Optical Imaging––Wave Diffraction Optics

ExP
x

S
W

R P(xg, 0)
z
O OA P0
y

zg

„ Virendra N. Mahajan
Adjunct Professor
College of Optical Sciences
University of Arizona

virmahajan12@gmail.com

Lecture 10: Defocus-Based Topics

10-1
 Topics

• Pinhole Camera
• Beam Focusing and Depth of Focus
– Defocus Aberration
– Defocused PSFs
– Axial Irradiance
– Aberration-Free Beam
– Aberrated beam
• Near- and Far-Fields of an Aperture
• Two-Point Resolution
– Incoherent Points
– Coherent Points

10-2
 Pinhole Camera
• A pinhole camera (or camera obscura) has been the subject of
many investigations, including those by Petzval and Rayleigh.

• It is simple (a pinhole of radius a on one side of a box of length L

and the film on the other), distortion free with an infinite depth of
field, and a very wide field of view.

Petzval approach (1857): Pinhole radius: aP = lL 2

• The geometrical image of a distant point object is approximately

the same size as the pinhole if the pinhole is large.

• Reducing the pinhole size reduces the image size until diffraction
by the pinhole spreads it.

• Optimum image is obtained by minimizing the image spot radius

representing the sum of geometrical and diffraction contributions.

10-3
 Pinhole Camera Figure

P0 P0
(a)

Object
plane

Pinhole Image
plane
(–)L0 Li

B
A C
a
rp

(b)

(a) Imaging by a pinhole camera of radius a.

(b) Wavefront incident on the pinhole, and emerging
wavefront (shown dashed) for perfect imaging

10-4
 Pinhole Camera Design
• Difference between a pinhole camera and a regular camera is that
the former does not use a lens to form the image.

• The lens in a regular camera converts a diverging spherical wave

from a point object P0 into a spherical wave converging to an image
point P0¢ in the image plane.

• Without a lens, a spherical wave of radius of curvature Lo diverging

from the object P0 is incident on the pinhole and continues as a
diverging wave toward the image plane at a distance Li and forms a
defocused image at P0¢.

• Defocus wave aberration represents the sum of the sags of two

spherical wavefronts passing through the center of the pinhole with
their centers of curvature lying at the object and image points:

10-5
 1Ê 1 1ˆ
( )
AB + BC = AC or W rp = Á - ˜ rp2
2 Ë Li Lo ¯

• rp is the radial distance of a point B in the plane of the pinhole from

its center ( Lo is numerically negative).

• Image will be practically diffraction limited according to Rayleigh’s

quarter wave rule, if the defocus wave aberration is l 4 .
1Ê 1 1ˆ 2 l 1 1 l 1
Bd = Á - ˜ a = or - = =
2 Ë Li Lo ¯ 4 Li Lo 2a 2 fe

• fe = 2a 2 l is the effective focal length of the pinhole.

• For a distant object ( Lo Æ - •), we obtain

a2 l
Bd = = fi a = l Li 2 (Same as the Petzval result)
2 Li 4

10-6
Beam Focusing and Longitudinal Defocus

1241-97g
ExP

Defocused
image plane
a
Gaussian
image plane

z
R

10-7
 Defocus Wave Aberration
ExP

1375-94D
Q2 Q1

O B P1 P2
S centered at P1
W centered at P2

W S
Z

• Spherical wavefront W yields an aberration-free image in the

Gaussian image plane at a distance R.
• A defocused image is formed when observed in a plane at a
distance z.

10-8
 Aberration-Free Image (Airy Pattern)

• Central bright spot of radius 1.22lF called the Airy disc

contains 83.8% of the light.

10-9
• Aberrations reduce the central irradiance and spread light from the
Airy disc into the diffraction rings.

• Defocus wave aberration is equal to the difference in sags of two

spheres with radii of curvature z and R:

1 Ê1 1ˆ 2
W (r ) = - r
Ë
2 z R ¯

Letting r = r a , 0 £ r £1

1 Ê1 1ˆ 2
W (r) = Bd r2 , Bd ( z) = - a
Ë
2 z R ¯

• Peak defocus phase aberration

pa 2 Ê R ˆ
Bd = - 1
lR Ë z ¯

• Let us write it in terms of the Fresnel number

10-10
Fresnel number of the pupil as observed from a point A
representing the number of Fresnel's half wave zones in the pupil

R + N l/2
a

A
O

( R + Nl 2)2 = R2 + a2

2 2 2 a2
R + NRl = R + a fi N =
lR

10-11
• Peak defocus phase aberration in terms of the Fresnel number

ÊR ˆ a2
Bd = p N -1 , N = (N is the Fresnel number)
Ëz ¯ lR

• Large Fresnel number, small depth of focus

• Photographic camera

• Small Fresnel number, large depth of focus

• Laser transmitter

Defocused PSF:
2 1 2
2R
I (r; z ) = Ê ˆ
Ë z ¯ 0
( 2
Ú exp iBd r ) J0 (prr) r dr
• Bd = 0 yields the Airy pattern [2 J1( pr) pr ] 2

10-12
 Defocused PSFs for Large Fresnel Numbers

Bd = 0 Bd = 0.5 Bd = 1

Bd = 1.5 Bd = 2 Bd = 3
A dark spot at the center is obtained for integral number of waves of defocus

10-13
 Strehl Ratio

Axial irradiance at a distance z, beam focused at R

S = £ 1
Axial irradiance at a distance z, beam focused at z

• S represents the effect of defocus as an aberration only, since the

effect of inverse-square law is the same in both cases.

