COBRAMSEG 2010: ENGENHARIA GEOTÉCNICA PARA O DESENVOLVIMENTO, INOVAÇÃO E SUSTENTABILIDADE. © 2010 ABMS.

Sand subject to dynamic consolidation test and its resistance to

liquefaction
Claudio Casarin
Artana Engenharia Pro Design Ltda, Sao Paulo, Brazil, claudio.casarin@uol.com.br

SUMMARY: An equipment to determine the density of sands subject to the dynamic one
dimensional consolidation is presented, where an axial load is applied together with a strong
vibration normal to the axis. Results from several tests carried out on medium sandstone colluvium
sand that resulted from aging of aeolic sandstone from Estreito, Maranhao, Brazil, are shown. An
interpretation is offered to verify sand susceptibility to dynamic or static liquefaction, based on the
traditional comparison between its “in situ” density and the density determined with the dynamic
consolidation test.

KEY WORDS: Sand, Density, Consolidation, Dynamic, Liquefaction.

1 INTRODUCTION

Liquefaction of saturated sands has been

studied from the point of view of its shear
resistance when subject to shear. During this
process, loose sands tend to reduce in volume,
whereas dense sands tend to dilate, and it is
supposed that there is a density at which the
sand would not tend to change in volume.
The traditional test used to find this “critical”
density or “permanent state” is the triaxial
consolidated undrained test, which may show
the sand tendency at the density and confining
stress applied.
Typical results for this test are shown in
Figure 1.
Type 1 – the loose sand reaches its peak
resistance and a sudden drop of resistance with
increasing deformation (strain softening) until it
reaches a permanent state, represented by point
Figure 1 – Stress trajectories for loose or dense sands.
“a”.
Type 2 – the sand reaches its peak resistance, There is also a complication due to the fact
a drop and a minimum resistance at point “b”, that dense sands tend to shear along defined
followed by an increase in resistance due to planes, not as a homogeneous mass, so its
dilation (strain-hardening). density at the failing plane is not the average
Type 3 – the sand presents a continuous one. This causes a wrong interpretation of this
increase in resistance during shear. test, in terms of density.
After doing several tests with the same sand The objective is to define the “permanent
at various densities and confining stresses, it state” or the “critical state” curve, which is the
remains the hard job of defining which state threshold between “loose” and “dense”
corresponds to each test carried out. densities, as shown in Figure 2.

1
COBRAMSEG 2010: ENGENHARIA GEOTÉCNICA PARA O DESENVOLVIMENTO, INOVAÇÃO E SUSTENTABILIDADE. © 2010 ABMS.
Figure 2 – “Permanent state” or “critical state” line for
sands.
Those who have worked with this method
may testify the difficulty in drawing this line.
This paper presents a new type of test that
makes this task easier, as will be shown in
chapter 2.
Let’s admit that this line is drawn. Now there
is another task – to determine the “in situ” sand
density. Deposits above water level may be
sampled with some difficulty, whereas those
under water are very difficult to sample. The
alternative is to use correlations between
density and SPT (Standard Penetration Test) or
CPT (Cone Penetration Test).
Direct measures of density, SPT and CPT
result in scatter, and it is usual to adopt “safe”
values, like averages with depth, for instance.
Let’s admit that this stage is done and one or
various densities are defined for the occurrence
of liquefaction with the sand under study.
How is the residual strength of the sand
defined, considering all the parameters already
found?
In the literature there is a leap from the
theory described, to correlations between the
values of SPT [= (N1)60] or of CPT [= qc1],
corrected to a standard confining stress of
100 kPa, by multiplying original values by the
factor (100/σ’v)0,5 with σ’v in kPa, and the
residual strength.
Figure 3 shows the correlations proposed by
Idriss & Boulanger.
This correlation was derived from back
analyses of actual failures, admitting a safety
factor of 1.0.
Therefore the theory is only used to
determine a connection between density and
resistance.
2
Figure 3 – Correlation between SPT and residual shear
strength of sands.
This paper intends to present some tests
results that may be used in the understanding of
the liquefaction phenomenon, from an innocent
point of view (innocence - is the fresh response
at each moment, without judgment or
expectation).
2 PROPOSED TEST
Consolidation tests carried out on a material to
be used as a transition between sand and rockfill
for the Chapeco Dam, Brazil, where the
confining stress was measured, revealed that the
material deformed in an elastic-plastic way,
with a stress trajectory along its strength
envelope. The material was loose at the start of
the test.
This finding represents a jump in knowledge,
as it allows the use of this test for other
objectives, like determining the strength
envelope associated to the sample density. The
advantage is the large precision in the volume
measurement, because the sample diameter does
not change and all the sand mass is undergoing
deformation (unlike in the triaxial test, where
deformation occur only along planes).
Admitting that consolidation of initially
loose sand follow an elastic-plastic path during
loading, it is proposed the consolidation of
loose sand inside a steel pipe, axially loaded by
a spring, and the vibration of the equipment in a
direction normal to its axis. The sand may
deform freely in the axial direction and will
COBRAMSEG 2010: ENGENHARIA GEOTÉCNICA PARA O DESENVOLVIMENTO, INOVAÇÃO E SUSTENTABILIDADE. © 2010 ABMS.

