewed,
photographed or even gently explored with the fin-
gers. Doubtless ever-more scientific examinations will
continue to reveal new features (e.g. Bertilsson and
Magnusson 2000).
Finally, a glance at the processions illustrated here
will show the variety that exists, and doubtless some
of the smaller examples, of only 4–5 humans, could
be disputed as depicting an event as organised as a
procession. Readers can make up their own minds; I
include some to show the range of possibilities.
Tanum 1.4 (Vitlycke) (Fig. 3). 7 humans in a row, facing to our right,
and set just behind a large phallic human with sword scabbard.
They have upraised arms and are small carvings on a very broad
and large site. The bodies and legs are slender and 4 or 5 are
phallic. There is one human just above the row, and very large and
complex carvings well above, below and to the sides of the row.
The panel faces ENE and the rock slopes at 20æ.
(Baltzer 1881, pl. 18–21).
On the right side of the Vitlycke rock are 3 human figures in a
row, 2 and perhaps 3 with sword scabbards, facing right. To the
left as we view the carving is a very faint image of a human also
facing right; it is possible that this is a chair and not a human. It
has not been recorded before, and is not clear enough to be iden-
tified as a procession.
Tanum 25 (Aspeberget) (Fig. 4). 11 humans in a curving row, facing
to our right. Stubby arms extend from a few of the images, and ill-
placed penis stubs on 3 or 4. Wide angular shoulders, thickened
legs, especially calves and distinct feet are carefully carved. One
human may have long hair. The heads are rather large and several
are irregular; the quality of carving degenerates on the righthand
figures, an apprentice’s work perhaps. All images are separated
from one another except for a pair that touch at shoulders. The
row is amidst a small concentration of carvings on a large area
with many images; immediately above the humans are boats, ani-
mals and a human, and below are boats and animals, with cup-
marks above and below. A single human with supplicant arms is
off to the left. The panel faces ESE, and the rock slopes at c25æ.
(Högberg 1988; Milstreu and Prøhl 1996, pl. 70–72).
Tanum 244 (Kalleby) (Fig. 5). 7 humans in an irregular row, 3 going
to our right, one small figure going left and 3 indeterminate. Heads
are quite large, bodies long and legs slender; 3 figures have scab-
bards and one of these has a penis. Below the row are several
footsoles, a large human and a boat; off to the right are a number
of large boats. The rock faces SSE and the slope is 5–10æ; the site
is now buried. Scattered over and around the heads are cupmarks.
It is debatable if this is a formal procession.
(Baltzer 1891 and Vitlycke Museum archive).
Tanum 311 (Gerum) (Fig. 6). The large site is dominated by a com-
plex pole with seemingly swinging arms, and surmounted by a
horn-headed adorant human. Beside this are 5 human figures,
seemingly headless, and also adorant, with slender bodies and short
legs, facing to our right (row A). Beside the base of the pole are 4
human figures, adorant or wearing horns, with slender bodies and
curved legs, facing right, towards the pole (row B). Below the pole
base are 4 warriors, not in a row, facing left, and there are 2 more
humans beside these. All of the human groups are surrounded by
many carvings, of boats, single humans and other images. The
panel faces SSE and the rock slopes at 17æ at the pole carving.
(Bengtsson and Olsson 2000; Baltzer 1881, pl. 39–40; Holmberg
1848, tab. 25–26).
Tanum 351 (Tegneby) (Fig. 7). 7 humans in an irregular curved row,
facing to our right. All but one are phallic and one may have an
arm extended, and as this figure has bent back and is perhaps
holding a stick, he looks elderly. The heads on several figures may
well have facial features shown. Two figures are larger than the
others. Well above the row is an animal, and just below are 2 large-
 And on They went ... Processions in Scandinavian Bronze Age rock carvings
bodied horned cattle, with boats, animal and cupmarks beyond.
The panel faces ENE and the rock slopes at 8æ.
(Högberg 1995, 95–96; Holmberg 1848, Fig. 32).
Tanum 360.1 (Fig. 8). 6 humans in a row, facing to our left. The
rounded bodies have a front projection, elongated necks and small
heads. All 6 have or had sword scabbards; the rock has been dam-
aged. The thickened legs are curved or straight and the feet curved
out. A cupmark is below one of the humans. Two similar images
are well below the row with several boats beside. The procession
is carved in isolation on a huge expanse of rock. The panel faces
NW and the rock slopes at 25æ.
(Bengtsson and Olsson 2000, p. 58; Holmberg 1848, tab. 20, Fig.
59).
Tanum 454 (Tova) (Fig. 9). 5 humans in a row, 1 facing right, 2
facing left and 2 indeterminate. Bodies are thin, and legs slender.
One figure has a scabbard and the leading figure may be bran-
dishing an axe; the carvings are not very clearly outlined now. The
row is at the extreme base of the rock surface; above and to the
right and left are many boats. The rock faces ESE and slopes 12æ.
A debatable procession.
(Baltzer 1891, pl. 3–4 and Vitlycke Museum archive).
Askum 6.1 (Fig. 10). 6 humans in an irregular line, all facing to our
left, and all armed with sword scabbard, 5 holding axes in their
right hands and with left hand resting behind on scabbards, all
with thickened calves. The attitude of all shows conformity in de-
sign, and the figure second from left appears unfinished, the arms
incomplete. Below the row are boats, another warrior with the
same features, and off to left are 4 discs and boats; various cup-
marks above and below. The panel faces SSE and the rock slopes
at 12æ.
(Bengtsson 1997).
Askum 67.2 (Rished) (Fig. 11). 4 humans in a row, facing to our left.
Legs are rather thick, heads quite large, and all are adorant with
fingers indicated, mostly 3 fingers. The figures are positioned above
a boat, but are not a crew. They do not form a true procession,
more a stationary group. The rock faces SSW and slopes at 8æ.
(Bengtsson and Olsson 2002).
Askum 70.1 (Rished) (Fig. 12). 8 humans in a row, facing to our left.
The bodies are disc-like and open, and heads are also small on
elongated necks; several of the heads appear as side-views, with
forehead, nose and chin probably attempted. The legs are very
long and thin, and feet stubby. All 8 have sword scabbards. Below
are human images with adorant arms and large hands, one upright
and one with legs outstretched and a cupmark below; other
humans, a wagon and other images are below. The panel faces W
and the rock slopes at 2–10æ.
(Bengtsson and Olsson 2002).
Tossene 73 (Åby) (Fig. 13). 5 humans in a row, facing to our right.
At least 4 have sword scabbards, and all are phallic. The arms are
raised and the heads are elongated, as if wearing conical hats. The
215
righthand arms of 4 are elongated, perhaps therefore holding rods,
torches or swords. The bodies are slender and legs mostly straight
or slightly curved, and feet are distinct. Above and beside are a
variety of images on the large site, boats, bear footprints, animals,
humans and discs. Immediately above the row of humans is a long
boat overcarved by human images. The panel faces SE and the
rock slopes 25æ.
(Vitlycke Museum archive).
Tossene 77 (Fig. 14). 11 humans in a row, facing to our right. Legs
are rather long and thin, bodies squared and head small. They are
armless, and similar to the humans at an adjacent site (Tossene 82,
300m distant). A large boat lies above the row with a few other
images higher up the rock. The rock faces S and slopes at 20æ.
(Vitlycke Museum archive).
Tossene 82 (Fig. 15). Perhaps 18 or 19 humans, or part-humans, in
a row. There are 19 cupmarks with 16 upper bodies, and 9–10
complete bodies; the row may have been left incomplete. 5 humans
may be facing to our right; and 6 to our left. Two of the completed
humans are large, and the spacing of at least one of the cupmark
heads excludes its completion as a human image. A large boat lies