10-14
 Axial Irradiance of an “Aberration-Free” Beam
2 2
Ê R ˆ Ê sin Bd 2 ˆ
I (0; z ) = (2-84)
Ë z ¯ ÁË Bd 2 ˜¯
Depends on two competing factors:

1. Increase due to inverse-square law dependence for z < R .

– Significant effect only for large depth of focus or small N

2. Decrease due to defocus aberration (nonconstructive interference

of Huygens' spherical wavelets)

– Defocus aberration reduces irradiance regardless of the value

of N

• Axial irradiance closer to the pupil can be higher than the focal-
point irradiance if the increase due to the inverse square law is
higher than the decrease due to defocus aberration.

10-15
 Axial irradiance for different values of Fresnel number N
2.0 2.0 2.0

0928-96
N=1 N = 10 N = 100
1.5 1.5 1.5
lu
l (0; z)

1.0 1.0 1.0

lg
0.5 0.5 0.5

0.0 0.0 0.0

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
z/R z /R z /R

For N = 1 , z p = 0.6 R , Wm ∫ Bd = l 3
2 2
Ê sin Bd 2 ˆ Ê Rˆ Ê 1 ˆ2
S = Á ˜ = 0 . 68 , Á ˜ = = 2.78
Ë Bd 2 ¯ Ë zp ¯ Ë 0.6 ¯

( )
I z p = 1.9 I ( R) (Dashed curves are for a g = 1 Gaussian beam)

• Large (small) depth of focus for small (large) N

10-16
Optimum focusing of a beam on a target at a given distance z
• Since the axial irradiance peaks at a point closer to the focusing
pupil, we ask where we should focus the beam for maximum central
irradiance on the target? On the target or beyond the target?

• Since the target distance is fixed, the inverse-square law

dependence is fixed.

• Hence, the irradiance on the target decreases (due to

nonconstructive interference of Huygens’ spherical wavelets) if the
beam is not focused on it.

• Accordingly, a beam focused on the target yields maximum central

irradiance on it, even though a larger value occurs closer to the pupil
when N is small.

• Let us check by focusing a beam at various distances.

10-17
Central irradiance on a target
1.0 1.0 1.0

0932-96
0.8 lu 0.8 0.8
lg
lz (0; R)

0.6 0.6 0.6

Nz = 1 Nz = 10 Nz = 100
0.4 0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2 0.2

0.0 0.0 0.0

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
R/z R/z R/z

Figure 2-13. Central irradiance on a target at a fixed distance z from

the plane of the pupil when a beam is focused at various distances
R. The quantity Nz = a2 l z represents the Fresnel number of the
pupil as observed from the target. (The dashed curves are for a g = 1
Gaussian beam.)
• Maximum central irradiance on the target is obtained when the
beam is focused on it, i.e., when R = z .

10-18
 Photographic Camera

D = 2 cm, R = 10 cm, l = 0.5 mm

N = a 2 l R = 2000

S = 0.8 for Bd = ± l 4
fi z - R = ± 25 mm

• Depth of focus is so small that there is a negligible impact of the

inverse-square-law dependence in the region of interest.

10-19
 Laser Transmitter

D = 25 cm, R = 1.47 km, l = 10.6 mm

ÊR ˆ
N = a 2 l R = 1 , Bd = p N -1
Ëz ¯

S = 0.8 for 0.97 km £ z £ 3.03 km fi large depth of focus

∑ Bd becomes significant only when z is much different from R

∑ Principal maximum lies at z = 0.6 R = 0.88 km

with a value of 1.9 times the focal- point value.

10-20
 Axial Irradiance of an Aberrated Beam
• How is the axial irradiance affected by an aberration?

• Large Fresnel number: Axial irradiance is of interest in the vicinity

of focus due to small depth of focus. Aberration reduces the central
irradiance.

• Small Fresnel number: Axial irradiance is larger at points closer to

the focusing pupil, since the depth of focus is large.

• Some authors characterized this result as "beyond the

conventional diffraction limit."

• However, these results are neither "beyond the conventional

diffraction limit" nor "unexpected."

• They are a consequence of balancing of defocus aberration with

spherical aberration.