reach its equilibrium position at a density that

will depend only on the applied axial load.
Vibration simulates the shear condition
necessary to the collapse of the initial loose
sand structure, until a situation where there is
no more volume change.
It is assumed that this situation corresponds
to the “permanent state” or “critical state”,
because it is on the strength envelope and
subject to the maximum shear stress.
Admitting that this hypothesis is valid, it is
possible to establish with great precision the
“critical state” line by means of a simple test
and with an equipment that may be easily built
in any work site.
A prototype was built at Estreito Project site,
in Maranhao state, Brazil, and Figures 4 to 7
show pictures of it and the calibration curve
obtained for the motorcycle suspension coil
used to apply the axial load to the sample. Figure 6 – Prototype in position for calibration with
known weights applied to its top, on the horizontal plate,
and the measurement of the spring deflection.

140

120
Applied force (kgf)

100
y = 2,1462x
80

60
Spring
40 Linear (Spring)

20

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Spring deformation (mm)

Figure 7 – Prototype spring calibration curve.

Figure 4 – Parts of the dynamic oedometer prototype and The loose sand is placed in the chamber and
accessories to its callibration.
axial load is applied in stages, by the spring.
Vibration is then applied by blows of a steel bar
or by using a conventional concrete vibrator.
Both methods were used and the results were
similar.

3 TESTS RESULTS

Dynamic consolidation tests were carried out on

Figure 5 – Prototype parts. Consolidation chamber is in
the left end of the pipe. The small pipe welded at this end
is to fit in the concrete vibrator.
a medium sand from Estreito, which is an aeolic
sandstone colluvium, with a grain size
distribution as shown in Figure 8, and the results
were similar and repeatable, as shown in Figures
9 and 10, respectively stress versus dry density

3
COBRAMSEG 2010: ENGENHARIA GEOTÉCNICA PARA O DESENVOLVIMENTO, INOVAÇÃO E SUSTENTABILIDADE. © 2010 ABMS.

and stress versus voids ratio, with solids density consolidated to a higher density under the
of 26,0 kN/m3. Vibration was applied by blows spring load.
of a steel bar. Results were plotted in a linear scale.
Residual strengths from triaxial tests taken to
100 20% axial strain are also shown and they lay
90 near the curves found, confirming that this new
80
equipment yields consistent results.
70
Another series of tests was carried out
% passing

60
vibrating only with the concrete vibrator and the
50
results are shown in Figure 11. There were no
40
significant differences between vibrating with
30
blows or a concrete vibrator.
20

10
0,90
0 Concrete vibrator
0,01 0,1 1 10
Grain size (mm) 0,85
No vibration

0,80 With vibration

Figure 8 – Grain size distribution for the mediun
colluvium sand. D50 = 0,20 mm. 0,75
Vois ratio

1,85
0,70

1,80
0,65
1,75
1,70 Triaxial test
Dry density (g/cm3 )