just above the humans, with 2 very large humans, armed and phal-
lic, and other boats lie above. The panel faces NNW and the rock
slopes at 6æ.
(Vitlycke Museum archive).
Hogdal 216 (Nybygget) (Fig. 16). There are two lines of humans, the
upper row of 9 figures, the lower row of 7 figures. The upper row
is irregular but all face to our right; some arms are raised, legs are
wide apart, and heads are small. 2 of these figures are newly recog-
nised by the rubbing. The lower row is entirely newly found and
the details are unclear as the rock is very rough. These figures are
small, arms are raised and the figures face to our right. The rows
lie just below 2 large boats, with more carvings higher up the rock.
The rock faces SSE and slopes at 15–20æ.
(Vitlycke Museum Archive and as above).
Hogdal 233 (S. Gåshult) (Fig. 17). There are 2 rows of figures. The
upper row has 4 large figures moving to our left, and 3 small figures
moving to our right. One of the larger figures has a double head
and shoulders, as if carved too small and thus extended to match
the others. The figures are adorant. The lower row has 11 figures,
moving to our right; one at centre may be moving to our left,
another is unclear, and on the right end of the row is a robed
figure. The rock faces SSE and slopes at 25–30æ.
(Vitlycke Museum archive).
Lyse 69.1 (Klättene) (Fig. 18). There are 2 lines of humans, one more
identifiably human than the other. Row A consists of 7 figures; 4
uniform figures have scabbards, long legs and rather large heads,
and face left. Behind them is a small figure, with scabbard and
facing left. To the left of this group is a single human, with large
head and facing right; beside this is what seems to be an unfinished
human, with one leg turned to the left. Between the 2 segments of
this row is a chair-like design. Below the row are a number of long-
216 Acta Archaeologica
legged birds, and a probable bowman. Row B, set well to the right
of Row A, has 7 masked and robed figures, 6 in a line facing left
and a smaller figure below, at the end of the line. The bodies are
squat oblongs with lower left corner more pointed than the lower
right. Each body appears to have a curved arm from shoulder
down the back. The necks are elongated and may incorporate small
heads at top, which have curving extensions like a headdress or
horned cap. Several boats are carved to the left of the row. The
Lyse rock faces SSE and slopes at 10æ.
(Baltzer 1891, pl. 13–14 no. 3 and Vitlycke Museum archive).
Lyse 610 (Fig. 19). There are 2 rows of humans on this site. An
upper Row A has 4 figures with scabbards and facing to our right;
bodies are rounded, heads small and legs thin. Below is Row B
with 6 humans with scabbards, facing to our left. Bodies are
chunky, necks long and heads small. Legs are straight. A human
figure is below this row, and a boat is on the right, turned to the
vertical. A few human figures are at the top, above Row A, with
cupmarks between the rows. The rock faces NE although its ridge
faces E, and the slope is about 15æ. The site is now covered.
(Vitlycke Museum archive).
Kville 143 (Stora Jore) (Fig. 20). 8 humans in a row, 7 facing to our
left. One is phallic and arms are indicated on 2 or 3. The carvings
are now rather irregular and unshapely. The bodies are rounded
and legs mostly curved. Just above the row is a boatline, and below
are large human images with disc bodies, and other humans and
boats. The panel faces SSE and the rock slopes at 9æ.
(Fredsjö 1981, p. 159).
Ekenberg, Östergötland (Fig. 21). 18 humans in a row (A), facing to our
left. One figure is twice as large as any other in the row. An ad-
ditional, smaller, figure is off-line to the left of the row, and probably
not an original part of the row. Almost all of the figures have sword
scabbards, rather bulky bodies and thickened legs; heads are irregu-
lar, some small and others lumpy. The 12 figures to the left of the
large human are thicker at left, thinner at right as the large human is
neared; behind this are 5 figures, one in the middle very small and
previously not identified. Above the row is a large boat and disc, and
below are 2 upside-down boats, a disc and human, and below these
is the famous ‘emblem bearer’. The human figure at the left end of
the row is carved over a boat line. Below this is a row (B) of 4 slender
humans with upraised arms, possibly a pair of lurs, facing left. The
panel faces SW and the surface slopes at about 5æ.
(Nordén 1925, pl. LXXXVIII; Burenhult 1973, p. 137; Hertz
1999, p. 17). Nordén reverses this line of figures in his text, Fig.
101 and p. 199; his pl. LXXXVIII is correct.
Herrebro, Östergötland (Fig. 22). 7 humans in a row, possibly facing to
our right. All of the figures have arms outstretched and some are
bent upwards, and 3 have curving horns coming out from
shoulders; legs are straight and bodies short and rather chunky.
The rock is rather rough and details of the smaller figures are
difficult to decipher; the adorant arms of these have not previously
been fully detected. Below the line of humans are several boats and
discs. The panel faces ENE and the rock slopes at 30æ.
(Lindeblad and Nielsen 1994, p. 26–27; Burenhult 1973, p. 160;
Hertz 1999 p. 28).
Leonardsberg, Östergötland (Fig. 23). 3 rows of humans. The upper row
(B) has 7 figures, 2 of them very small, all with arms hanging down
and short straight legs. 3 appear to have neckrings or scarves, and
5 have scabbards. The group face right. A lower row (A) has 11
figures, 5 large and 6 small; 4 of the latter are newly-discovered.
There is also a pair of legs without a body. 3 have scabbards and
2 are phallic. All of these figures are rather like those of the upper
row although 2 are probably adorant (arms upraised). The figures
face right (2), left (2), uncertain (the rest). Away to the right of this
line is a third row (C), of 4 humans with upraised arms for 3; 2
face left, 2 face right. These 3 rows are set alongside carvings of
animals and boats, with large boats and more complex carvings
higher up the site. The panel faces SW and the rock slopes at 22æ.
(Nordén 1925, pl. LV; Burenhult 1973, p. 147; Hertz 1999, p.23).
Kivik, Skåne (Fig. 1). Two of the cist slabs in the burial cairn have
carvings of humans in small rows. One slab has 4 humans, moving
to our left, at the top, and a row of 8 robed figures moving to our
left towards a single unrobed figure, at base. All these figures may
be moving south according to the layout of the slab with the cist.
A cart and several animals complete the carvings on this complex
panel. The other slab has a number of grouped figures; at centre
are 2 sets of robed figures facing one another across a coffin or vat.
It is not certain if here we have 2 sets of 4 figures, or one set with
4 and one set with 5 figures, or indeed one set of 3 and one set of
5; it depends on which of the many illustrations we use (1756–
1973), but most recently it seems that it was 4π5; the slab has been
mostly destroyed. At base are 2 sets of 4 unrobed figures moving
to our right (although 2 of the figure are uncertainly orientated)
and confronting small enclosures; these sets may be moving north.
The slab also has, at the top, some musicians including, perhaps,
gong-sounders, or a more prosaic yoke with 2 pails.
(Randsborg 1993; Althin 1945, tab. 77; Burenhult, 1973, p. 61).
Evenstorp, Dalsland (Fig. 24). There are 2 rows of humans. The upper
row (A) is dominated by a large stick-bodied figure with adorant
arms, ending in fingered hands, and a disc head with two small
cupmarks for eyes and a cupmark mouth; these may have been
added later. Indeed, the stick-plus-head may be a later addition to
the whole panel. To the left of this figure is a pair of thick curved
legs and a thin body, and an arm. To the right are 5 more such
figures, each a pair of curved legs, a slender body, small head and
outstretched arm. Much of this detail is newly-discovered as a
glance at the site plan of 1982 will show; the rock is very rough
