• Study of what causes resemblances and differences between organisms.

1.Key points

I. Alleles:
Different forms of a particular gene. For example “A” and “a” are both genes for color but are
having different forms, as in, A: black and a: albino

II. Dominant:
Allele which is dominant over another allele for a particular gene and shows its characteristics
instead of the other allele.

III. Recessive:
Allele which recedes i.e. does not show its characteristics when a dominant allele is present and
usually tends to induce mutations.

IV. Phenotype:
Physically expressed trait (due to an allele). For example, 3 Black : 1 White {here “Black” and
“White” are phenotypes}.

V. Genotype:
Genetic make-up of a certain physical trait in an organism. For example, AA or Aa genes are
showing genetic Information of certain traits.

3.Monohybrid Inheritance:

•Inheritance in which all the offsprings are showing same traits phenotypically except any one.
•For example, 3 Tall : 1 Dwarf {here “Dwarf” is representing monohybrid inheritance.

4.Homologous Chromosomes:

•Chromosome pair of same length, centromere position and straining pattern with genes for the
same characteristics as the corresponding loci.
•One homologous chromosome is inherited from the organism’s mother, the other from the
organism’s father and are usually not identical.

5.Test Cross:
•A cross between an individual exhibiting the dominant phenotype of a trait and an individual that
is homozygous recessive for that trait in order to determine the genotype of the dominant
individual.
•Lets have a look at some examples,

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 B: Dominant allele (for black color)
b: Recessive allele (for white color)

BB (homozygous dominant) / bb (homozygous recessive) =

b b All heterozygous black due to
B Bb Bb presence of dominant allele “B”.
B Bb Bb

Bb (heterozygous dominant) / Bb (heterozygous dominant) =

B b 1 homozygous black, 2 heterozygous
B BB Bb black and 1 homozygous white (due to
b Bb bb absence of dominant allele in the gene).
Phenotype’s ratio = 3 Black : 1 White

Bb (heterozygous dominant) / bb (homozygous recessive) =

2 heterozygous black and 2 homozygous
b b
white (due to absence of dominant
B Bb Bb
allele in the gene).
b bb bb
Phenotype’s ratio = 1 Black : 1 White

6.Sex determination:

•XX chromosomes = female.

•XY chromosomes = male.
•The X chromosome come from the mother’s egg while the Y or other X chromosome comes from
the father’s sperm.

6.Multiple alleles:

•Usually alleles for a particular gene are 2 in number. For example, “T” for tallness and “t” for
dwarf.
•If a particular gene exists in more than two alleles, it is said to have multiple alleles.
•Genes for coat colors in rabbits exist in multiple alleles
C : Allele for full color (grey) {Dominant over all other alleles}
Ch : Allele for Himalayan coat {Dominant over albino coat}
Ca : Allele for albino coat {Recessive of all other alleles}

•Another example is the occurrence of human blood groups in multiple alleles which are A, B, AB
and O blood groups.
A and B are dominant over O but neither of them is dominant over each other i.e. they tend to
show Co-dominance over each other.

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7.Incomplete dominance and Co-dominance:
•Normally, a heterozygous offspring shows the characteristics of the dominant allele but sometimes
a heterozygous individual shows the characteristics of both alleles. This is known as incomplete
dominance. For example, if a white flower is crossed with a red flower they produce pink flowers
which show incomplete dominance.
•Co-dominance occurs when the contributions of both alleles at a single locus are clearly visible and
do not overpower each other in the phenotype. For instance, in the ABO system, the IA and IB alleles
are co-dominant in producing the AB blood group phenotype, in which both A- and B-
type antigens are made.

8.Mutation:

•The sudden or spontaneous change in gene structure or a chromosome or even the chromosome
number, and maybe inheritable
•Mutagenic agents are those agents which greatly increase the rate of mutation. For example,
Ultraviolet light, Alpha-Beta-Gamma radiations, Mustard gas, formaldehyde, ferrous and
manganous salts and Lysergic Acid Diethylamide(LSD).

9.Examples of mutations:

I.Albinism
 Caused by a recessive allele.
 Occurs in man and animal.
 Albinos have reddish white skin and white hair and their iris appears red due to the color of
blood vessels, because of absence of pigments in it.
 They are sensitive to sunlight and can easily get sunburned.