0,60
1,65
1,60
0,55
1,55
1,50 0,50
1,45
1,40 0,45
1,35 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
1,30 Axial stress (kPa)
0 200 400 600 800 1.000 1.200 1.400 1.600 1.800
Axial stress (kPa)
Figure 11 – Dynamic consolidation tests results – stress
versus dry density. Vibration with a concrete vibrator.
Figure 9 – Dynamic consolidation tests results – stress
versus dry density. Vibration with blows of a steel bar.
Unloading was measured and there was
0,90 virtually no volumetric change.
0,85 Average variation in voids ratio during
0,80 loading without vibration and with vibration
0,75
may be described by:
• No vibration – ∆σ’/∆e = 13000 (kPa)
0,70
Voids ratio

0,65

0,60
• With vibration – ∆σ’/∆e = 32000 (kPa)
0,55
Triaxial test
Most of the vibrated test results rested along
0,50 a straight line that may be described by:
0,45 e = 0,55 – σ’v/32000 (σ’v in kPa) (1)
0,40
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Axial stress (kPa)

4 EXPERIMENTAL FILL
Figure 10 – Dynamic consolidation tests results – stress
versus voids ratio. Vibration with steel bar blows.
This medium sand was used in an experimental
The two curves with low densities fill, to test it in conditions of heavy rain, and it
correspond to tests where vibration was only was found that it remains very stable even for
applied after reaching the higher load, and it traffic, with the extensive watering employed
since spreading to compaction. Figures 12 to 15

4
COBRAMSEG 2010: ENGENHARIA GEOTÉCNICA PARA O DESENVOLVIMENTO, INOVAÇÃO E SUSTENTABILIDADE. © 2010 ABMS.

show pictures of this fill and the excellent 1,95 Before

compaction
traffic conditions. Compaction was made using 1,90
After
a vibratory roller or only equipment traffic. 1,85 compaction

Dry density (g/cm )

3
1,80

1,75

1,70

1,65

1,60

1,55
Figure 12 – Spreading of sand with constant watering. 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Water content (%)

Figure 16 – Dry density measured in the fill, before

and after roller compaction.

The few samples collected before roller

compaction, chosen from apparently loose
spots, show that only by spreading the very wet
Figure 13 – Constant watering.
sand, a high density may be obtained.
Laboratory compaction tests resulted in dry
densities between 1.72 and 1.82 g/cm3 for the
Normal Proctor energy. Figure 17 shows those
results.

1,9
Série1
Série2
Série3
1,85 Série4
Série5
Série6
Densdidade seca (g/cm3)

Série7
1,8 Série8
100%
90%
80%
1,75 70%
60%
Figure 14 – Good sand compaction was obtained only
with traffic and watering. 1,7

1,65

1,6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Umidade

Figure 17 – Dry density from Normal Proctor compaction

tests.

From comparing Figures 9, 16 and 17 it is

Figure 15 –Vibratory roller used.
Samples were extracted during construction
to determine its dry density, with the results
shown in Figure 16.
evident that densities obtained at the test fill are
above 1.70 g/cm3, higher than densities
obtained from the dynamic compaction tests,
around 1.70 g/cm3, and roughly same values as
Proctor tests. This means that, if the hypothesis
is correct, this fill is not susceptible to any kind
of liquefaction, static or dynamic.
In order to develop another tool for fill
compaction control, measurements of SPT and
dynamic cone penetration were carried out,

5
COBRAMSEG 2010: ENGENHARIA GEOTÉCNICA PARA O DESENVOLVIMENTO, INOVAÇÃO E SUSTENTABILIDADE. © 2010 ABMS.

using the equipment shown in Figure 18. It is a tentatively linear, is possible, using the extreme
20 mm diameter cone, pushed into de soil by a values available, as listed:
mass of 8 kg falling 57.5 cm. The number of
blows to penetrate 2 x 15 cm is measured. γs (gf/cm3) γs (kN/m3) (N1)60
1,68 16,5 22
1,89 18,5 50

γs (kN/m3) = 16,5+0,0715((N1)60 -22) (2)

From the correlations in Figure 3, for SPT

above 15 the sand is stable against liquefaction,
therefore dry densities above 16.0 kN/m3 or
1.63 gf/cm3 may be accepted. This seems to be
below the lower bound density from dynamic
consolidation tests.