here and detail is difficult to discern although a spoked line is
clearly present. This row of 6 faces left.
The lower row (B) has 14 human figures, with an additional
larger figure at the righthand end and one figure just above. The
whole group thus totals 16, and face left. Much of the detail, heads
and arms in particular, are new discoveries. The row is uneven in
alignment, and the 3 lefthand figures are larger than most of the
others of the row. Many of these figures have upraised arms, and
small heads; there are several gaps in the row. Near the righthand
 And on They went ... Processions in Scandinavian Bronze Age rock carvings
end of the row, more detail is shown. The larger figure at the end
of the row has thickened legs; above is an adorant figure, also with
curved legs. Above and to the left of the human figures are images
of boats and other carvings, and a large disc lies between the upper
and lower rows. The panel faces SE and the rock slopes at 8–10æ.
(Rex Svensson 1982, p. 82–85).
Häljesta, Västmanland (Fig. 25). 18 humans in a tiered arrangement,
with 10 in an orderly row, 2 sloping up from the row at the lefthand
end, and 6 set in a row slightly lower down from the main row.
These main rows of figures face to our left as we view the carvings;
the 2 figures at the end face right. Bodies are square, necks pro-
nounced and heads quite large. Legs are rather thin, well-separ-
ated, and feet clearly shown. The figures are evenly-spaced apart.
Damage has been done to several figures; in the lower row, a gap
between the righthand figure and the others was probably once
filled by a human figure but this has been hammered out of exist-
ence, leaving only the faintest of shape. A row of cupmarks is
aligned along the legs and lower bodies of the lower row, which
overlie the cupmarks. The 2 higher figures at the lefthand end are
not certainly a part of the group and the upper one is damaged.
The 3 central figures of the main row of humans are slightly smaller
than the others and are set at a level slightly above that of the
others; they stand just above a shallowly-carved boat, which prob-
ably preceded them in carving. The complex is badly damaged by
erosion, and also by wilful damage by hammering. Above the row
are a few large carvings, and a large number of images lie to the
left. The panel faces W and the rock slopes at 10–15æ.
(Coles 2001).
Biskopskula 71, Uppland (Fig. 26). 27 images in a row stretching along
a rough surface. 26 of these consist of discs to which 2 legs have
been attached; several are badly damaged. All of the figures appear
to be facing to our right. The legs are mostly curved. The discs are
uneven in size, several large and about 10 quite small; this sizing
appears to be in small groups of 2 or 3 discs. At the rear of the
row is a human figure, also facing to our right, with roughly carved
head and arms in a natural crack A few cupmarks are scattered
above and below the row. The panel faces NNW and the rock
slopes at 5æ.
(Kjellén 1976; Coles 2000, Fig. 21).
Boglösa 138 (Rickeby), Uppland, (Fig. 27). 6 humans in an irregular
row, one newly-found; all appear to face to our left, and are angled
slightly backwards. They have long bodies and 3 have slender legs,
3 others have thicker legs and wide buttocks. Heads of all are small.
The figure second from the right is carved over a faint footsole and
beside a rough cupmark; these are newly-identified. A larger hu-
man image, not part of the row, lies lower down at the righthand
end. One of the larger figures is cut at the feet by the deeply-
carved Rickeby ‘mantle’ or ‘chair’. Large carvings of boats and, in
particular, wheel-crosses and footsoles extend downslope from the
human images which are on the upper edge of a large site. The
panel with the humans faces SW, and the rock slopes here at 5æ.
(Coles 2000, but now with an additional figure).
To the N, at Boglösa 94, there are a number of small human
217
images scattered amongst other figures. 5 humans are close to-
gether, facing to our left; a large human, rather faint, is at one end
and there may be 1 or 2 other human figures in the same irregular
row. The rock faces ENE.
(Coles 2000).
Leirfall III, Nord-Trøndelag (Fig. 28). 12 humans in 3 groups, but set
tightly together in a very large site, and one large phallic human
with sword scabbard at the left, facing left as we view the surface.
The 3 groups consist of 3, 5 and 4 humans, all facing left. The
upper 3 have elongated heads and, seemingly, long hair; their feet
are well-defined. The central lower group of 5 have slender legs
and small heads or long slim bodies. To the right is a group of 4,
2 with long hair, 2 with penis-stubs; the image farthest to the right
might be facing right. The group of 5 is neatly set upon a natural
crack in the rock. Above, below and to the right are footsoles, to
the left are boats, and the bulk of the carvings lie higher up on the
site. The panel faces SE and the surface slopes rather steeply.
(Sognnes 2001, p. 70; Marstrander and Sognnes 1999, Fig. 107).
Bakke I, Jondal (Fig. 29). 9 humans in a row (A), with stick-like
bodies, short legs and thin bodies. At least 2 appear to have up-
raised arms, and several have penis-like stubs or scabbards; the
carvings are small and difficult to characterise. The direction of
movement is unclear. 2 of the figures are closely attached. Heads
are small and some are elongated. Above the row are boats and a
disc. Another panel on the site has 6 humans in a row (B), as 3
pairs; one pair face one another, the others move to our right, one
pair to a large boat and the other pair seem to underlie the boat.
The panels face SW and the rock is steeply sloped for the main
row, less so for the other.
(Mandt 1972, pl. 30).
Bakke III, Jondal (fig. 29). 7 humans in a row, with stick-like bodies,
small heads and thin lips. The figures face to our right. The sizes
vary, and a pair at the centre are larger than the rest. A carved
line under the central 4 humans might represent a boat line. A pair
of boats lie below the row and a few other images are to the right.
The panel faces S.
(Mandt 1972, pl. 32; Mandt 1973).
There are several other groups of human figures on
sites in Bohuslän and in Østfold that might be de-
scribed as processional, but the figures are not uni-
form in size or alignment. At Evje in Østfold, 4 figures
are carved in a damaged row and now difficult to
identify. One of the panels at Begby may have as
many as 6 tiny human figures set in a gentle curve
over a cart, but the images are very unclear. The
possible row at Vitlycke in Bohuslän has been noted
already (Tanum 1.4).
218 Acta Archaeologica
COMMENTARY ON THE PROCESSIONS
Almost all of the sites with processions contain other
images as well, as the published plans will show.
Within these sites, and others too, are carvings of
humans, often in abundance in Bohuslän, more
sparse in other areas, but scattered about and not pro-
cessional in our definition. Not so often are such scat-
ters to be found on sites or panels near the orderly
arrangement of processions. The lines or rows of
humans, in numbers from 4 to 25, are spread across
sites rather evenly, in that 8 rows are near or at the
top of sites, 9 near or at base of sites, 11 near the
centre of sites, and 4 are more or less the only car-
vings on a small rock (several sites have 2 or 3 rows,
treated as individuals in the above).
More distinct are the positions of the processions
relative to particular dominant carvings. Boat im-
ages are very abundant on many sites and it is
therefore to be expected that processions might well
appear near to various and perhaps miscellaneous
boat carvings; on 6 sites this is the case. However,
on another 9 sites the nearby boat carving is par-
ticularly large, dominant on the panel in some cases
(Tossene 77 and 82, Tossene Åby, Askum 67.2,
Hogdal 216, Ekenberg, Herrebro, Leonardsberg
(several), Bakke I). Carvings of isolated humans are
not so often near the processions but on 3 sites a
large human is perhaps a part of the line or perhaps