II.Sickle-Cell anemia
 Caused by a recessive allele (gene mutation)
 Persons who are homozygous for the recessive allele show abnormal haemoglobin in their
blood due to which the red blood cells become sickle shaped. Sickled cells are more rigid
and tend to become stuck in the capillaries. So the blood supply is stopped. In addition,
sickled cells are fragile and break down easily, leaving the victim with fewer R.B.C. than
normal. They also have less surface area than normal cell which result in less transportation
of oxygen in the body.
 Persons heterozygous for the sickle cell allele are more resistant to malaria as compared to
others.

III.Down’s syndrome:
 Caused by mutation in the chromosomal number.
 A normal man has 23 pairs of chromosomes in his normal cells. Some people have 1 extra
chromosome in the 21st pair. Such people have 47 chromosomes in their body cell rather
than 46.They suffer from down’s syndrome.
 People suffering from down’s syndrome have many medical issues in their body such as
Congenital heart defects, Increased susceptibility to infection, Respiratory problems,

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 Obstructed digestive tracts, Hearing deficits, Eye problems such as cataracts and strabismus
and thyroid dysfunctions.

IV Haemophilia:
 Caused by a recessive allele located on the X chromosome.
 A person with haemophilia produces very little of a protein needed for blood to clot and so
may bleed to death after even a slight cut.
 In case of a woman, she usually has a dominant normal allele on her other X chromosome,
so she does not have haemophilia. A man, who has only one X chromosome, will develop
the disease. A woman, in this case is said to be a carrier of the disease.
10.Variations:

• Variation refers to differences in phenotype within species. It is mainly caused by mutation and is
influenced by the environment.
•Discontinuous variation occurs when the characteristics of a certain organism have distinct
categories without any overlapping or intermediate form, are controlled by a very small number of
genes and are usually unaffected by the environment. For example, Blood groups in humans and
Gender.
•Continuous variation occurs when the characteristics of a certain organism have no distinct
categories and have lots of overlapping and intermediate forms. They are controlled by multiple
alleles and genes and are usually affected by the environment. For example, height and skin color.

11.Natural Selection:
• It is the non-random differential survival and reproduction of genotypes from one generation to
the next.
•Individuals in every population show a range of phenotypes. When a selective force, such as
predation or competition, is at work, some of these phenotypes are more likely to survive and
reproduce than others.
Natural selection is the gradual, nonrandom
process by which biological traits become either
more or less common in a population as a
function of differential reproduction of their
bearers. It is a key mechanism of evolution. Over
time, this process can result in populations that
specialize for particular ecological niches and may
eventually result in the emergence of new
species. In other words, natural selection is an
important process (though not the only process)
by which evolution takes place within a
population of organisms. As opposed to artificial
selection, in which humans favor specific traits, in
natural selection the environment acts as a sieve
through which only certain variations can pass.

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12.Artificial selection:

• It is done by man.
• We select for the best growing plants, the plants that produce most fruits, vegetables. We select
for the best dogs (hunters, guard dogs, family dogs...), cows (most milk, most meat...). With these
plants and animals, we cross-breed, to get all (or as much as possible) the wanted characteristics in
one individual.
• Unless we do it on a very large scale, this way of selection plays no evolutionary role.
• The deliberate exploitation of artificial selection has become very common in experimental
biology, as well as the discovery and invention of new drugs. Artificial selection can also be
unintentional; it is thought that domestication of crops by early humans was largely unintentional.
•Producing new varieties by crossing different varieties of plant is known as hybridization.
•So much inbreeding can lead to accumulation of recessive alleles in an organism which may cause
genetic disease.

13.Genetic engineering:

• The plant which has acquired foreign gene (for making it resistant to herbicides, insects etc.) is
known as transgenic plant.
• Transfer of gene to an ill person from a healthy person is known as gene therapy.
• Advantages of Genetic engineering
-any gene can be transferred to any organism to attain required results.
-genes can be carefully selected so that disease causing alleles won’t transmit to an offspring.
-Selective breeding can be done through genetic engineering with individual cells in small
laboratories.
• Disadvantages of Genetic engineering
-Transgenic food may be treated as allergens by some people’s immune system.
-Genes for resistance maybe accidentally incorporated in a disease causing bacteria.
-Some people may create bacteria for use in chemical or biological weapons.

Transgenic Corns which are resistant to

pests and herbicides.

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 Production of human insulin through Transgenic Bacteria

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