5 THEORY FOR THE SATURATED

SAND RESISTANCE

Figure 10 shows that the loose sand undergoes a

collapse of its structure when subject to
Figure 18 – Dynamic cone used in the control of the test vibration, with large volume change. If the sand
fill. is saturated, this volume change will only
happen by expelling water from the voids.
SPT and dynamic cone penetration were The idea expressed in Figure 2, that there
normalized to 100 kPa by the Factor = may be a new equilibrium without expelling the
(100/σ’v)1/2 with σ’v in kPa. water, is not correct, because the “permanent
Normalized results obtained are shown in state curve” will not be reached in many cases,
Figure 19 for a penetration of 15 cm multiplied as it is very flat in relation to volume change, as
by 2. Normalized SPT is the (N1)60 mentioned may be seen in Figure 10.
in item 1. The erroneous concept in Figure 2 is that
voids ratio may be very high for zero axial
250 stress, something not observed in nature. There
is even a standard test to determine this
Normalized dynamic cone

200 minimum voids ratio.

It is proposed that the main aspects to be
150 considered in liquefaction are the flow of water
through the soil mass and its boundary
100 conditions.
Initial 15 cm Several authors have shown the damaging
50
Final 15 cm effect of less permeable layers within the soil
Tendency mass, where the water tends to form a slippery
0
layer of trapped water. Kokusho’s experiment,
0 20 40 60 80 submitting a flooded slope of sand with silt
Normalized SPT horizontal layers in it, to a vertical acceleration,
is an example. The trapped water causes the
Figure 19 – Normalized SPT versus Dynamic Cone. slope to slip, but only after the shake.
Interesting references may be found in the site
Values of (N1)60 are all above 22 and a www.civil.ubc.ca/liquefaction/ of the University
correlation between dry density and penetration, of British Columbia.

6
COBRAMSEG 2010: ENGENHARIA GEOTÉCNICA PARA O DESENVOLVIMENTO, INOVAÇÃO E SUSTENTABILIDADE. © 2010 ABMS.
The proposed correlations for sand resistance
disregarding boundary conditions of water flow
make little sense, when it is understood that
water flow commands the phenomena.
A simple example will be studied, of a
saturated fill shaken and the sand collapsing to
a certain density.
Figure 20 shows the situation to be studied,
before and after vibration, and voids ratio
variation associated to vertical stresses and pore
pressures in excess to hydrostatic pressures.
The lines of voids ratio for each sand state,
before and after vibration show a distance “C”
between them at zero stress, which must be
defined beforehand, as well as their slopes.
At points “W” above depth “X” sand
particles “levitate” in the water flow upwards,
and the effective stress drops to zero. The
particles tend to settle at the bottom formed by
the sand that experiences some effective stress,
at depth “X”.
Points below “X” experience some reduction
in the effective stress and start to consolidate
along their new state line CR.
Figure 20 – Model for the study of stresses and associated
voids ratio.
At all depths it may be noticed the similarity
with clay consolidation, adapting the excess
7
pore pressure at the boundaries. A similar
theory for consolidation of clays may be used,
or any other that permit to incorporate flexible
rheological models.
This work will not elaborate any theory
relating settlement to time, resistance,
permeability or other parameters. The objective
is to present experimental results and reliable
data that may be used by others in their theories.
It also intends to demonstrate that only the
study of excess pore pressure may provide good
insight on the behavior of sand deposits. The
resistance of sand depends only on the effective
stresses, therefore it is necessary to understand
the hydraulic phenomena which occur when the
sand collapses, associated to sisms or stresses
change.
With this purpose it was created a model
constituted by a standing pipe filled with
saturated sand and acted by vertical shocks.
Settlements and excess pore pressures were
measured at various depths, allowing for the
computation of effective stresses and the
dissipation of excess pore pressure with time.
This model was called “standing pipe”.
6 STANDING PIPE EXPERIMENT
A standard 150 mm diameter PVC pipe, 6 m
long, was filled with saturated sand. Pore
pressure meters were installed at 6 depths and
several magnetic rings were positioned along
the depth. Their positions were measured by a
torpedo running inside a 20 mm PVC pipe at
the center of the larger pipe.
Vertical shocks were applied, usually 30
shocks at a time, by dropping the standing pipe
about 10 cm, and pore pressures were measured
along time. When excess pore pressures
dissipated, the new positions of the magnetic
rings (MR) were read.
The process was repeated until excess pore
pressure generated was small. This situation
should correspond to a stable state of the sand
after several sisms. In this situation it is
supposed that voids ratio versus effective
vertical stress is the same as measured by the
dynamic consolidation test previously described
in this work.
COBRAMSEG 2010: ENGENHARIA GEOTÉCNICA PARA O DESENVOLVIMENTO, INOVAÇÃO E SUSTENTABILIDADE. © 2010 ABMS.