a chronologically or symbolically distinct image
(Tanum Vitlycke, Rished, Boglösa 138). Several
large figures lie below at Kville 143, and the robed
figures at Tossene Åby lie just above the procession.
The large human at Leirfall seems more clearly a
part of the procession, itself fragmented, and sur-
rounded by footsoles. The other processions are
more separate (e.g. Tanum 351, Askum 6.1, Even-
storp, Häljesta) and are thus more dominant in ef-
fect, and there are small rows of humans quite sub-
merged by the scale of other images around (e.g.
Tanum 311). Perhaps significant are the relatively
rare scatters or lines of cupmarks near the pro-
cessions; as cupmarks are sometimes deemed to rep-
resent the human presence, this avoidance may be
deliberate. The procession at Tossene 82, consisting
of 18 cupmark ‘heads’ with space for only a few
bodies, provides a link between the two images, and
a further comment is below.
The close examination of these particular car-
vings has thrown up a few observations about the
carvers themselves. Many of the images are well-
conceived and executed, and the design once
marked out was carefully followed. A row such as
seen at Tanum 351, with 7 humans, begins well on
the left end and deteriorates near the right end; per-
haps the latter is the work of an apprentice whose
hand and eye were not so well balanced. It would
be interesting to pursue the question of individual
carvers (cf. Kitzler Åhfeldt 2000); at a different level
I have tried to explore the aesthetics of this ap-
proach in a wider view of the south Scandinavian
carvings (Coles in press). On one or two sites the
carving sequence was probably conducted from left
to right, as images are carved into a preceding one
(Tanum 331, Leonardsberg), and from right to left
on 3 sites (Tanum 351, both rows at Ekenberg). Pre-
sumably we are dealing with handedness here, but
it should be clear from the illustrations that the
overlaps are very slight, and the merest strengthen-
ing of a line previously carved would present us
with the opposite view. The strange pole-based head
at Evenstorp is a clear later carving than at least
one of the human images in the upper procession.
Almost all of the processions, then, consist of indi-
vidual figures carved as individuals and separated
from neighbours; only in a few cases do we see joined
figures, touching as at Tanum 311 (upper group) and
Ekenberg. Almost all of the others, however, are set
very closely together, as if the emphasis has been on
a togetherness rather than as a group of distinct indi-
viduals. This cohesion is very clear at Tanum 25 and
351, Rished, Tossene Åby, Ekenberg, Leonardsberg
and Evenstorp. The assemblage at Tossene 82 is in-
teresting because it creates a depth to the procession
through the clever positioning of cupmark ‘heads’ be-
tween fully-formed humans; unfinished it may be, but
the construction of a crowd, as if advancing towards
the viewer, is unusual and effective. By strict defi-
nition, I suppose this group is not so much a pro-
cession as a gathering, and the direction of travel as
expressed by the bodies or legs is mixed. The general
similarity between the rows at Tossene 77 and 82,
sites only 300 m apart, is quite striking. It is perhaps
worth noting here that the assumption for these rows
of humans is that they present us with a front view of
 And on They went ... Processions in Scandinavian Bronze Age rock carvings
the bodies, or in some cases a side view, and rarely if
ever are we looking at the backsides; we are in fact
shown a full body but legs are mostly turned to show
the full feet and hence the direction of movement.
Comment appears below.
The identified processions consist of about 30 rows
of human figures, the rows containing from 4 to 25
humans. The precise numbers are discussed below.
Most processions should have some sort of leader, but
within the list there are only 7 possibles, and not all
are considered to be clearly a part of the original row.
The Tanum Vitlycke large human at right is an un-
certain component in the small line of humans. Tos-
sene 82 has one large figure set within the row, and
at Ekenberg there is a large figure also within the
line of humans. Leonardsberg also has one somewhat
larger figure although not as extreme as the others
noted above. The Boglösa 138 row may be distinct
from a larger figure set off the end, at the back of the
row. And the strange pole-based head at Evenstorp is
likely to be a later carving than the two rows of
humans. None of these putative leaders is at the front
of any procession other than the Leirfall figure and a
robed figure at Hogdal 233.
The ordinary figures making up the processions ap-
pear to fall into several groups, categorised as follows:
The armless group (e.g. Fig 4). These figures are pre-
sented rather closely grouped, side by side, and al-
though heads and bodies and feet are clearly de-
picted, the humans lack arms or have the merest of
stubs. This is clearly deliberate and the figures are
thereby disenfranchised, rendered harmless; it may be
that within this group of processions we see captives,
shown defenceless, or with hands bound behind their
bodies. About 12 sites have some version of armless
figures: Tanum 25, Tanum 244, Tanum 351, Tanum
454, Tossene 77 and 82, Kville 143, Lyse 69.1,
Häljesta, Biskopskula 71, Boglösa 138, Leirfall and
Bakke; 4 other sites, however, also have armless fig-
ures and yet have sword scabbard lines (Ekenberg A
and Lyse 610), and 2 of these have particularly disc-
like bodies: Rished, Tanum 360.1. The Ekenberg pro-
cession is one of the largest yet the figures are very
simply carved, mere sketches; it is just conceivable
that the scabbard lines are in fact penises, but this is
contradicted by the stance of the feet.
219
With arms and armed (weapon) (e.g. Fig. 10). In addition
to the sites noted above, 2 other sites have figures
holding weapons in hands (Askum 6.1) or carrying
scabbards (Askum 70.1, Leonardsberg A and B).
These are clearly a different kind of procession from
the first group.
Adorants (e.g. Fig. 13). Nine sites have rows of humans
with arms upraised and without weapons shown:
Tanum Vitlycke, Tanum 311, Tossene Åby, Hogdal
216 and 233, Ekenberg B, Leonardsberg A and C,
Herrebro, Evenstorp B. Two of these show other
attributes: some of the Herrebro figures appear to be
wearing, or possess, horn-like appendages on their
heads, or in place of their heads, and the Tossene
Åby figures are wearing pointed hats, or have conical
heads, and are probably carrying torches, or poles, in
front of them. The Bakke I procession of 9 figures has
several adorants. The upper row of figures at Even-
storp (A) are not adorant (see below) but a later ad-
dition in this row is a strange disc head on a pole,
with adorant arms and large fingered hand; such
hands occur on a number of sites in Bohuslän (Coles
1994, 27) and elsewhere, and indeed appear below
the adorant row at Rished. Such processions as we
see here look the opposite of the armless rows; they
are celebratory, victorious perhaps, or, as their com-
mon name implies, are engaged in some act of wor-
ship. They do not appear to be surrendering.
With arms but not adorant (Fig. 24). Apart from the
groups noted above, one site in particular needs men-
tion here. Evenstorp in Dalsland has previously been
considered to consist of a number of figures repre-
sented only by paired legs and short stick-like bodies,
with several more complete human images only at
the rear of the procession. A more intensive examina-
tion in 2002 has shown that all the figures in the
upper row (A) are full-bodied humans, with heads,
and each with an outstretched, supplicant arm; the
lower row (B) consists entirely of complete figures,
many with adorant arms, and a large scabbard-wear-
ing human at rear. The Hogdal 233 site has a varied
row of human figures, some with raised arms.
Robed and hooded (Fig. 18). One of the small rows of
figures at Lyse 69.1 consists entirely of masked or
220 Acta Archaeologica