10-21
• Diffraction limit simply implies that the focal-point irradiance of a
focused beam is maximum when it is aberration free.

• A focused beam is referred to as being aberration free if its

wavefront at the pupil is spherical with its center of curvature at the
focal point.

• However, a beam observed in a plane other than the focal plane is

not aberration free; it is in fact aberrated by the defocus aberration.

• Balancing defocus aberration with spherical aberration or

astigmatism reduces the aberration variance and increases the
irradiance value.

10-22
Axial Irradiance of a Uniform Beam With Spherical Aberration
12

g = 0, N = 1
10

As = – (15/16)Bd
I(z)

Bd As = – (5/16)l
2
As = 0

0
0 0.5 1 1.5
z/R

10-23
 Near- and Far-Fields of an Aperture
• Axial irradiance of a collimated beam can be obtained from those
for a focused beam by letting R Æ •.

(
I (0; z ) = 4 I0 sin 2 pa 2 2l z )
• I0 is pupil irradiance

• For z ≥ D 2 l a collimated beam gives an axial irradiance that is ≥

0.95 times the irradiance for the focused beam, or practically the
same.

• In other words, beam focusing does not significantly increase the

power concentration on the target.

• Let z be in units of D 2 l

10-24
 4.0 1.00

0856-96
S

3.0 0.75

I(0;z), (p/4z)2

S
I(z)
2.0 0.50
(p/4z)2

1.0 0.25

0.0 0.00
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00
z

Axial irradiance of a collimated beam

compared with a focused beam

10-25
Near- and Far-Field Diffraction

1 2
( )
I (r; z ) = 4 Ú exp i Bd r2 J0 ( prr) r dr
0
(Fresnel diffraction)

• r in units of lz D
• For z ≥ D 2 l, the defocus aberration is negligibly small (Bd £ p 4 or
l 8), Strehl ratio is ≥ 0.95.

• Hence, Fresnel diffraction reduces to the aberration-free result:

2
I (r; z ) ~ [2 J1 ( p r ) pr] , z ≥ D2 l (Fraunhofer diffraction)

• D 2 l is called the far-field distance of the pupil.

• Thus, Fresnel diffraction may be considered as defocused

Fraunhofer diffraction.

10-26
 Two-Point Resolution

• A measure of the imaging quality of a system is its ability to resolve

closely-spaced objects.

• Rayleigh resolution: Two point objects of equal intensity are just

resolved if the principal maximum of the Airy pattern of one of them
falls on the first zero of the other, i.e., if the separation between their
Gaussian images is 1.22lF.

• Corresponding aberration-free irradiance distribution of two

incoherent point objects along the x axis by 1.22lF
2 2
Ï 2 J1[p( x - 0.61)]¸ Ï 2 J1[p( x + 0.61)]¸
I( x) = Ì ˝ + Ì ˝ (x in units of lF )
Ó p ( x - 0 .61) ˛ Ó p ( x + 0 .61) ˛

10-27
 1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6
I (x)

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
x

Irradiance distribution along the x axis of two incoherent point objects

of equal intensity separated by the Rayleigh resolution of 1.22lF.

• The dip at the center has a value of 0.73, compared to a maximum

value of unity at x = ± 0.61.

10-28
• Defocused image of a point object:

1 2
( )
I (r; Bd ) = 4 Ú exp iBd r2 J0 ( prr) r dr
0

• Irradiance distribution of defocused image of two incoherent point

objects of equal intensity separated by the Rayleigh resolution of
1.22lF along the line passing through them, namely the x axis:

È1 2
( )
I ( x; Bd ) = 4 Í Ú exp iBd r2 J0 [p( x - 0.61)r] r dr
Í0
Î
1 2˘
( )
+ Ú exp iBd r2 J0 [p( x + 0.61)r] r dr ˙
0 ˙
˚

10-29
• Irradiance distribution of the defocused image of two coherent
point objects with a phase difference of d

È 1
Í Û
I( x) = 4 Í ( 2
)
Ù exp iBd r J0 [p( x - 0.61)r] r dr
ı
ÍÎ 0

1 2˘
Û ˙
( 2
)
+ exp(id ) Ù exp iBd r J0 [p( x + 0.61)r] r dr ˙
ı ˙
0 ˙˚

10-30
 Bd = 0

Bd = 1 4

Bd = 1 2
Incoherent Coherent, in phase (d = 0)

• Two coherent point objects in phase cannot be resolved.

10-31
 Bd = 0

Bd = 1 4

Bd = 1 2

d=p d = p 2.

• Defocused coherent points appear to be of unequal intensity when

d = p 2.

10-32
Homework 10

1. Describe qualitatively how the defocused PSFs for small Fresnel

numbers will be different from those given for large Fresnel numbers
on p. 10-13. In particular, will there be a dark spot at the center for
integral number of waves of defocus aberration.

2. Show how the depth of focus is obtained in the photographic

camera example.

10-33