The process depends on the sand Data of the tests performed are available
permeability, which varies with the dry density. upon request to claudio.casarin@uol.com.br.
Figure 21 shows results from permeability tests 600
on this sand samples. Equation 3 describes the
results tendency (γd in g/cm3 and K in cm/s). 500
MR1
K = e^((1,2473 - γd)/0,0662)

Height of MR (cm)
(3) MR2
400 MR3
MR4
1,90 MR5
300
MR6
1,85 MR7
200 MR8
Dry density γd (g/cm3)

1,80 MR9
MR10
1,75 100

1,70 0
γ d = -0,0662 ln(K) + 1,2473
1,65 0 200 400 600 800 1000
K = e^((1,2473 - γ d)/0,0662) Number of blows
1,60
1,55 Figure 22 – Settlement of magnetic rings versus number
of blows.
1,50
1,00E-05 1,00E-04 1,00E-03 1,00E-02
Permeability K (cm/s) 100
90
Figure 21 – Results of permeability tests on the medium
Relative settlement (%)

80 MR1
sand. MR2
70 MR3
60 MR4
The permeability change is not negligible MR5
50
and must be considered in the computations and MR6
MR7
40
tests interpretations. MR8
30 MR9
Some results from one test are shown and MR10
discussed. 20

Figures 22 to 25 are self explanatory: height 10

of the MR versus number of blows, relative 0

0 200 400 600 800 1000
settlement of the MR versus number of blows, Number of blows
percentage of settlement versus relative height,
excess pore pressure versus relative height. Figure 23 – Relative settlement versus number of blows.
Average sand dry density at the end of the
test was 1.72 g/cm3 (similar to the values 1
obtained in the dynamic consolidation tests 120 blows
0,9 150 blows
performed) and saturated density was around 0,8 240 blows
2.06 g/cm3. Therefore the effective vertical 0,7
330 blows
stress with depth was σ’v (kPa) = 10.4 x depth
Relative height

420 blows
0,6 510 blows
in m. 0,5 570 blows
It becomes evident from Figure 25 that the 630 blows
0,4
sand experiences total liquefaction during the 720 blows
0,3 780 blows
initial moments after blows, as the effective 810 blows
0,2
stress is equal to the excess pore pressure
0,1
generated.
0
Figure 26 shows that excess pore pressure
0 20 40 60 80 100
dissipation takes time, as it took around 5 Percentage of settlement
minutes to dissipate half of it.
Figure 27 shows the same for the 17th stage Figure 24 – Percentage of settlement versus height at
of 30 blows. various numbers of blows.