Fig. 3. Tanum 1.4, Vitlycke. Upper, part of the site (Baltzer 1881); lower, the procession (painted 1990).
 And on They went ... Processions in Scandinavian Bronze Age rock carvings 221

Fig. 4. Tanum 25, Aspeberget. Upper, part of the site (Vitlycke Museum archive); lower, the procession (drawn from rubbing 2002). Height
of figure on left is 260 mm.

otherwise disguised humans. The rubbing made for
this paper seems to show detail not previously re-
corded; the bodies appear robed in a sub-triangular
shape, like flowing robes, with an arm curved at the
back, or indeed like a bustle; the heads may be just
indicated, and wearing a headdress or helmet that
curves forward and downwards, like a horn. There is
a rather ill-defined resemblance to the more slender
and stylized figures at Kivik (Fig. 1). There is a robed
figure at Hogdal 233; at Tossene Åby there are sev-
eral robed figures set above the small procession.
We come now to a somewhat unexpected observation
of the processions. It is already clear that we are deal-
ing with several different concepts, weaponless, arm-
less, adorant and so on, and in the recording of all
the sites some note was made of the feet portrayed.
Bodies are shown full face (or backside?), arms also,
222 Acta Archaeologica
Fig. 5. Tanum 244, Kalleby. Part of the site plan (Vitlycke Museum archive).
and legs as well, but quite often the feet are turned
one way or another, and thereby show direction of
travel; these are not the only indication of movement,
as often the legs are shown as if swinging forward.
The direction of travel is recorded in the Catalogue
from our (viewer) standpoint, either to our left or to
our right, but if the figures are facing out, front view
of bodies, then the direction of their travel is of course
the reverse of our (viewers’) standpoint; if feet are
turned to our left, the figure is moving to its right. An
unexpected observation about direction of travel may
be worth noting here.
THE NUMBERS GAME
Through the masterly work of several authorities,
particularly Malmer (1992), we have been informed
about the systems of equality and mensuration in the
Scandinavian Bronze Age. Numbers and quantities
of metal were clearly an integral part of social and
economic life, and perhaps also of symbolic behav-
iour. The sample of processions in the rock carvings
is a small one, and so the results of simple analysis
are tentative and subject to more rigorous studies.
Nonetheless, here they are. Randsborg’s analysis of
the Kivik cist slabs has been the starting point. At
Kivik the carvings occur mostly in groups of 4, 4
alone and 4π4 and 2π2 (Fig. 1). What is it about 4
that was important, why not 3 or 5? I suppose that 4
fingers per hand (plus opposed thumb) might play a
part, as well as the symmetry created by 4 stones for
a chamber, or walls for a house, or fences for a field.
The 4 horseman of the Apocalypse had probably not
been invented as a concept, even if all its elements
were present here and there.
Be that as it may, the processions carved on the
sites forming the subject of this paper are either of
even numbers, or odd numbers of human figures –
no surprise there – and of 12 processions moving
right, all have even number of participants (from 4
to 18); of 12 processions moving left, 10 have odd
numbers of participants (from 5 to 25). I exclude 4
or 5 sites where the direction is unclear as well as
the far distant Norwegian sites from the brief and
non-statistical analysis; Leirfall is just about the only
procession with a clear leading figure, Hogdal 233
perhaps. There is some little uncertainty about the
inclusion or exclusion of the larger human figures
that occasionally occur near to the rows of smaller
figures: if within the row, inclusion, if outside the
row, exclusion. The exceptions to this are Evenstorp
(a later carving I think) and Leirfall in Trøndelag
 And on They went ... Processions in Scandinavian Bronze Age rock carvings 223

