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Lecture 04
Lecture 04
Electrons
- in atoms - restricted to sets of discrete energy levels
gaps in energy scale when no energy states are available
- in solids - restricted to a range of band of energies
Discrete energy levels of isolated atoms spreads into bands of energies in the solid
as in the solid the wave functions of electrons in neighbouring atoms overlap
and an electron is not necessarily localized at a particular atom
e.g. electron in an outer orbit of an atom feels the influence of other atoms
wave function is altered
potential energy term and BCs of Schrodinger eqn affected – different solutions
Bonding forces in solids
The interactions of electrons in neighbouring atoms of a solid
important – holding the crystal together
Ionic bonding
E.g. alkali halides (NaCl)
Each Na atom sorrounded by 6 nearest neighbour Cl atoms and vice versa
Na Na+ + e- Cl + e- Cl-
Electrostatic attraction
No free electrons -- good insulator
Metallic bonding
E.g. metals
Unfilled valence shells – lose electrons – sea of electrons
Good conductors
Covalent bonding
For electrons to experience acceleration in an applied electric field, they must be able to move to
new energy states
there must be empty states available to the electrons
(if there are a few electrons in an otherwise empty band – ample states available)
e.g. silicon at 0K
(i) valence band is completely filled – no empty states – hence no conduction
(ii) conduction band completely empty – no electrons – hence no conduction
Metals
Bands are either partially filled or overlap
Electrons and empty states are intermixed within bands
Electrons can move freely under influence of an electric field
At 0K, semiconductor materials have same structure as insulators – except Eg is smaller
Smaller bandgap of semiconductors – allows for excitation of electrons from valence to
conduction band (by reasonable amount of thermal/optical energy)
Where the function U(kx,x) modulates the wave function according to the periodicity of
the lattice.
given up as heat
to the lattice
Transition
Without change of k With change of k
(requires change of momentum
e.g. may go through some defect site (Et)
in the band gap)
Charge carriers in semiconductors
Electrons and holes
Above 0 K –
some electrons receive enough energy
to overcome the bandgap.
empty state – hole
Electron-hole pair (EHP)
E-k plots
“broken bond” model is deceptive – actually the free electron/hole is not localized
but spread over large lattice spacing
n = electrons per cm3 For intrinsic material
p = holes per cm3 n=p=ni
ni = intrinsic carrier concentration
Additional levels are created in the energy band structure, usually within the bandgap
Importance of doping
Controls the electronic properties of semiconductors
Majority carriers
Minority carriers
Electrons and holes in quantum wells
We have looked at – single (discrete) energy levels in band gap arising from doping
and a continuum of allowed states in valence and conduction bands
Third possibility – formation of discrete levels for electrons and holes as a result of
QM confinement
A single crystal can be grown where adjacent layers have different bandgaps
heterojunctions
particles behave according to the particle in a potential well problem