8
COBRAMSEG 2010: ENGENHARIA GEOTÉCNICA PARA O DESENVOLVIMENTO, INOVAÇÃO E SUSTENTABILIDADE. © 2010 ABMS.

1,0 30 blows 7 CONCLUSION

60 blows
0,9 150 blows

0,8
240 blows A new procedure for obtaining the “critical
330 blows
420 blows
state” line, or the “permanent state” line, was
0,7
510 blows shown, using a dynamic one-dimensional
Relative height

0,6 630 blows

720 blows
consolidation equipment. Its use is very simple
0,5 780 blows and the equipment may be built at any
Effective
0,4 construction site or laboratory.
0,3 During an undrained triaxial test, there are at
0,2
least two mechanisms involved. The first is the
collapse of the sample due to confining stresses
0,1
and vibration. The other is the expansion caused
0,0 by simple shear.
0 20 40 60
Maximum excess pore pressure (kPa) Kokusho’s experiment shows clearly those
two mechanisms in separate: first the whole
Figure 25 – Maximum excess pore pressure along depth, mass tends to collapse due to the vibration,
at various numbers of blows. generating excess pore water pressure, than it
immediately expands due to shear. Next it
1,0
1st stage of 30 blows
0 min continues to collapse and generates more pore
0.25 min
0,9
0.46 min
water pressure and a vertical upwards flow of
0,8 1.28 min water.
0,7 2.26 min Hydraulic boundary conditions influence the
Relative height

3.23 min
0,6 4.26 min
path that will be taken by the water on its way
0,5 8.26 min to lower heads, resulting in excess pore water
0,4
11.23 min pressure and reduction in the effective confining
14.26 min
0,3
stress, therefore reduction in shear strength.
It must be emphasized that granular
0,2
materials only respond to friction. After
0,1
defining the effective friction angle, the only
0,0
task remaining is to determine pore water
0 20 40 60
Excess pore pressure (kPa) pressure and, by consequence, the effective
stresses.
Figure 26 – Excess pore pressure along depth at various It is proposed in this work that both
instants, in min, after the initial 30 blows. mechanisms be treated in separate: a. collapse,
or consolidation, and b. shear, or expansion.
1,0 0 min Triaxial tests show that even loose sands may
17th stage of 30 blows 0.4 min
0,9
0.7 min
expand during early stages of shear.
0,8 1.2 min As shear is applied to a sample, its mean
0,7 2.2 min total confining stress increases, and may cause
Relative height

3.2 min collapse and increase in pore water pressure. If

0,6
5.2 min
0,5 8.2 min
the rate of expansion due to shear causes a
0,4 11.2 min decrease in pore water pressure equal to the
0,3 increase due to collapse, then the sample will
0,2
undergo shear without change in volume.
0,1
Other combinations between expansion and
0,0
collapse may occur in other circumstances.
0 20 40 60
It is proposed that liquefaction is triggered
Excess pore pressure (kPa) when there is a decrease in shear or in effective
stress. That’s when maximum pore water
Figure 27 – Excess pore pressure along depth at various pressure occurs. This seems contradictory to all
instants, in min, after 510 blows. knowledge and needs further study.

9
COBRAMSEG 2010: ENGENHARIA GEOTÉCNICA PARA O DESENVOLVIMENTO, INOVAÇÃO E SUSTENTABILIDADE. © 2010 ABMS.

ACKNOLEGDMENTS Engineering, Elsevier, 26: 115-130.

I wish to acknowledge the help received from
many people and the favorable circumstances
that contributed to the outcome of this work:
CNEC Engenharia SA, for letting me do the
experiments while I was working at Estreito
Hydroelectric Project site; technicians from
OAS, the civil contractor, who built the
dynamic consolidation prototype; technicians
from TechDam, for doing many laboratory tests
and directly helping me with my experiments;
Bureau de Projetos, for cooperating with
instruments and advice; Prof Peter Byrne, for
inspiring me to pursue the understanding of
sand liquefaction; and my family, for
encouraging me to continue.
João Pimenta Freire Neto (2009) Estudo da
Liquefação Estática em Rejeitos e Aplicação
de Metodologia de Análise de Estabilidade,
Mestrado Profissional Em Engenharia
Geotécnica, Escola de Minas, Universidade
Federal de Ouro Preto.
Kokusho,T. and Kojima,T. (2001) Mechanism
for post-liquefaction water film generation in
layered sand, Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, American
Society of Civil Engineers.

REFERENCES

Idriss, I.M., and Boulanger, R.W. (2006) Semi-

empirical procedures for evaluating
liquefaction potential during earthquakes,
Journal of Soil Dynamics and Earthquake

10