Fig. 6. Tanum 311, Gerum. Upper, part of the site (Bengtsson and Olsson 2000); lower, processions (drawn from rubbings 2002). Height of
figures: on right, 185 mm; on left, 200 mm.
224 Acta Archaeologica

Fig. 7. Tanum 351, Tegneby. Upper, part of the site (Holmberg 1848); lower, procession (drawn from rubbing 2002). Height of figure on left
is 170 mm.
 And on They went ... Processions in Scandinavian Bronze Age rock carvings 225

Fig. 8. Tanum 360.1. Upper, photo of rock surface with carvings (JMC 2002); lower, procession (drawn from rubbing 2002). Height of figure
on left is 220 mm.
226 Acta Archaeologica

Fig. 9. Tanum 454, Tova. Upper, part of site plan (Vitlycke Museum archive); lower, procession (drawn from rubbing 2002). Height of figure
on left is 195 mm.

(clearly leading figure). Small rows of figures tend to right, 1 to the left, and the lower row has 6 robed
be less conclusive as to direction. It is perhaps worth figures moving right, and a smaller figure set be-
mentioning that at Lyse 69.1, the 2 processions con- neath the row (also the right). Thus the concept of
sist of 7 figures each; the upper row has 6 moving evenness and rightness is maintained; the 6 are set
 And on They went ... Processions in Scandinavian Bronze Age rock carvings 227

Fig. 10. Askum 6.1. Upper, part of the site (Bengtsson 1997); lower, procession (drawn from rubbing 2002). Slight variation between plan
and rubbing. Height of figure on left is 230 mm.

apart from the extra body. This may sound like
special pleading. Nonetheless the overall impression
of the more positive rows presents us with the idea
of some numerical ordering. The whole idea of left
and right, odds and evens, just as darkness and light,
silence and noise, i.e., paired opposites, is often sig-
nificant in pre-industrial societies as Orme summar-
ised over 20 years ago (Orme 1981). On the basis
of the numbers shown in the carved processions, it
may appear that the concept of evenness, balance,
was expressed by a rightward signal, and unevenness
(better word than oddness), imbalance, was signalled
by a leftward movement. The evenness and oddness
in number/direction of travel is present in all of the
groups identified above – armless, armed, adorant.
It would be interesting to see if this small suggestive
concept was expressed in other spheres of activity,
by numbers of objects in hoards and their positions,
of pits and postholes in relation to entrances, and
of carvings of boats and their crews on the rocks (a
228 Acta Archaeologica

Fig. 11. Askum 67.2 (Rished). Upper, site plan (Bengtsson and Olsson 2002); lower, procession (drawn from rubbing 2002). Note variation
on lefthand figure (direction of feet). Height of figure on left is 180 mm.
 And on They went ... Processions in Scandinavian Bronze Age rock carvings 229

Fig. 12. Askum 70.1, Rished. Upper, plan of the site (Bengtsson and Olsson 2002); lower, procession (drawn from rubbing 2002). Some
variation in detail of bodies. Height of figure on left is 280 mm.
230 Acta Archaeologica

Fig. 13. Tossene 73, Åby. Upper, part of site (photo 2002 JMC); lower, procession (drawn from rubbing 2002). Height of figure on left is 210 mm.

preliminary survey of the boat crews suggests con-
formity with the concept).
As sites with rock carvings have published or easily
recorded orientations, the rock surface sloping down
in particular directions, a further listing could be
made, to show the direction in which the processions
were heading. The results are not particularly illumi-
nating; most of the sites with odd-numbered partici-
pants were moving between the compass points S –
ENE. In contrast, the even-numbered participants
moved all around the compass, N-E-S-W. At this
point it seemed useful not to pursue such matters any
further, as there is variety both in composition and in
orientation. Final comments appear below.
 And on They went ... Processions in Scandinavian Bronze Age rock carvings 231

Fig. 14. Tossene 77. Upper, site photo (A. Toreld); lower, procession (drawn from rubbing 2002). Height of figure fourth from right is 290 mm.

THE IDEA OF A PROCESSION, SEEN FROM AFAR
The idea of a procession can originate in a multitude
of ways, and some have already been indicated. In
the literature of the south Scandinavian rock carvings
there is a constant, indeed monotonous, reference to
inspirations from the east Mediterranean and west
Asian lands, as if somehow many of the themes iden-
tified in the carvings are clear reflections of events
and ideas that once existed far to the south, and were
somehow transmitted to the north. Most writers,
232 Acta Archaeologica

Fig. 15. Tossene 82. Upper, site photo (T. Andersson); lower, procession (drawn from rubbing 2002). Height of figure third from left is 195 mm.

while espousing such thoughts, emphasise that no di-
rect or even semi-direct contact is envisaged; it is un-
likely that any Scandinavian walked the streets of My-
cenae or Bogazköy or Nineveh, unless as single ad-
venturers, or slaves, nor were merchants from these
places likely to have faced the journey, laden with
goods, to northern lands. If what we see on the rocks,
and in other parts of the archaeological record, bears
some vague similarity to or recollection of events and
materials from far away, there must have been some
length of time and transmission through many hands,
before the objects or concepts were accepted by the
societies of the north, and adapted to local needs. The
annual/seasonal model of marketing across North
 And on They went ... Processions in Scandinavian Bronze Age rock carvings 233

Fig. 16. Hogdal 216 (Nybygget). Upper, part of site plan (Vitlycke Museum archive); lower, 2 processions (drawn from rubbing 2002). Much
new detail has been added. Height of figure on left, upper row, is 350mm, height of central figure, lower row, is 180 mm.
234 Acta Archaeologica

Fig. 17. Hogdal 233 (S. Gåshult). Upper, part of site plan (Vitlycke Museum archive); lower, 2 processions (drawn from rubbing 2002). Some
new detail has been added to the record. Height of largest figure, upper row, is 610mm; height of figure on left, lower row, is 350 mm.
 And on They went ... Processions in Scandinavian Bronze Age rock carvings 235

Fig. 18. Lyse 69.1, Stångenäs. Upper, two parts of the site (Vitlycke Museum archive); lower, processions (drawn from rubbings 2002). Some
extra detail. Height of figures: upper row, on left, is 185 mm; lower row, second left, is 192 mm.
236 Acta Archaeologica

Fig. 19. Lyse 610. Site plan (Vitlycke Museum archive).

 And on They went ... Processions in Scandinavian Bronze Age rock carvings 237

Fig. 20. Kville 143, Stora Jore. Upper, plan of the site (Fredsjö 1981); lower, procession (drawn from rubbing 2002). Height of figure on left
is 200 mm.

America suggests a rapidity of transference of goods, Trade routes via middlemen from central Europe
and, perhaps, ideas, but a multiplicity of essentially to the north, and the south, were in existence in the
unconnected persons engaged in the trading and ex- second millennium BC as the few surviving artifacts
change processes (Orme 1981, p. 188–189). demonstrate, but the mechanisms remain vague and
238 Acta Archaeologica

Fig. 21. Ekenberg Norrköping. Upper, part of the site (photo 1976 JMC); lower, processions A and B (drawn from rubbings 2002). Height
of figures on left: A 205 mm, B 110 mm.
 And on They went ... Processions in Scandinavian Bronze Age rock carvings 239

Fig. 22. Herrebro Norrköping. Upper, part of site (photo 2002 JMC); lower, procession (drawn from rubbing 2002). Height of figure on left
is 195 mm.
240 Acta Archaeologica

Fig. 23. Leonardsberg Norrköping. Upper, part of site (photo 1976 JMC); lower, processions A, B and C (drawn from rubbings 2002). Height
of figures on left: A 200 mm, B 230 mm, C 164 mm.

ill-understood (Gimbutas 1965), although we have Nonetheless, there is a body of evidence that has
been presented with a range of thoughtful models by been advanced by a number of authorities and that
Bouzek (1966) and especially Harding (1984). may just indicate the existence of distorted percep-
 And on They went ... Processions in Scandinavian Bronze Age rock carvings 241

Fig. 24. Evenstorp Älvsborgs Län. Upper, part of site (Rex Svensson 1982); lower, processions A and B (drawn from rubbing 2002). Consider-
able variation between plan and rubbings. Height of figures on left: A 370 mm, B 290 mm.

tions of matters from the more developed world
(Randsborg 1993, 1999; Larsson 1997, 1999a and b;
Kristiansen 1998). The illustrative evidence is inter-
esting, if selective, and ranges from the Aegean world
(e.g. Marinotas 1960; Christopoulos 1970, 1975) and
east Mediterranean (e.g. Rohl 2000) through Anatolia
(e.g. Bittel 1950) and into lands beyond where the
relationships become more obscure (Oppenheim
1964; Oates and Oates 2001). The monumental work
of Müller-Karpe (1980) is often used as source-book
for particular resemblances such as conical hats, but
the huge variety of reliefs, carvings, painting and
other representational materials from such a vast
world over such a time-frame really means that we
might be able to find whatever we seek; granted the
distances and the chronologies, ‘anything goes’. This
may well read as a criticism of the often careful explo-
ration of potential linkages, and is meant as a caution-
ary comment only (and see Malmer 1989 for similar
concerns).
So we turn to the processions and here the south-
ern foreign literature does not fail. Lines of humans,
robed and unrobed, with cauldrons and altars, mu-
sicians, carts, horns, boats even, can be seen in Mi-
noan tombs, and on Hittite vases and stone reliefs,
neatly presented for us by Müller-Karpe (1980, taf.
174; Randsborg 1993, 126–130), and a painted frieze
at Thera presents a suitably impressive line of humans
(incidentally moving to its right and numbering 16)
(Christopoulos 1974, pl. ii).
Randsborg points to a splendid Hittite vase from
Inaniktepe in Anatolia which carried a set of pro-
cessional events, robed and unrobed humans, with
gifts or merely in attendance, and sufficient detail to
comprehend the purpose of the ceremony – sacrifices,
feasting and perhaps a wedding (Randsborg 1993,
129). Such clarity of representation is matched by the
later extraordinary series of ivory panels from the
‘throne room’ of Ezida at Nimrud which depict a re-
ception by a king of a procession of bearers of tributes
242 Acta Archaeologica

Fig. 25. Häljesta Västmanland. Upper, part of site (Coles 2001); lower, procession (drawn from rubbing 2002). Height of figure on left of
main row is 240 mm.
 And on They went ... Processions in Scandinavian Bronze Age rock carvings 243

Fig. 26. Biskopskulla 71, Uppland. Left, site view (photo JMC and Coles 2000); right, procession (drawn from rubbing 2002). Height of figure
on right is 410 mm.
244 Acta Archaeologica

Fig. 27. Boglösa 138 Rickeby. Upper, part of the site (Coles 2000); lower, procession (drawn from rubbing 2002). New detail from rubbing.
Height of figure on left is 253 mm.
 And on They went ... Processions in Scandinavian Bronze Age rock carvings 245

Fig. 28. Leirfall III, Nord-Trøndelag. Upper, part of the site (photo 1991 JMC); lower, procession (Sognnes 2001). Height of figure on left is
465 mm.

(Oates and Oates 2001, Fig. 74), and the list of pro- carvings of small processions is very uncertain. Could
cessional events from the whole of Western Asia, and our rows of human images suggest a processional
Egypt too, could be expanded. event tightly structured in order to express a solidarity
But what these tell us about the Scandinavian rock of population, as in, for example, Renaissance Venice
246 Acta Archaeologica

Fig. 29. Bakke I and III, Jondal. Lower, part of Bakke I (Mandt 1972); upper right, part of Bakke III (Mandt 1973); upper left, procession
at Bakke I (photo 1992 JMC).
 And on They went ... Processions in Scandinavian Bronze Age rock carvings
(Muir 1981), or perhaps a firm acknowledgement of
a leader’s importance, as in Hittite imagery (Gurney
1990) or Athenian society (Connor 1987)? As an alter-
native, we hear that processions in Shintô Japan
could degenerate into riotous gatherings (Schnell
1997; Johnston 1999). The idea of initiates, a passing-
out from youth or apprenticeship to full community
participation, might also apply to the armless pro-
cessions, or indeed the adorants.
Perhaps the carvings record simply the moments
when land tenure was to be re-affirmed, by processing
around the edges, as in the Scottish Borders ‘Riding
the marches’, or English ‘Beating the Bounds’, or as
the Marching Season in Northern Ireland, to main-
tain a presence on traditional parade routes, purports
to establish. In total contrast to this view of active
processions, the ordination of priests into the Catholic
Church requires the inductees to advance in pro-
cessional formation and prostrate themselves in rows
of ten before the Pope. No application of this particu-
lar model is implied here, but it may just emphasize
that the range of possibilities for close interpretation
is vast, and we cannot hope to come to a precision
of thought based on the kind of evidence we now
possess.
Larsson has cautiously summarised the position,
seeing the south Scandinavian symbolism and cos-
mology ‘shaped by ideas originating in the Near East
and Asia Minor’ (1999a). Recent assessments of the
one-for-one comparisons (e.g. Winter 2002 with ex-
tensive references) move us a little forward towards a
closer examination of the mechanisms by which these
shapes and ideas came to be embedded, and to
sprout, in the north, and then to flower into a variety
of representations that bear only the most general of
resemblances to the original stock. This stock, the
ideology of the far south and east, was complex, and
its memories on the rocks of the north are simplistic,
reduced to essentials perhaps, and lacking much of
the explanatory detail of the originals; perhaps the
explanations were long forgotten. It was probably the
importance of the journeys, gaining access to the im-
aginary exotic, or heroic travels, rites of passage, that
were a part of indigenous lore, memorialised through
even the briefest and simplest of representation on the
rocks; the lines of humans (our processions) set below
large boat carvings might well be more audience, wit-
247
nesses of arrival, than a deliberate procession. No ex-
planation alone can account for the variety seen even
on the rocks of the north.
For us in the present context, there are only a
limited number of distinct processional images on the
rocks of the north, and close-knitted sets of figures
must surely signify local northern concerns and con-
cepts that had only a dim recollection, if that, of orig-
inal ideologies from other lands and cultures. Their
stronger base must lie in indigenous traditions and
rituals that came in time to be immortalised on the
rocks. In advocating this line, I only follow Bertilsson’s
summary of conflicting opinions (1995, 212) and
glance back at Malmer (1981, 1989) and Nordbladh
(1978). What has yet to be elucidated, or indeed set
out in some detail, are the putative origins of such
concepts as we see on the rocks, origins that may well
have had a lengthy prehistory before memorialisation
upon the rocks. The perception of these rows of
humans, surely Scandinavian bodies and nothing
more exotic, suggests a strong base of long-term tra-
ditions, and a powerful expression of behavioural
traits that we have yet to comprehend. Deacon’s title
‘... what comes first, the art or the place?’ seems appo-
site (2001).
SETTING THE PROCESSIONS ON COURSE
One of the features of the processions on the rocks is
the proximity that could be firmly expressed between
the rows of human figures and other images deemed
to be significant to them. By setting such powerful
images close to the human rows, or in otherwise
dominant positions, a relationship and relevance
could be emphasised. Of the sites that carry pro-
cessions, 7 have carvings of very large boats immedi-
ately adjacent to the human figures, and other sites
have boats, smaller in size, not far distant. The idea
of size as dominant is also seen on several other sites
where, for example, large cattle at Tanum 351 or the
so-called ‘maypole’ at Tanum 311 wholly overwhelm
the armless or the adorant humans. The other pro-
cessions are more varied in their neighbouring im-
ages, although boats, logically enough, are almost al-
ways present. The surrounding footsoles at Leirfall in
Trøndelag are a striking exception.
The presence of boat images is also relevant to the
248 Acta Archaeologica
landscape settings of the processions. Direction of
travel is one feature that might well point to intimate
local relationships, such as adjacent monuments,
natural features or places where events were to take
place or had already occurred. One pointer, often
seen from the vantage and direction of the pro-
cessional images, is the presence nearby of additional,
smaller rock carving sites, at Tanum 25, 351 and
360.1, and at Ekenberg, Herrebro and Leonardsberg,
and at Häljesta, and at Boglösa 138. We might well
conclude that the processional sites marked assembly
places for activities involving symbolic visits to the ad-
jacent complexes of sites where doubtless other im-
ages reflected the local concerns. And any analysis of
the particular terrains of the sites with human figures
in rows can readily argue these places as points of
entry or departure, at the heads or sides of narrow
inlets (Tanum Vitlycke, Tossene Åby, Leonardsberg
for example) or as viewpoints onto widening wetlands
and watery flatlands, some of them open water (Tan-
um 25, 360.1, Ekenberg, Herrebro, Häljesta, Biskop-
skula 71 and Boglösa 138 for example).
The variation seen within the identified processions
in this paper suggests that they probably had a variety
of meanings to the societies that encouraged their cre-
ation and maintained their presence in an emergent
landscape undergoing quite substantial change. The
concept of procession, a gathering together and or-
derly progression, may well have been directed to-
wards real, or imagined, monuments, vantage points,
places of opportunity and fulfilment, with a wetland
or expanse of water often near at hand. The lines of
humans may have been assembled and memorialised
in order to establish the right to the land, the place
marking its focal point or the route from which the
assertion of occupancy could emanate. By the exhi-
bition of artistry and perhaps by the exaggeration of
attributes, the base was strengthened. And by the
elaboration of ceremonial events, seasonal, generation
or otherwise episodic, the foundation of society, its
assumed power and its belief in its pre-determined
longevity could be enhanced and re-invigorated by
periodic enhancement of its strengths, which lay in its
people certainly, in its processions too, in its land ten-
ure and established economic practices, and in its
firm and indestructible record of presence and
achievement on the rocks. The processions did not
follow a vague or ill-defined route, an empty path;
their way was marked by the rewards of a stable
society, and a place in a wider world of which most
of the participants knew nothing.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The fieldwork for this study has been supported by the British
Academy through its Small Grants Scheme, with funds from the
Gertrude Caton-Thompson Fund. In 2002 my field visits and con-
sultations were also supported by the Royal Academy of Letters,
History and Antiquities International Exchange Scheme between
the Royal Academy and the British Academy. I am grateful for this
continuing support. I have also benefited from assistance in the
field and through correspondence with Bo Gräslund, Lasse
Bengtsson, Peter Jankavs, Tommy Andersson, Andreas Toreld,
Ann-Charlotte Hertz, Gro Mandt, Kalle Sognnes, Geir Sør-Reime,
Helge Braathen and Einar Østmo. I might add as emphasis that
my association, over many years, with both Bo Gräslund and Lasse
Bengtsson has always been to my profit in practical assistance and
in academic dialogue. I also thank Bryony Coles for good advice
and Jo Coles for typing a series of drafts of this paper. In Bohuslän
the archive of the Vitlycke Museum has been made available to
me through the good offices of Lasse Bengtsson.
 And on They went ... Processions in Scandinavian Bronze Age rock carvings
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